ONR Report DR 153 S 1 Summary Report 0x1 Project Tektite I A Multiagency 60-Day Saturated Dive Conducted by the United States Navy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of the Interior, and the General Electric Company Edited by: D. C. PAULI AND H. A. COLE Ocean Technology Branch Octon Science and Technology Division D D C OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH Washington, D.C. FOREWORD Tektite I was this country’s first multiagency program to exploit man’s abUitp not only to live on the bottom of the sea but to perform meaningful scientific work. Previous man-in-the-sea programs have concentrated on the advancement of under- sea technology, whereas the mission of Tektite emphasized existing technology 38 a means for obtaining scientific results. The national intere.st in future use of the ma, and the significance of Tektite I of furthering this interest, is s urn m ar i z e d in President Nixon’s messwe to the aquanauts at the end of their historic mission: ‘Your record breaking venture into inner space is another mile- stone in human achievements. The aquanauts join the astronauts a6 space pionears. Congratulations! ” The success of Tektite I constitutes a major step in using man in the sea for the scientific exploration of the nation’s continental shelf. The Navy, as the Tektite I lead agency and cosponsor with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration the Department of the Interior, and the General Electric Company, is pleased to present this Tektite I final report. I I Chief of Naval Research AUTHORS COMMENT This “Summary Report on Project Tektite I” (ONR Report DR 153 S), although identical to chapters 1 through 5 of the ‘Report on Project Tektite I” (ONR Report DR 153), is published separately here for convenience. The subjects addressed in summary in this report are treated in detail by the individual investigators in Appendixes, which constitute the additional portion of OITR Report DR 153. i _ - 1 - . CONTENTS Abstract Chapter 1 - HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION HISTORY AGENCY INTERESTS Navy Interests NASA Interests Department of the Interior Interest8 INTERAGENCY COOPERATION Chapter 2 - YYNOPsls MISSION SITE C R W HABITAT EASE CAMP PROJECT ORGANIZATION SAFETY Chapter 3 - SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS INTRODUCTION MARINE SCIENCE PROGRAM LIFE SCTENCES BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM LIFE SCIENCES BIOMEDICAL PROGRAM INTEGRATED OCEAN FLOOR PROGRAM ENGINEERING PROGRAM Habitat and Support Systems Assembly Habitat Transportation Engineering Evaluation Chapter 4 - FACILITIES INTRODUCTION HABITAT Air Supply, Pressure, and Atmospheric Control Atmosphere Monitoring System Thermal Control Emergency Air Systems Communication, Electrical, and Sanitary Systems Alarm System V 1 8 8 8 9 10 10 10 14 15 15 15 15 19 24 26 27 27 28 30 30 30 37 37 37 37 * 39 40 ii . suppom BARGE Surface-Control-Center Van Environmental Control a d Supply System Electrical Generation and Distribution System Water Storage and Distribution System CRANEBARGE BASE CAMP REPAIRS HABITAT A N D AQUANAUT SUPPORT EQUIPMENT CAUSEWAY PIE& LOGISTICS, T~ANSPORTATION, .~ND COMMUNICATIONS Chapter S - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS INTRODUCTION CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS iii 40 40 42 45 45 43 45 45 50 50 48 51 51 51 52 t IBLANK PAGE i ABSTRACT Project Tektite I, under the overall cognizance and management of the Chief of Naval Research, involved the Departments of the Navy and Interior, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Gen- eral Electric Company, and other government, industry, and academic organizations. Anocean floor habitat at a49 foot depth and the supporting facilities were B 3 t ab 1 is he d and evaluated for 60 days at a carefully selected, isolated site in the Virgin Islands from February 15 to April 15, 1969. Four marine scientists lived in and worked out of the habitat for the 60-day period, durhg which their research emphasized marine biology and geology. Thiswastwice as long as men had previously lived under saturated diving conditions and the only such experiment to use a conbolled nitrogedoxygen atmosphere with a normal 0.2-atmosphere oxygen partial pressure. Through continual t e 1 e v i s ion and auditory monitoring, medical doctors, psychologists, and divingengineers studied the aquanauts’ biomedical responses to the 60-day saturation dive and their behavioral and other psychological r e s p o n s e s to each other, to their work, and to their isolated, hostile environment. The Tektite I e x p e r i m e n t was completed with a perfect safety record within minutes of the time scheduled many months previously. The successful operation demonstrated that men can live together and perform safely and effectively on the ocean floor for extended periods and provided specific psycholcdcal, physiological, and marine scientiiic results which can be applied to future space and unde r s e a missions. V - - - . . . . . . . __ . .. . . - , . . . . . * I V i Chapter 1 HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES "If. instead of rending the observations of reamen to able mathematicianr on l a t a , the land would send able mathematicians to sea, it would signify much more to the improve- ment of navigation and to the safety of men'r liver and estater on that element." Sir Isaac Newton, 1692 INTRODUCTION The U.S. Navy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of the Interior, the General Electric Company, and many other participating organizations were brought together in project Tektite I with very much the same theme as that given in Sir Isaac Newton's statement of 1692, but with a variety of professions involved. In Tektite I the marine scientist removed himself from his shore laboratory and home and became an in-situ partner with the in-vivo marine life. The behavioral psychologist directly observed this marine scientist removed from his normal environment to deter- mine his responset, to the r e d isolation, stresses, and hazards that were part of his new environment. The synergistic use of saturation* diving from a habitat to conduct marine science and the observation of the habitat occupants as subjects for behavioral studies evolved from the U.S. Navy's Sealab n man-in-the-sea project.? Two of the conclusions of that project, conducted by the Office of Naval Research in August-September 1965, were: 'In situ living offers a new and important methodology to scientific, biological, and geological ocean-floor investigations .- *'Saturation" refers to the state of the dissolved gases in the tissues of the diver. Under a saturated tissue condition, the diver works out of a habitat whose atmosphere i s maintained at approximately the same pressure as that of the water in which he will be working. His habitat may be an ocean Hoor installation maintained a t the ambient outside water pressure or maybe a pressurized deck decompression chamber (DDC) on board a surface vessel from which he travels to his work location in a pressurized personnel transfer capsule (PTC). In either case he does not undergo drcompression between working dives; he is decompressed only after his total dive sequence. Whether a series of conventional, nonsaturated, short dives a r e used or a saturated dive is used depends on many factors (even assuming that the equipment9 necessary for each a r e available). The primary factors, however, a r e the time required to accomplish the diving tasks, the number of divers available who a r e qualified f o r the specific tasks, and the depths of water of the task. 'D. C. Pauli and G. P. Clapper, "An Experimental 45-Day Undersea Saturation Dive a t 2 0 5 Feet," ONR Report ACK-124, March 8, 1967. 1 2 PROJECT TEKTITE I ‘Based on the analysis of the overall performance of the aquax.auts, criteria can be developed to assist in the selection of future aquanauts.” understanding the beharior oi small groups of men conducting real work while isolated in a hazardous environment. * Analysis of the Sealab II behavioral observations yielded significant information for To the behavioral psychologist the undersea laboratory becomes an exciting obser- vational situation. Closed-circuit television provides one of the usual modes for opera- tional and engineering monitoring of the habitat as well as a vital communication link between the occupants and the surface support personnel. By simple remote extensions, these closed-circuit links can be used at observational stations. The behaviorist thus is enabled to collect voluminous, valid data on a real situation. The subjects are engaged in real work in a hazardous environmental situation which involves stress and isolation. To the marine scientist the habitat-laboratory affords the opportunity to investigate biological and ecological processes unencumbered by the need to return to the surface. Thus, by not being encumbered by the restrictions of repetitive surface dives, he can return to the site of his investigations as many times during the day and night that his life support systems will permit. He is no longer physiologically restricted: he is limited only by life-support equipment and human endurance. This becomes a very impor- tant factor in considering the applicability of saturated diving to the research to be under- taken. Thus, in Tektite I the study of the behavior of lobsters, for example, was! integrated with many otner scientific dives which occurred at various times during both day and nighttime. In this manner a cohesive 2-month marine science p r o p u n became a reality for four scientists to conduct. HISTORY The similarity between crew behavioral aspects of a long-duration operational satur- ation dive and a space mission was suggested in November 1966, in a side discussion between Office of Naval Research and National Aeronautics and Space Administration psychologists at a NASA Symposium on Isolation and Confinement. This suggestion led to ONR/NASA meetings, later in 1968 and early in 1967, to develop a rationale for the validation of a hypothesis that behavioral, habitability, and crew effectiveness data ohtairied in observations of undersea teams could be used to predict and understand similar problems involving space teams. concerning the validation of extrapolating marine mission data to space missions. Tech- nical progress under these contracts was jointly watched and monitored by NASA and Navy technical and management personnel. The results of these study contracts strongly supported what had been suggested in the original NASA/Navy discussions - that behav- ioral, crew effectiveness. and habitability data could be obtained in underseas operations. Based on these early meetings, NASA in June 1967 awarded two study contracts During the concluding months of the contracted studies it became evident that missions involdnp real work were r -quired to q\tain valid extrapolative data. The Department of Interior, who over the course of 1967 had come to an agreement with the Navy ior ‘cooper- ative study of problems of mutual interest,” was invited to participate in monitoring the NASA sponsored studies and formally became the third member in November 1967. In December 1967 the General Electric Company formally submitted to the Office of Naval Research, lead agency fur the government, an unsolicited proposal to conduct the undersea space/marine mission recommended 111 the concluding studies. The mission would be of 60 days duration and would study the ability of a small group of saturated HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES 3 divers to successfully carry out a scientific mission under hazardous, isolated conditions. The project title Tektite comes from the name for small particles of space-born matter which survive the fiery plunge through the earth’s atmosphere and come to rest on the ocean’s floor. Tektite I would be jointly sponsored by the Navy, NASA, and Interior Department. In addition, the basic Tektite I habitat would be furnished by General Elec- tric, financed primarily by company Industrial Research and Development funds. AGENCY WTERESTS The interests in Tektite of the three agencies - Navy, NASA, and the Department of the Interior - relate to their national responsibilities. Generally the Navy’s interests were the study of diving physiology and small-crew psychology, for future subniersible and saturated diving missions and advances that could be made in ocean technology. NASA’s interests of small-crew psychology and behavior were oriented toward long dura- tion space flight, as in orbiting laboratory or post-Apollo missions. The Interior Depart- ment’s interest was the use of saturated diving to broaden man’s capability to conduct scientific work in the sea. A closer look at the roles of each agency shows the areas of interest and responsibility of each. Navy Interests The Navy interests in Tektite I were reflected in overall project coordination and management, development of techniques for accomplishing the behavioral and biomedical scientific mission object;-ies, engineermg evaluation of the shallow-water Tektite I habitat, and operational and technological procedures, including safety. The Navy was the “lead agency” of the three agencies supporting Tektite. Through the Office af Naval Research, the Navy had the responsibility for overall pro4ram and scientific management and for administration of the General Electric Tektite I contract. An additional Navy responsibility in Tektite I, and perhaps the most important. was mission safety, both in the operational and scientific conduct of the program. The Office of Naval Research was responsible for the overall planning of the behav- ioral and biomedical programs, and integration and coordination of the overall Tektite I scientific program. The Navy, during the Sealab II program. developed basic field obser- vation techniques for the behavioral studies of small crews living in undersea habitats. Tektite I presented opportunity for further development of these techniques and acquisition of additional data. The key scientists from the Sealab Il program developed the Tektite I behavioral program in conjunction with NASA and Interior. The Tektite I biomedical program, likewise, was developed by Navy medical persmnr.1. and by contract research scientists of OEiR (such as the University of Pennuylwmia) working with Navy and NASA biomedical perscnnel. In addition to the stated scientific gods in the mission objectives, Tektite I also provided the Navy the opportunity for exploration in related areas of under- water technology, such as saturation diver safety, ocean engineering, and construction. The Navy provided the operational direction for implementation of the Tektite I program. Naval commmd experience provided the operational experience necessary to support the scientific program. Transportation, logistics, communication, and support construction and facility requirements operation were supplied by various naval organizations. ! 4 PROJECT TEKTITE I . . * , NASA Interests NASA's primary interest in Tektite I was the study of the performance oI highly qualified scientists under conditions of stress for use in understanding and predicting man's behavior on long-duration space flights. urated diving condition, which prohibited vertical ascents to the water's surface. Reac- tions to their living, working, and recreation environments were recorded by systematic observation, by automatic event recording, and by subjective opinion. Measures were made of group cohesiveness and the adjustment of each crew member to the others, !O his environment, and to his assigned duties. The marine scientific mission plan provided the scientific crew the goals necessary for maintaining a continuous high level of motiva- tion required for meaningful extrapolation of the behavioral data to space flight. The ability of the crew to conduct their own mission and their willingness to attempt tasks not directly related to their scientific training were evaluated as well as the extent of their dependence on an outside technical crew. Biomedical measures were made to assure crew safety and to evaluate the psychological effects of activities inside and out- side the habitat on the measurable physiological functions of the crew. The NASA scientific responsibilities were reflected in the hematology portion of the biomedical research program and in the sleep and psychorioter studies in the behavior propam. The Tektite I data collection program, developed under NASA contract, W a S the primary means of accumulating daily the crew behavior, biomedical and habitability and engineering data required by each investigator. NASA management res?onsibilities were in the development of the behavioral program, and in overall program management in concert with the other agencies. The four Tektite f aquanauts experienced true locked-in isolation due to their sat- Department of the Interior Interests a diversified research program with a small group of marine scientists using saturated diving techniques. The two primary objectives were: evaluate saturated diving as a research technique for marine science studies, and conduct an operational research pro- gram on the ocean floor to demonstrate that scientists can live and work effectively on the ocean floor. The Department of the Interior's fundamental interest in Tektite I was to accomplish For years marine scientists have recognized the advantages of having direct access to the undersea environment for extended periods of time. To this end, self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) equipment and research submersibles have pro- vided only partial solutions to depth, time, and mobility limitations. Manned habitats, such as the Tektite I habitat, using saturated diving have offered a research tool which appears to have many advantages for prolonged studies of the ocean floor. ~ - - . ------- "Am--- r\mvfi*, INI'LKA~cNL I L w r r > a r r i i v * . Although Tektite had been preceded by several underwater living experiments, some at greater depths, several distinguishing features set it apnrt from these ezrlier experi- ments. Primary among these is that Tektite was the first major venture undertaken whose objectives were primarily scientific rather than technological. Close liaison and communication between participating members from all organizations involved was necessary to accomplish a cohesive progrm. For example, the behavioral and biomed- ical studies conducted by the Navy and NASA, concurrent with Interior's ocean floor program, were designed for the minimum interference with the marine research actAvities ._i HISTORY AND 0 B J ECTI VES 5 of the crew. The mutual Navy and NASA interests in the behavioral and biomedical por- tions of Tektite required 5: high degree of interaction between the scientists of both agen- cies for optimization of efforts and results. General Electric integrated the program needs into a habitat system that could satisfy the divergent requirements placed on it. The success of Tektite I was due largely to the spirit of cooperation that prevailed throughout the entire project, from conception through execution. The major participating activities and their primary responsibilities and contri- b u t i o ~ were: NAVY Office of Naval Fteeearch Headquarters: Overall project management, scientific pr0gra.n coordination, direction >f on-site operations, funding support, logistic coordination, overall Safety responsibility. Naval Biolcgical Laboratory: Planning and execution of the Tektite I micro- biological studies. support throughout ope rat ion. Naval Research Laboratory: Laboratory analysis of habitat atmosphere, logistic Naval Facilities Engineering Command Headquarters: Design of habitat installation methods, design habitat surface support AMMI barge facility, on-site installation and retrieval of habitat and other equip- ment, operational responsibility for emplacement and retrieval of habitat and support systems. U.S. Atlantic Fleet Amphibious Construction Battalion TWO: Implementation of habitat installation methods and equipment, assembly of support AMMI barge, design and construction of base camp, operation and maintenance of habitat support system. equipment and materials, and project personnel to the Tektite site and return. Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet: Transportation of habitat system, base camp Bureau of Medicine and Surgery Chief, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery: Review and approval of medical and safety plans, assignment of medical personnel to p w ject. Naval Submarine Medical Center: Development of Tektite decompression schedule, participation in biomedical program, aquanaut physical and psychiatric exam- inations, medical personnel on site. Naval Medical Research Institute: Planning and execution of behavioral program, equipment and technical assistance for behavioral program, on-site monitors and super- visors, data reduction. Naval Medical Neuropsychiatric Research Unit: Planning and execution Of Navy sleep studies. 6 PROJECT TEKTITE I Naval Ship Systems Command Supervisor of Salvage: Decompression facilities and personnel, diving personnel assistance, small boat and equipment support. diving officers and personnel. of habitat support barge, dcck facilities for loading and unloading of Tektite hardware at beginning and end of project. repair facilities for boats and electronic equipments, logistic support. Experimental Mkhg Unit: Atmospheric monitoring equipment Ond ope-tors, Philadelphia Naval Shipyard: Assembly of Tektite I habitat, service8 !or assembly Supervisor of Shipbuilding, Conversion, and Repair, Tenth Naval Mstrict: Critical Submarine Acquisition Project Office: Material safety reviaw of habitat and support systcms. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR Planning and management of marine science program, program management, funding support, aquanaut crew and two backup crew members, surface scientific and diving support for marine science program, scientific and diving equipment for aquanaut crew, operational site in the Virgin Islands National Park. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters: Program management, funding support, data management pro- gram, behaviordl program support. Manned Spacecraft Center: Planning and execution of NASA sleep studies, devel- opment of hematology program, develop emergency decompression tables. Marshall Spaceflight Center: C?ew habitability program. Langley Research Center: Furnish, install and maintain mass spcctrometer atmosphere analyzer, implementation of psychomotor experiment. GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY Missile and Space Division: Habitat design and fabrication, scientifir program integration assistance, preparation of scientific program planning documents, personnel and technical support for on-site operations. COAST GUARD Safety diver support personnel, diving watch officer on-site, supp2rt in imple- mentation and assessment of safety program. HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES 7 I : ASSOCIATED SUPPORT University of Pennsylvania: Biomedical prognm coordination and support, College of the Virgin 1sl;mdS: Mnrine science program support, site survey Battelle Memorial Institute: Engineering support to the Olfice of Naval Research, biomedical pre-dive base line data, post-dive biomedical diver assessment. support, backup aquanaut. engineering review of Tektite I program. Particulax mention is made of the Navy SEABEEs’ extensive and energetic work in Tektite I. The SEAEEE force was comprised of officers and men from Amphibious Construction Battalion TWO, with additional SEABEE divers from both the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. The SEABEES were active through the project, both in implementing the Navy’s engineering program and in supplying constructi Jn and maintenance services for all on-site Tektite facilities. . , Chapter 2 SYNOPSIS MISSION The missions of Tektite I were threefold: (a) to study the behavior and effectiveness of a small group of highly trained men to real work under stressed, isolated conditions, (b) to study biomedical responses of men living under high-nitrogen-partial-pressure saturated conditions in the marine environment for an extended period, and (c) for the men under study in (a) and (b) to conduct meaningful marine science research from an undersea habitat under the advantageous and disadvantageous boundary conditions imposed by saturation diving. Since the three missions are interdependent, equal emphasis had to be placed on each. Coincident with those three scientific missions was a Navy ocean engineering program to advance the scientific utilization of undemater habitats. The selected mission duration w a s 2 moc'hs, from February 15 to April 15, 1969. During this time the aquanaut scientists were saturated to a water depth of 43 feet. At the end of the mission, a decompression schedule approximately 20 hours long was required to return the aquanauts szlely to the surface. SITE The site selected for Tektite I was Lameshur Bay, St. John Island, U.S. Virgin Island8 (Fig. 1). This site is in the southeast quadrant of the island and within the boundaries of the Virgin Islands National Park, which includes two-thirds of St. John Island and most of the offshore waters. Because Lameshur Bay is within the park, a special " w e permit" was required from the National Park Service to conduct the project. The site selection was based on five primary factors: 1. Shallow water. The acceptable depth range of the habitat for conducting the satur- ation dive on a mixture of 0, and N, over the 60-day period was set at 40 to 60 feet. 2. Biological activity. Tho biological activity of the area selected had to be abundant to assure the ability to develop a valid continuous, long-duration marine science program. There was a great biological diversity of marine plant and animal species in Lameshur Bay enhanced by the presence of extensive coral reefs. Since the waters of Lameshur are characteristic of the tropical waters of the Caribbean, South Pacific, ar?d Indian Oceans, marine research conducted there would be applicable to many parts of the world. 3. Shelter from storm. In the January-to-May p r i o d required for the total Tektite I stratup, operation, and withdrawal, the Lameshur Bay area was historically expected to be extremely sheltered from the sea. With the exception of one unseasonable storm, the predicted weather conditions prevailed. 4. LOW subsurface water currents. Subsuriace currelit con&i!%~s N ~ T P than 0.25 h o t except during the unseasonable southerly sea condition experienced, when surge currents were estimated to be of the order of 0.5 h o t . 8 SYNOPSIS Fig. 1 - Location of Lnrnashur Bay, Vlrgin Islands. the Tektite i rite 5. Logistics supportability. Logistics is a major problem to a project conducted in a remote location. This was a contributing factor in selecting the Virgin Islands site over other islands in the vicinity. Even so logistics were considerably more difficult than was envisaged. While nearby St. Thomas was the source of most operating supplies that were not originally brought in the installation phase, many componeats and services unique to this type of operation had to be obtained from the mainland and Puerto Rico, which entailed detdled expediting to minimize time and in-transit loss of materials. CREW Four marine scientists from the Deputment of the Interior were the Tektite I Richard A. Waller - Oceanographer, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Conrad V. W. Mahnken - Oceanographer, Bureaij of Commercial Fisheries John G. Van Derwalker - Fishery Biologist, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries H. Edward Clifton - Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey aquanauts (Fig. 2): L 10 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. 2 - Tektite I crew: left to right are aquanauts Clifton. Mahnkcn. W a l k , and Van Derwalker * I i I HABITAT The Tektite I habitat (Fig. 3) was designed and constructed by the General EIectric Company and was furnished to the Navy under a bailment agreement. The habitat was installed nn the bottom of Lameshur Bay at a depth of 49 feet. The habitat hatch, 6 feet above the bottom, established the saturation depth of 43 feet. BASE CAMP To conduct the total Tektite I scientific mission, approximately 35 scientists and 65 support personnel were required. A base camp was constructed adjacent to Lameshur Bay (Fig. 4). This camp functioned as the living quarters for all Tektite I personnel, military and civilian, except the four aquanauts. PROJECT ORGANIZATION Although the Tektite I mission was 60 days in duration, the total time required to plari, execute, and evaluate the project was in excess of a year and a half. Project activ- ities during this time were &:vfCed into five phases which describe the evolution of Tektite I. Phase I: Detailed program plans, cquipment design and fabrication, and base camp cunaii ur;tiiiii. 2iik.g gf....ae I, were designed and built, and the project's scientific programs were planned ana coorG- nated. The facilities required for support at Lameshur Bay were designed and constructed. Baseline biomedical and psychological data were obtained. This phase ran through Jan- uary 8, 1969, when the Tektite I habitat was loaded aboard the U S Hermitage for ship- ment to the Virgin Islands. in earlv 1968, the habitat and its supporting systems SYNOPSIS 11 Fig. 3 - Artist's rendering of the Tektite I habitat. At the left are the bridge and the crew's quarters, and at the right are the machinery room and the wet room, with a cupola on top which allows a 360-degree view. Fig. 4 - Tektite I experiment site, Lameshur nay, St. John, Virgin Islands ---------- - .. , .-... .-....___ - __ ~ I 12 ' PROJECT TEKTITE I Phase II: On-site preparation, equipment installation, and checkout. The major work during phase Ll began in January 1969, when the Tektite I habitat and its supporting equipment and personnel arrived at Lameshur Bay. The habitat and supporting equip- ment were installed. The marine science equipment6 were readied. The major remain- ing supporting logistics problems were solved. Upon final approval of the results of the systems checkout of the habitat/swface control complex, phase III was initiated. Phase IU: Major experiment phase. Phase IU waS, essentially, the 6G-day mission. Phase IU began when the Tektite I habitat became operational and ended when the four aquanauts completed their decompression on April 16, 1969. Phase IV: Equipment withdrawal and dispersal. Phase N was, essentially, the inverse of phase XI. Phase 4 began on April 16, 1969, and was completed on June 10, 1969, when the last of the Tektite I material was removed from Lameshur Bay. Phase V: Reduction, analysis, and distribution of data and results. Efforts during phase V were primarily directed toward the preparation and distriboution of this Tektite I ' find report. 0 c BUUW 'IL'BYEIXNTII I - Fig. Sa - Scientific Management Organization Structure SYNOPSIS 13 I GENERAL ELECTRIC: HABITAT ENGINEERING (Mr. 8 . Thompson) The Tektite I Program Plan and Operation Plan documented the scientific and oper- ational organization and conduct of the project. The Tektite I Program Plan was prepared by General Electric as a part of their contract taek, and contained four parts: Scientific Mission Requirements Plan, Safety Plan, Transportation and Assembly Plan, and Emplace- ment Plan. The Tektite I Operation Plan was promulgated by the Chief of Naval Research. The Operation Plan implemented the on-site portions of the project, designated command structures, and delineated standard and emergeocy bills. A primary function of the Oper- ation Plan was the establishment and implementation of project safety standards and procedures. andoperational(Fig. 5). The administrative authority (Fig. 51) was primarily concerned with the scientific managemenf of Tektite I and remained constant throughout all of the project's five phases. The operational authority was in effect only during the three operational phases (Le., Phases II, m, and IV). The operatlonal authority for Phases II and IV (Fig. 5b) reflects the requirement for engineering responsibility during these phases. The operational organization for the sixty day major experiment phase, Phase m, is shown in Figure 5c. The Operation Plan identifkd two distinct organizational authorities: administrative * AMPHIBIOUS CONSTRUCTION BATTALION TWO (CDR V. Skrinak) I I I I I I I I I I AMPHIBIOUS CONSTRUCTION I BATTALION TWO: GE ENGINEERS WD TEKTITE I DETACHMENT TECHNICIANS (LTJG J. Fuccillo) (LTJG T . Fusby) T e m p o r v y personnel M' assigned as required Fig. Sb - O p e r a t i o n a l Cornman,! Structure (Phases I1 and IV) 14 PROJECT TEKTITE 1 SAFETY The forcmost consideration throughout TEKTITE I was the safety of the personnel involved, particularly the aquanauts. The impact of extcnsive safety consciousness is evident in all aspects of TEKTITE 1. Because the aquanauts were saturated to a depth of 42 feet, the biggest potential hazard was decompression sickness ('bends") resulting from inadvertent surfacing. As part of the bicmedical research program, emergency decompression schedules were prepared as treatment for accidential surfacing. In addition, particular emphasis was placed on preventing situations that might cause the aquanauts to surface. Thz situations considered most likely to cause aquanaut surfacing (other than a habitat disaster) were an aquanaut's becoming lost, or his losing or expiring his air supply. Way stations, equipped with an air supply and sound-powered phones linked to the habitat, were located near to the habitat. When the aquanauts made excursions from the habitat, they would be accompanied by a surface craft manned by divers ready to offer immediate assistance. The aquanauts carried colored floats which they would release to signal that assistance w a s required. On routine aquanaut swims near the habi- tat, lookouts stationed on the support barge replaced the surface boat crews. The TEKTITE aquanaut szfety program was highly organized. The Operation Plan designated the individuals responsible for safety, and these persons organized watch schedules, safety procedures, and emergency bills. In addition to the diving boat crews which accompanied the aquanauts on their excursions, watch crews manned the surface decompression facility, the watch director's post and medical watch post, and support barge equipment around the clock. Training drills were frequently conducted to minimize the time required to recover and treat a surfaced aquanaut. entire TEKTITE I operation. Thus it was shown that saturation dives of the TEKTITE AS further experience is gained, the safety factor added for uncertainty can be reduced to a degree, and the advantages of saturation diving may be more fully exploited. No on-site project accidents bvolving personnel injury were experienced during the type be s$&y - - - - - a A - A 4L-4 n -;m.--n*~c cafotv nrnuram i s imF,'lpmpnted. , y L u V L u c u &&.a. Y "b" "- ---- .I r - - o - - Chapter 3 SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS INTRODUCTION The major program elements of Tektite I were marine science, life sciences, and ocean engineering. The goals and known accomplishments Or each d theso program el+ menta are given in the following paragraphs. MARINE SCIENCE PROCRAM The goal of the marine science program as planned was twofold: (a) a number of individual marine ecological. biological, and geological studies integrated into P 60-day time period, and (b) an evaluation of the use of saturation diving techniques from an undersea habitat to accomplish the studies planned in (a). The wide variety of planned experiments and observations are summarized in Table 1. The marine science program was developed to explore the wide range of potenttal research made possible by undersea habitation. More research was planned than could be accomplished during the mission so the aquanauts could select those areas best suited to the situation. Thus several of the experiments shown in Table 1 were not carried out because the aquanauts decided to use their time in studies resulting from their explor- atory surveys of the ocean floor. The aquanauts' decisions to exclude certain pianned studies in favor of unplanned studies were based on their assessments of the relative importance of the particular work. In addition, time available to carry out scientific work was limited by a variety of other reasons, such as equipment malfunction and other unioreseen circumstances. For example, habitat operational problems at the beginning of the mission consumed a great deal of the aquanauts' time. During the 60-day mission, the aquanauts spent 432 man-hours outside of their habitat. Toward the end of the mission individual aquanauts were spending as much as 5 hours per day in the water. The limiting factor on this time and on the range of oper- ations was the endurance capability of the equipment and the time required for recharging the scuba tanka. The aquanauts were assisted in their marine research tasks by a surface diving scientific support team. This team, composed of three alternates for the aquanauts in the habitat, complemented the studies conducted from the habitat by extending the marine research into areas beyond the horizontal range or vertical limits of the aquanauts. This suliace team was augmented during the mission by visiting scientists from the Depart- ment of the Interiur. LIFE SCIENCES BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM The behavioral program was planned to provide data on the characteristics of crew behavior which could be extrapolated to future manned missions in space and undersea research. The emphases of the behavior study were: crew size and selection criteria, quarters size and habitability, and use of time in mission performance. The restraint of 15 16 PROJECT TEKTITE 1 Experiment isolation (satunted diving) and the reality of the crew's rnhsion (marine science) both contributed to the significance of the study. A qualitative sunimary of the behavioral program is glven in Table 2. Objective Environmental factors Plankton analysis Acoustics Record water temperature, salinity, pressure, cur- rent vectors, surface and internal waves, and bio- luminescence at the habitat and remote locations. Determine the types and relative abundance of plank- tonic organisms in the water column, their fluctua- tions in time, and the extent of their vertical migra- tions (Fig. 6). Evaluate a sifle-scanning sonar for signatures of separate fish species, for animal and diver tracking, and for the effects of environmental variations on sonar performance. (This experiment way not ini- tiated due to equipment difficulties .) Spiny lobster behavior Spiny lobster population Lobstering and fishing Day-night periodicity Effects of the habitat Light attraction Artificial reefs Ecology Validate tagging techniques for general marine pop- ulation studies (Figs. 7 and 8). Understand population size, growth, and mortality. Compare effectiveness and selectivity of different gear for catching lobsters and reef fish. Understand foraging, mating, and predatory activ- ities during the full diurnal cycle. Calibrate the influence of the habitat on the local fauna and flora. Evaluate multicolored underwater lights as artificial attractants. Evaluate through periodic sampling the population on DreDositioned artificial reefs. Geology Geological bottom Reef diagenesis and Biogenous sand lithification Effects of organisms on Storm modifications Carbonate mud -- 2:-.^,&..'..-.. JeUlU.BZ.,;sU".* I Bottom rock weathering Sedimentology techniques ~- Obtain control data for geological experiments. Relate biogenous sand to the source organisms and study reef growth and destruction. Study the reef structure and history. Study the mechanisms and rates of the reworking of aertjrnentn by organisms. Study the degree of modification of bottom sediments by storms. Determine the rate and type of changes in the com- position of carbonate mud as the result of organic decay. Compare submarine and subaerial weathering of rocks. Develop habitat-based sedimentology experimental techniques and evaluate surface-operated instruments. . SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS j 1 Fig. 6 - Aquanaut adjusting a standpipe in a n exper- iment to measure plankton in the water C O l U m n a t variour heights above the ocean floor 17 .. . t Fig. 7 - Aqcanauts engaged in spiny lcbster studies. The 1 o b s t e r s were captured and tagged with identifying metal tags or tiiiy acoustic transmitters, and released. They could then be observed and identified to study their migrator) habits. 18 PROJECT TEKTITE I 5 Fig. 8 - Aquanaut tracking a tagged lobrter with an acoustic directional receiver Table 2 Tektite I Behavior Program E m r i m ent Crew behavior measures: general activity, task performance efficiency, social relations, operational and interpersonal communica- tions, personal habits, emotional adjustment, psychological traits, psychomotor perfor- mance, and sleep (electroencephalography) Crew selection study Human performance study Habitability study Data collection study . Objectives Evaluate long-term work per- formance under hazardous, isolated conditions. Relate observed crew behavior to physiological and medical indices. Obtain crew selection, compo- sition, and training data for use in later space and undersea missions. Determine human performance criteria for application to long- duration, high-stress situations Measure individual and crew response to features of working and living facilities. Develop and refine data collec- tion methods in an operational .-.-.-A b C . . . * * " . L . I I C I * \ . SCIWTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS I9 Paramount to the success of the behavioral prograni was the accurate identification and collection of data which could be used as a measure of behavior functions. ;Data col- lection was automated to the maximum extent. For example, the times that the divers were out of the habitat were automitically recorded. Data based on the observation of the aqua- nauts were also nccrded in real time. Teams of 7bservers monitored the crew for up to 18 hours per day and recorded the visual (televir an) and audio (open microphone) obser- vations Ut parameters such as mood, stalus, and preferences directly on computer cards using predetermined formats (Fige. 9 and 10). During the 60-day mission, over 400,000 individual observation6 were made and recorded for subsequent evaluatlon (Fig. 11). In addition to observation by television and open microphrnes, behavioral and habitability data were obtained from records, logs, and questionnaires completed before, during, and after the operation by the aquanauts. Another source of behavioral data was sleep research to evaluate the quality and quantity of the aquanauts’ sleep for ssible correlation with observed behavior. Of par- ticular interest were the possible ef ct of hyperbaric cmditions upon sleep and the rela- tionship of sleepgatterm to waking ctivities. Sleep logs and electrophysiological (EEG) recording were used for sleep eval f ation. Sleep logs were maintained by all four aqua- nauts, and EEG recordings were obtained frum aquanauts Clffton and VanDenvalker using somewhat standard electrodes. Electrodes were fitted to make contact with aquanaut Waller’s cranium via a newly developed skull cap, developed by NASA, which incorporated contact electrodes. Brain wave data were recorded on both magnetic tape and paper. Electronic, real time, partial processing on-site by NASA neuropsychophysiologists of the sleep log and other EEG data indicated that the aquanauts did not have major sleep difficulties. They slept longer (8-plus hours) and stayed in deeper sleep (slow sleep wave) for a longer time a s the mission progressed. The Tektite I sleep data indicate that man can adapt to nitrogen saturation and live on the ocean floor for productive work without suffering from sleep deprivation. LIFE SCTENCES BIOMEDICAL P R O ~ R A M The biomedical program had a s its twofold purpose the aquanauts’ medical safety and the evaluation af possible physiological effects of long-term saturated diving on the aqua- nauts. Throughout mission planning and execution the safety of the aquanauts was always foremost. Prior to the mission each’ aquanaut was given a detailed medical examination. During the mission, daily and weeklgiinedical status assessments of each of the aquanauts were made to assure their continuing health. Upon decompression a detailed postdive examination was made of each of the divers to ascertain any changes in the aquanauts’ physiologlcal condition. Because of the exploratory nature of a saturated dive using a nitrogen/oxygen mix- ture, a major objective of the biomedical program was to ubtain physiological data on the possible effects of this type of saturation under closely controlled conditions. The aqua- nauts were saturated at a depth of 43 feet on a habitat gas mixture of 9 8 0 nitrogen, s% oxygen. Their scuba tanks, used for excwsions from the habitat, contained compressed air with a composition of WO nitrogen, 20% oxygen. Particular attention was given to the functioning of the pulmonary, blood, and nervous systems of the aquanauts. A week of detailed medical examinations was administered prior to the mission at the University of Pennsylvania Hospital Research Center by a select group of medical specialists, which provided baseline measurements for each aquanaut. A summary of the biomedical areas of investigation is given in Table 3. I I 20 PROJECT TEKTITE I Fig. 9 - Behavioral observers monitoring and recording the aquanauts interactions with the h a b i t a t and environment. Four of the six TVmonitorspreeentviews of each of the four habitat compartr.ents, and two were available for under - water TV cameras. Avideo tape recorder (left) stands ready to record significant events. Fig. 10 - Behaworal observers shown in Fig. 9 and a behavioral scientist supervisor. Automatically r e - corded data is processed by the consoles behind the supervisor's post. e SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING PROGRAMS 21 MACHINE 1 Eg?o PUNCHEO LAMESHUR BAY, V.I. I I r COPlES TO BASE CAMP, &E., ONR INT€RlOR. N A S A , C7C. c. *€ LLCOMY. CARDS TO MAGNETIC MACHINE PUNCHE 0 WEEK'S f I L E TAPCS IF REQUCSTCD, COPICS FOR OCTAILEO ANALYSIS WEEKLY SUMMARY I A 0 0 TO M A S T E R STATUS RE PORT U E N 0 OF MISSION A & COPlE s O f RE PORT A N 0 MASTER TAPCS TO ONR, INTERIOR. NASA, G.E., ETC. FOR F I N A L PURTMER ANALYSIS SUMMARY A N 0 F I N A L W R I T T E N PREPARE FINAL DATA SUMMARY TAPES P R ; Y T Fig. 11 - Tektite I digital data flow 22 Experiment PROJ'EGT TEKTITE I Objective General medical exams, opthalmology, dermatology, neurology, and audio- vestibular studies Determine the physical status of the aquanauts as a health safeguard. Obtain physiological data to assess possible effects of the hyperbaric nitrogen/oxygen environment and prolonged immersion on vision, hearing acuity, skin, etc. Physical characterization of red-blood- cell populations, studies of red cell metabolism, red-blood-cell radioiso- tope studies, immuno-hematology, and microtrauma and antigen induced inflammation Decompression Health assessment Determine the effects of pressure and gas mixture on blood composition and cell production. Develop standard and emergency decompression tables for a high- nitrogen, hyperbaric atmosphere. Determine vertical excursion limits within which the divers can operate. Monitor diver health and possible effects of hyperbaric environment. aerobiology, and marine microbiology I General Observations I immersion on man's natural orga- nism balance. Data correlation - Respiratory/Pulmonary Respiratory control, pulmonary dif- fusion, ventilatory function, and pulmo- nary resistance and compliance Determine the effects of pressure and gas on lung ventilation, respiratory response, and carbon monoxide dif- fusion into ;he diver's system. Diver Safety Studies Correlate monitored physiological and medical data to observed crew behavior and performance. Certain functions were monitored during the mission by weekly examinations and sa,I,pi,zz. -- 111 QUUlUU11, P - I"\Y.U--U,~-~*"\... --.---' bt.- -1r-b m s A i e - 1 wr3tt-h ..-_--- rnsintginprl ___ .. rlnsc. observation of the aquanauts via television. The primary medical difficulty of the aquanauts during their 60-day stay was ear infection, and the primary organism that caused the divers' ear infections was pseudomonas. Fungi did not appear to be involved. mine any significant variations in life functions which possibly could be attributed to the hyperbaric environment. The postdive examination revealed only one possible detrimental The extensive postdive medical examination conducted on-site was not able to deter- . SCIENTIFIC AND ENGWEERXNC PROCRAMS 23 facit-the discovery of a s-1 occlusion in the right eye lens of aquanaut Clifton. This occlusion was off axis and did not interiere with Dr. Clifton’s visual acuity. Dr. Clifton was the only aquanaut of the four having high-normal intraocular tension. Whether o r not this occlusion was due to the 2-month saturation dive is not knuwn. There ha8 been no known aimilar occurrence of occlusiona in over 50 divers who have been saturated in the Navy’s man-in-the-sea program. Examination several months after the postdive examination indicated the sizc of the occlusion had diminished considerably, making it difficult for the ophthalmologiete to find it. A closely rrlated portion of the biomedical program waa a microbiology study in which water, air, and swab samples were taken regularly in 2nd around the habitat to ascertain the presence and relative occurrence of various types of microorganisms (Fig. 12). A number of questions had been raised with respect to prolonged isolated saturation diving, such as: (a) would the microbial population build up, (b) what changes would occur within the normal microflora of the aquanauts, and (c) would organisms indigenous to the aquanauts and their marine environment present a health problem? 6 Fig. 12 - Mobile laboratoryin a van a t the base camp being u s e d for on-site processing of microbiology samples taken in and around the habitat The microbial carrier state of the aquanaut did not play a part in the transmission of disease in the Tektite I program. This is borne out by a Staphylococcus carrier study 2r.d L!e r