PRICING POLICIES, COST ALLOCATION, AND DEMAND IN

THE PUBLIC WATER INDUSTRY, U. S. VIRGIN ISLANDS



Part I and Part I]



Dr.



ie



by



Jerome L. McElroy



Technical Report No. 10



December 1976



Water Resources Research center

Caribbean Research Institute

College of the Virgin Islands

St. Thomas, USVI 00802

PRICING POLICIES, COST ALLOCATION, AND DEMAND IN

THE PUBLIC WATER INDUSTRY, U. S. VIRGIN ISLANDS



Part I and Part II

by

Dr. Jerome L, McElroy



Partial Completion Report

Project No. A-003-VI



Agreement No. 14-31-0001-5053



December 1976



This work upon which this report is based was supported



in part by funds provided by the United States Department



of the Interior, as authorized by the Water Research Act

of 1964, P.L. 88-379



Technical Report No. 10

Water Resources Research Center

Caribbean Research Institute

College of the Virgin Islands

St. Thomas, USVI 00802

The work upon which this report is based was

supported in part by funds provided by the

United States Department of the Interior, as

authorized by the Water Research and Development



Act of 1978



DISCLAIMER

Contents of this publication do not necessarily

reflect the views and policies of the U. S.

Department of the Interior, nor does mention of

trade names or commercial products constitute

their endorsement or recommendation for use by



the U. S. Government.



ii

Abstract



In Part I of this report the geological tactors that

influence the occurance of ground water in the Virgin Islands

are presented as well as an examination made of the climato-

logy of the islands.” Various extremes in rainfall patterns

occuring in recent years are highlighted and factors which

militate against the facile use of annual average rainfall

estimates for planning purposes are presented. Lastly, the

history of the water supply system in the Virgin Islands

is summarized.



In Part II a summary of the type of data available on

Water Resources in the Virgin Islands is made. One section

of this part briefly lists the types of information classified

in eight topical forms while the other section is an extended



bibliography of the literature available.

PART I



AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATOLOGY

OF THE UNITED STATES VIRGIN ISLANDS

INCLUDING A SUMMARY OF THE EVOLUTION



OF THE PUBLIC WATER INDUSTRY



by

Dr. Jerome L. McElroy*

Senior Research Associate

Caribbean Research Institute

Associate Professor of Economics

College of the Virgin Islands



December 1976



*I am grateful to Ms. Bernice Moulton for collecting

materials and to alk in government agencies who



assisted her in this task.

TABLE OF CONTENTS



Abstract . 2... ss eee eer cece

List of Tables: s 23s @ Fe GE EES

Introduction... ++ +++e+s-eecee



Special Environmental Features .....



Recent Economic Pressures ......-.



Summary History of the Water Supply System



The U. S. Virgin Islands .......



Part II follows page 33



12

LIST OF TABLES

Page



Table I. Proposed and Constructed Catchment

and Storage Capacity for Charlotte

Amalie, St. Thomas, 1926... + 6 eit wee 17



Table II. Potable Water by Source, Virgin Islands,

1962-1972 2. 2 2 we ee ee ee we et ee 25

Introduction



The United States Virgin Islands form part of the

antilles islands arch, which separates the Caribbean Sea from

the Atlantic Ocean. As a group, the islands are located

approximately 1,400 miles southeast of New York City, nearly

1,000 miles east southeast of Miami, and almost 50 miles east

of Puerto Rico. TNey are comprised of over fifty islands and

cays. The three largest and most important islands are

St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John whose respective land

areas are approximatley 80, 32, and 20 square niles. The

smaller islands range in area from slightly less than one

square mile to a few hundred square feet, i



The terrain of the Virgin Islands is generally rugged,

with many steep and sharp peaks. Just as the islands differ

in size, so they vary in topographical characteristics. Both

St. John and St. Thomas have many slopes exceeding 35 degrees

and containing numerous stream courses of steep gradients.

On St. Thomas most of the flat land (comprising approximately

5S percent of land area) is confined to areas around Charlotte

Amalie, the capital city, and to several narrow beach areas.

The land surface is almost entirely sloping and extends sea-



ward from a central ridge, 800 to 1,200 feet high, running



lonis topographical description of St. Thomas basically



follows D. G. Jordan am 0. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (U.S. Geological



urvey, Open-File Report,

the length of the island. The only variation in the general

topography is in the upper valley of Turpentine Run in

eastern St. Thomas. This valley has relatively gentle topo-

graphy consisting of rolling hills in a basin surrounded by

steep slopes and sharp ridges.



St. John is similar to St. Thomas but has even less flat

land.? The island of St. John has two populated areas, Cruz

Bay on the west end and Coral Bay near the east end, con-

nected by a scenic hard-surface road. Available flat land

on St. John is mainly confined to the Coral Bay area.



The shape of the island of St. Croix on the other hand

is long and fairly narrow with mountains and hill¢ which form

a spine along its entire length.> This spine, combined with

many valleys, divides the island into many small drainage

basins, with few of them containing over six square miles.

The northwest part of the island is characterized by a

rugged mountainous area with deep valleys, bounded on the

south and west by gently rolling lowlands. The central por-

tion of the island is comprised of broad valleys and rounded

hills. The eatern part of the island features mountainous



terrain with gentler slopes than the mountains of the



western reaches. The flatter areas of the island are located



zo1iver J. Cosner and Dean B. Bogart, Water in St. John,

U.S. Virgin Islands, (U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File

Report, 1972).



3p. E. Ward and D. G. Jordan, Water Resources of the

Virgin Islands: A Preliminary Appraisal, (U.S. Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 1963).

235



predominantly along the south coast. Streams on the island

are not perennial, but flow only during periods of very

intensive rainfall.



As is common with other tropical areas, in the Virgin

Islands there are more or less definite wet and dry seasons.

The former extends from August through November, and the dry

season from January through April or May. February and March

are the driest months, whereas, September is the wettest.4

The rainy season is ,coincident with the hurricane season.

Rainfall in the Virgin Islands averages about 44 inches per

year. Although the climate is unusually clear and sunny, the

air temperature is moderate because of the persistent trade

winds. The prevailing direction of the wind is. east-

northeast, but east and southeast are common; west winds are

rare.° Air temperature ranges from a mean low of 72,0°F in

February to a mean high of 87.8°F in August. The highest

daily temperature of record was 95°F and the low 63°F.

Relative humidity is high due to the proximity of the sea,

averaging 81 percent in the early morning hours, and lowest,



averaging 66 percent, in the early afternoon.



4p, E. Ward and D. G. Jordan, Water Resources of the

Virgin Islands: A Preliminary Appraisal, (U. S. Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 1963), p. 1.



Sthis and the following climatic data are taken, directly



from D. G. Jordan and 0. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (U.S. Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 19593), pp 2. ff. F

sas



Although the islands lie in the path of hurricanes,

major rainstorms are rare. Maximum rates of rainfall occur

during the passing of hurricanes and lesser tropical storms,

which generally occur during the months of August, September



6 The greatest rainfall of record was 18.0



and October.

inches, September 13-14, 1928, during a hurricane.” Tropical

storms move through the area and occasionally deluge the

islands with heavy rain. Nevertheless, direct hits by such

storms have been infrequent in recent years, Hurricanes

passing within 50 to 100 miles of the islands often cause

rainfalls totalling more than 10 inches in a day or two from

practically continuous downpours. ® The last great rain in



recent years was 10.6 inches, May 8, 1960, the result of a



stationary tropical depression. ®



6



Tippets-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton, Inc., Potable

Water Supply for St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (San Juan, P.R.

November, 1958), p. 13.



7p. G. Jordan and O. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (U. S, Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 1973), p. 2.

Sri ppets-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton, Inc., Potable Water



Supply for St. Croix, Virgin Islands, (San Juan, P. R.:

1959), p. 19.



9p. G. Jordan and 0. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (U. S. Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 1973), p. 2.

-5-



Special Environmental Features



As previously indicated, average Virgin Islands rainfall

is commonly believed to be 45 inches per year,20 However,

in the context of intercountry comparisons, this mean esti-

mate is considered to be over-biased becaused of several

quite unique factors deriving from the islands' peculiar

topography, climate, and ecology. These features deserve

some elaboration on two counts: because of the extreme

reliance historically placed on rainfall as the major source

of domestic water supply; and because of the critical inter-

face of these factors with the task and scope of the present

study. :



In the first place, annual rainfall varies widely,

ranging between 25 to 55 inches per year. Onlyiabout half

the time does annual precipitation fall between the tolerable

limits of 40-50 inches. Almost 10 percent of the time



11 this latter



annual rainfall is less than 35 inches.

instance usually means a major short-fall during the wet

season with an ensuing period of severe drought. Thus,

because of this seemingly endemic variance, any average rain-



fall figure tends to distort the effective level of precipitation.



10). E. Ward and D, G. Jordan, Water Resources of the

Virgin Islands: A Preliminary Appraisal, + S. Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 158s),



11



D. G. Jordan and 0. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, V in Islands, (U. S. Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, T593), p- 8.

o6-



Second, annual rainfall is distributed unequally across

the three major islands. To illustrate, the face of

St. Croix almost invariably receives less than 40 inches of

rain in an average year rather than the 45 inch, all-island

average most frequently quoted. }?



In addition, precipitation falls very uneyenly within

each of these major islands. This results from a complex of

variables involving a rather young and fragile island eco-

system composed of specialized subsystems created by the

variegated topography and the constant east-northeast trade

winds. Each of these different environments are slightly

distinct from the other subsystems in terms of femperature,

cloud activity, rainfall, etc.25 For an example obvious to

casual observation, generally the eastern portions of islands

in the Virgin chain are more arid than the greener western

sections which benefit both from the cloud build-up over

the western and central sections and the east-to-west wind

channels.



A fourth set of factors which militates against the



facile use of annual average rainfall estimates is based on



1yartyn Bowden et. al., Climate, Water Balance, and

Climatic Change in the North-West Virgin Islands,

t. omas : ‘aribbean Researc nstitute, ), p- 5-



ror some discussion of this intra-island differential

precipitation behavior deriving from complex and fragile

island ecosystems, see John McEachern and Ed Towle,

"Resource Management Programs for Oceanic Islands" Transac-

tions of the Thirty Seventh North American Wildlife an

Natural Resources Conference, (Washington, D.C.; Wildlife



Management Institute, March 1972).

A



the very quality and seasonality of the precipitation itself,

again in combination with the structure of the topography

and the climate. On the one hand, most of the rain falls

during short showers that last a few minutes. With the per-

vasive breezes, the sun almost always shining through the

clear relatively pollution-free atmosphere, and a mean

temperature of 80.1°F, the evaporation rate is quite high.?4

Moreover, further evaporation results from the tropical con-

fluence of constant wind, warm temperature, and a proclivity

of the essentially clay surface to become granular and to

expose the moisture retained in deeper soil to air circulation.

This erosion of the moisture base is furthef accelerated

by the heavy incidence of evapotranspiration ‘(through

plant life) attributed mainly to the prevalence of dense

brush growth common to the islands and trees bordering

streams. 15 In summary, the predominant contour of

Virgin Islands rainfall is its short duration and

scattered distribution; therefore, given the peculiari-

ties of the island environment, the brunt of this portion of

the annual aggregate precipitation is quickly returned to the



atmosphere. The dynamics of this rapid recycling has led one



Myrisen Buros, "Water and Wastewater Planning and

Problems in the Virgin Islands," Address before the ”



Conference: Augmenting the Virgin Islands Water Supply,

(St. Thomas: “Caribbean Research Institute, Water Resources

Research Center, May, 1975).



15). G. Jordan and 0. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (U. = Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 1973), pp. 8-10.

-§-



researcher to question the validity of applying the tradi-

tional measures of rainfall performance (average annual

rainfall) to the special circumstances surrounding the local

island ambience.



Any practical interpretation of the



average rainfalls reported in the Virgin



Islands ... should take into account



the fact that a large portion of the



rain falls in light showers and brief



sprinkles ... Many of these light rains



are measured in rain gauges and they



augment the total rainfall out of



proportion to their significance...



On the other hand, the large downpours exceeding one

inch, accompanied by overcast skies and usually associated

with tropical disturbances, are very infrequent, numbering



?



on the average six to seven times per year.27 However,

because of the concentration of precipitation, the steep

gradients of the mountainous setting, and relatively high

water tables characteristic of volcanic islands, there is

excessive runoff and frequent flooding in the low-lying

areas near the coastal zone. This type of water loss is

further evidence of the unreliability of mean rainfall



estimates.



Recent Economic Pressures



This previously mentioned low-retention capacity has



been further reduced by massive economic dislocations during



l6se¢ Robert Stones, "Meteorology of the Virgin Islands,"

in Bowden et. al., Climate, Water Balance, p. 40.



17p, G. Jordan and 0. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (U. x Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 1973), p. 2.

-9-



the tourist and export-manufacturing developments taking



18 Natural sheltered areas



place since the early sixties.

have been severely encroached upon by housing projects, com-

mercial installations, new highway systems, parking lots and

airport facilities to name a few. In effect, former green-

belts have been replaced by hard, non-porous surfaces that

tend to step-up the runoff and seriously modify water



quality in the process,



In addition, both the rapid pace and the special contours

of recent development thrusts have aggravated the already

precarious water balance. For example, intensive pressures

of urban over-crowding have emerged from at least three major

sources: the large resident work force required to service

the labor-intensive sectors of tourism and goverhment; the

concentration of commercial and governmental activity within

the urban cores; and the relatively large inflow of off-

island visitors.!9 The predominant response to these in-

creasing densities, during a period of perceptibly rising

per capita incomes, has been a disjunctive urban-to-rural



migration, a pattern of suburbanization analogous to the



18 p56, a detailed analysis of the remarkable Economic

changes in the Virgin Islands since 1960, see Jerome L.



McElroy, The Virgin Islands Economy: Past Performance,

Future Projections, Planning Alternatives, (st. Thomas: V.I.

Planning Office, 1974 °



196n any given day the number of tourists in St. Thomas

(pop. 43,000) exceeds 3,000 adding to a density already above

1,300 persons per square miles This figure rivals Barbados

(1,500+) which has one of the highest densities in the world,

#10-



urban sprawl of major U.S. metropolitan areas. 2? This pro-

liferation of suburban home-building generally constructed

along hillsides and steep terrains to exploit the seaview

has accelerated the runoff rate.



Moreover, these growth-induced manipulations of a

tightly integrated island environmental system have caused

adverse impacts on other aspects of the fresh water delivery

system. These include alterations in natural drainage sheds,

ponds, water tables,.and saline intrusion in cases of instal-

lations intersecting with the coastal zone. 2} Acting in

concert, all of the above forces -- light, erratic, and mal-

distributed precipitation, rapid transpiration, sexcessive

runoff, and unprecedented economic growth -- have twisted

the Virgin Islands supply-demand water balance, i Perhaps

especially the last of these, i.e. over-rapid economic

expansion, may have so affected rainfall and retention

capacity as to partially explain what seems to be a long-term

drying trend in the Virgin Islands as a whole which has



appeared in recent decades. 2? This conclusion seems quite



20during the decade between 1960-70, all V.I. central

cities declined in absolute population. The urban/rural

balance shifted from approximately 55%/45% in 1960 to 25%/

78% in 1970. Source: Bureau of Census. Number of Inhabi-

tants: Virgin Islands, 1970 Census of Population, PC (1),

ASS V.I., p. 5.



2leor some local documentation, see McEachern and Towle,

Ecological Guidelines for the Development of Islands, Mimeo,

(St. Thomas: Island Resources Foundation, 1973).



22500 Bowden, et. al., Climate, Water Balance, p. 113,

sb



plausible according to systems analysis theory which portrays

island ecosystems as a delicate balance of interdependent

components that is extremely sensitive to external distur-

bances and internal adjustments and thus easily thrown into

disequilibrium. 27>



Additionally, these same forces have given rise to the

search for and creation of rather expensive alternative fresh

water sources. These include: salt water production, dam

construction, expanded catchments and storage reservoirs,

in-house commercial production and recycling plants, importa-

tion from Puerto Rico, waste-water reclamation and the like.

These initiatives, however, have spawned their own special

difficulties. For example, the mis-match of modern desali-

nization technology with an archaic distributionjinfrastruc-

ture, results in periodic breakdowns and constant leakages.

Nevertheless, it is clear that water scarcity will worsen

in the face of the heavy commercial and residential consump-



tion projected for the future.*4



ror a general application of the Equilibrium Ecosystem

model to the V.I., see Jerome L. McElroy, "Tourist Economy

and Island Environment: An Overview of Structural Disequili-

brium," Caribbean Educational Bulletin, Vol. 2 No. l,

(January 1975), pp. 40-58. For more specific applications to

local water concerns, see Frank T. Carlson, "The Challenges

of Water Resources Management," and Daniel D. Evans, "The

Coordination of Water Research, Planning, and Management for

Virgin Islands," addresses before the conference: The Virgin

and Water Resources, (St. Thomas: Caribbean Researc



Institute, WRRC, April 1976).



24 petween 1975 and 2000, water consumption is expected

to triple; see Louis Penn, Norman Cassells, and Roy Adams,

Population, Economic Activity, and Water Use Projections for



the U. S. Virgin Islands, Mimeo, (St. Thomas: V. 1. Planning

Office, March 1975), pp. 10-13.

a By



To assist in appraising the magnitude of this short-fall and

to help rationally plan the development of cost-effective and

environmentally appropriate supplies to meet these require-

ments is the point of departure for the present investigation.



Summary History of the Water Supply

System in the U.S. Virgin Islands



Traditionally the principal need of the Virgin Islands,

all through its varied history, has been for a dependable and

safe potable water supply. Historically, rain water provided

the only major source of fresh water, and the irregularity

of rainfall made for an unrealiable supply. The effects of

this chronic shortage had several dimensions. Though evi-

dence is sparse, there is some indication that the pre-

Columbian inhabitants of the islands clustered their camp-

sites in the low lands adjacent to rivers, streams, and

bays.25 Such locations facilitated agriculture, fishing, and

transportation and provided indispensable natural water

supplies. Undoubtedly the small size and scattered distri-

bution of these early Indian communities partly resulted from



the limited availability of fresh water.2® Even during the



cited in Isaac Dookhan, A History of the Virgin Islands

of the United States, (Essex, England: Bowker Publishing

Company, 1974) Chapter 2, pp. 15-30.



26o1iver J. Cosner and Dean B. Bogart, Water in §t. John,

U.S. Virgin Islands, (U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File

Report, 1972), pp. 3-S.

-13-



Danish adminstration of the islands, persistent droughts had

a major part to play, among other causes, in the gradual

demise of sugar monoculture that dominated the St. Croix

economy. 27 In a real sense water scarcity perennially con-

strained the commercial stability of the colonial communities

and limited their capacity to produce an ever growing level

of livelihoods.



On the island of St. Thomas, Charlotte Amalie was, until

recent years, the only seaport and sizeable community. All

of the business, trade, and governmental activities on

St. Thomas were concentrated within the city including the

rum distilleries, the only major industrial estalishments,

were located along the waterfront strip bordering the sea.

Providing a more adequate and safe water supply for Charlotte

Amalie was exceedingly difficult during the early post-

colonization era for the obvious reasons discussed earlier:

extended periods of sub-normal rainfall, geological conditions

unfavorable for developing subsurface supplies and conducive

to high chlorine content in ground waters, and so on.



From the time of the first settlement on St. Thomas, the

major source of water has been rainfall caught on the roofs

and stored in barrels or cisterns. Because of the regular

cycles of severe drought, however, there was a constant



necessity for establishing a larger and more satisfactory



275, Heilbuth, Denmark and St. Croix in their Mutual

Relations.

-14-



supply. As early as 1862, a group of private citizens endeav-

ored to promote a public water system to replace or supple-

ment the private supply, which for the poorer classes was

almost non-existent. The community organizer who had called

the meeting, Mr. M. B. Simmons, pointed out that the reason"

+.. that water has become an article of import is due to a

deficiency in the accommodation for collecting and preserving



train water."28



A draft proposal for the building of public

water reservoirs, nometheless, was not acted upon at that

time.



Virtually no significant public initiatives were taken

until after the transfer of the island dependencjes to the

United States in 1917 when the former colonies were placed

under the administration of the U. S. Navy. By the early

1920's, there were about 200 private and 17 public wells in

use in the urban area surrounding the capital city.29

Subsequently in 1924, U. S. Navy Commander R. M. Warfield

made a study of the water supply of St. Thomas. In assessing

the various sources and relative supplies, he noted the

following:



"It is practicable to obtain a satisfactory

supply of potable water by constructing



28 ee

Arthur F. Johnson, Water Supply for St. Thomas, Virgin

Islands, (U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, Mimeo Report),



xhibit Cc.



29. G. Jordan and 0. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, p. i After the

establishment of the public catchment system in 1926, most

of these wells fell into disuse because of sewage and salt-

water contamination.

5



catchment areas of concrete or corrugated

galvanized iron to catch the rainfall and

store the water in cisterns for use as

required. This method can be employed



in any of the Virgin Islands and is the

only method recommended for St. Thomas,

and Christiansted, St. Croix. The slope

of the ground in the immediate vicinity

of both of the cities is well adapted to

the construction and so located that the

water can be distributed by gravity to

various points in the cities .., it is

estimated that 80% of the total rainfall

on the horizontal projection of the

catchment area can be cgpiected and

stored in this method."50



Following his analysis, Warfield made plans and estimates

for five units to be built to furnish water to the then three

divisions of the city. Taken together, these catchments

provided 356,550 square feet of surface catchment area with

a total tank capacity of 3,191,000 gallons. The cost of the

entire project was estimated at $211,450.°+ Construction on

three and one-half units was completed in 1924. This portion

covered 194,500 square feet of concrete slab with a storage

capacity in reinforced concrete tanks of 1,657,223 gallons at

a cost of $212,690. Table I (page 17) details the status of

Warfield's five-unit catchment and storage program as of

1926 in terms of proposed-versus-constructed capacity. Sub-



sequent to 1926 and forward to the present, eighteen additional



50, ythur F. Johnson, Water Supply for St. Thomas, Virgin

Islands, Exhibit G. See also R. M. Warfield, Report on Water

Supply, Virgin Islands, (U. S. Navy, 1924).



31 eis

Arthur F. Johnson, Water Supply for St. Thomas, Virgin

Islands, p. 21. The rest of these data are from the same

Source.

-16-



public rain catchments have been constructed along hillsides.

Of these, fourteen are connected to the public urban distribu-

tion system. >- Presumably those remaining serve institutional

users and settlement concentrations outside the city limits .°>

During the colonial period of the 18th and 19th centuries,

St. John was almost entirely under sugar cultivation. Danish

settlers developed limited water supplies independently for

their respective estates from a yariety of small-scale

sources. >“ These ingluded the following: digging numerous

shallow large-diameter wells; damming stream channels; divert-

ing the outflow of streams; drawing from a few small surface

reservoirs along streams and of course constructing cisterns

supplied by roof catchments. Aside from the catchment

systems, however, most of these private sources proved unsatis-

factory. Streams and adjacent ponds were never substantial

suppliers because of periodic droughts, excessive runoff

during the wet season, and the replacement of the native

vegetation with agricultural staples and deep-rooted trees



that accelerate evapotranspiration. In addition, the wells



32p. G. Jordan and 0. J. Cosner, A Survey of Water

Resources of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, p. Th



33interpreted from Roger E. Kasperson, Decentralized

Water Reuse Systems in_a Water Scarce Environment:

Tourist Industry in st. Thomas, Virgin Islands, Water Pollution

Report No. 13, (St. Thomas: Caribbean Research Institute,

1971), p. 4.



34onis section is taken porsim from Cosner and Bogart,

Water in St. John, p. 5S, 37-38.

ty



TABLE I



Proposed and Constructed Catchment and Storage

Capacity for Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, 19264



Proposed Constructed

Unit ‘| Catchment Storage | Catchment] Storage



City Quarter Number Sq. Ft. Gal. Sq. Ft. Gal

Crown Prince's 1 43,500 354,000 43,500 385,875

2 22,500 194,000 22,500 214,598

3 60,000 559,000 62,000 610,875



Queen's 4 79,800 722,000 “sb -

King's 5 150,750 1,362,000 67',000 445,875

Total =) 356,550 3,191,000] 194,500 {1,657,223



4source: Johnson, Water Supply for St, Thomas, p. 22.



bNot constructed.

-18-



were not only too shallow but also easily contaminated with

brackish water because of their frequent location in beach

areas. To alleviate these deficiencies, a relatively small

public catchment and cistern were constructed to seryice the

needs of Cruz Bay, the most populous settlement on St. John.



Historically, St. Croix has likewise been plagued with

water supply constraints similar to those obtaining in her

two sister Virgins to the North, During the Danish adminis-

tration, the traditjonal small-scale sources were developed to

service a growing population necessary to sustain the expand-

ing agricultural economy based on cotton and sugar exports.

The first public facilities were common wells which supplied

in many instances brackish water. Inevitably demand exceeded

supply and chronic shortages called for long-term solutions

through public intervention,



The Navy Administration addressed itself to the situation.

Following the recommendation of Commander Warfield, in the

1920's the Municipality of St. Croix purchased 115 acres of

the Recovery Hill watershed.>° Then a concrete dam was con-

structed along with a concrete-lined reservoir with a capacity

of about 1,000,000 gallons. It was located near the lower

property line at the edge of the city of Christiansted, the

site of local government, on the northern sea coast. Since the



water was not treated, however, most could be used only for



35tnis section borrows heavily from Arthur F. Johnson,

Water Supply for the Towns of Christiansted and Frederiksted,

St. Croix, Virgin Islands of the United States, (Bureau of

Reclamation, 1936).

-19-



sanitation purposes. This installation was later reconstructed

and a slab roof erected over the larger portion of the basin

forming a closed reservoir of 890,000 gallons. In addition



to the catchment area provided by the roof, a concrete slab



was laid on the hillside immediately to the east area creating

a total catchment of 30,350 square feet. Two small reservoirs

were added, one at Christiansted and the Creque reservoir



near the only other major urban center, Frederiksted, stituated

at the western extremity of St. Croix on the coast. These

supplies proved inadequate, however, and within a decade the

Muncipality was obliged to augment the cistern capacity of



both towns.



Continuance of potable water shortage throughout the

islands during the post-Warfield period prompted the

Governor in 1936 to propose an ordinance which created a

public water authority. This body composed of various cabi-

net officials was charged with insuring that several specific

provisions relating to catchment-cistern systems in private

dwellings were carried out. These provisions required all

owners of tenantable houses, whether occupied or not, to

install on their properties an adequate water supply, The

regualtions stipulated that storage tanks or cisterns be of

cement or metal construction and mosquito proof in accordance

with existing sanitary codes, Furthermore, all such cisterns

with cave gutters and down-spouts to shunt water from the



roof surface to storage container had to be kept in repair.

-20-



Penalties were provided for infractions of the ordinance,

Despite these rather stringent and clearly defined require-

ments, Johnson's study revealed that compliance was

deficient: °°

"As many of the houses are inadequately

provided with cave gutter, spouting and

storage capacity, considerable hardship

is imposed during the annual dry season

and actual want occurs when, as frequent-

ly happens, a period of drought extends

for several months, At such times

cattle die of thirst and people go on

short rations buying or borrowing water

from moré fortunate neighbors or public

supplies. Sometimes importation of

water supplies by ship has been

necessarry."

At this time nearly half of the entire population of

’

St. Croix was without facilities for obtaining regualr water

supplies. Sixteen public wells were scattered throughout

the town of Christiansted at convenient ‘locations. Generally

these wells provided a public supply for such priyate domestic

purposes as washing, bathing, cooking, etc. The tap water

was used for drinking only when rain water supplies were un-

available. In Frederiksted conditions controlling ground

water supplies were more favorable because of the town's

strategic position at the intersection of a large mountain

watershed. The principal water supply for Frederiksted was



the aforementioned Creque Reservoir which was formed by



.

36arthur F. Johnson, Water Supply of the Towns of

Christiansted and Frederiksted, St. Croix, Virgin Islands of



the United States, (Bureau of Reclamation, I936), p. 7.

-21-



constructing a concrete arch dam 60 feet high across Creque

Gut located 3 1/2 miles north of the town. In addition, a

few private wells were supplemented by eight public wells.



At all times, 44 percent of the entire Crucian population

depended on these public facilities or obtained water from

other individuals with private supplies. During the intense

drought periods, this percentage approached 77 percent since

only 33 percent of the people had sufficient supplies to last



through the most severe short-falls.



By 1945, the potable water distribution system serving

the urban area in Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, was supplied

from two sources: rain water stored in unterpea covered

reservoirs, and the remainder barged in from Pureto Rico.

With respect to the former, there were eleven paved areas

to catch rainwater. They were located on the hillsides near

the town with a total area of approximately 10 acres and a

storage capacity of 3,350,000 gallons. These facilities

provided a dependable average yield of about 22,000 gallons

per day (8.05 million gallons per year) .>” Some of the

larger catchment systems supplied water to limited areas of

the city through piping networks connected to the storage



tanks. However, people had to carry water from the other



‘ 377ippetts- Abbett-McCarthy-Statton, Inc. Potable Water

ly for St. Thongs Virgin Islands, (San Juan, aie

< vember, 1958), p. 15.

wYge



smaller catchments which had no distribution lines, Although

several of the reservoirs in town were connected to the dis-

tribution system, the water available from them was not

circulated throughout the entire system, but was utilized

instead for supplying street hydrants which were opened for

public use twice weekly.



During the 1950's, existing water supply sources still

proved to be inadequate. As an emergency measure, the U.S.

Navy began, in 1955,,to barge water on a regular basis from

Puerto Rico to St. Thomas, The Virgin Islands Government

took over the barging operation when it became evident that,

if for some reason the barging were interrupted,’ a severe

water crisis would develop. During 1957, thirty-six million

gallons of water, approximately 62 percent of the, total pumped

into the distribution system, was hauled in by barge.°8

Finally when barged water became the principal source and

mainstay of local supply during the early 1960's, a memoran-

dum from the Chairman of the Committee of Interior and

Insular Affairs of the U.S. Senate recommended a cheaper



alternative and one more sensitive to domestic control:°9



387i ppets-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton, Inc., Potable Water

Supply for St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (San Juan, P.R.:

Novenber, 4958) ;,-D>: 1S.



3%potable Water Problems, St. Thomas, Virgin IsYands.

Memorandum of the Chairman to the Members of the Committee

on Interior and Insular Affairs, (Washington, D. C.: U, S.

Government Printing Office, 1957), p. 4.

=23=



Years of analysis of differing methods

of producing fresh or potable water

from the sea lead to the conclusion

that distillation processes offer the

best and most economical methods of

converting sea water, which is readily

available on St. Thomas, to potable

supplies.



The first distillation plant in the Virgin Islands was

installed on St. Thomas in 1962. It was manufactured by the

firm of Aqua Chem with a capacity of 275,000 gallons per day.

As a result, the potable water supply was significantly

increased. To illustrate, in 1963 total water production

from desalinization and barging was approximately 190,000,000

gallons, an increase of almost 80,000 over fiscal 1962.49 The

following year a new pumping and filtration plant was put

into operation in conjunction with a new water main installed

along the length of the city. This resulted in taising the

water pressure to adequate levels to supply all urban

sections below 150 feet eleyation.



In 1966, a second distillation plant was added to the

system. Manufactured by Westinghouse, it did not initially

produce at its designed capacity of 1,000,000 gallons per

day. Consequently, production for the years 1967-1968 was

restricted because of repairs and revisions. As a result,



substantial supplies had to be barged in from Puerto Rico



to satisfy existing consumption. This external reliance was



40 snnual Report of the Governor of the Virgin Islands,

1963, (Washington, D. C.:; U. S. Government Printing Office,

» p- 69.

Be 2



due not only to the periodical shutdowns but also to the

steadily increasing per capita consumption levels deriving

from rapid tourist and manufacturing expansion. Neyertheless,

(according to Table II) 1967 was a bellwether year in that for

the first time the St. Thomas system supplied the major share

of local requirements. 4?



In order to keep apace with this increasing water produc-

tion; additional and enlarged storage capacity was required.

Construction was begun in 1968 on two 10 1/2 million gallon

reservoirs. In the same year, a third distillation plant

was added to the water producing system. It was manufactured

by Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton with a capacity of 2,560,000 gallons

per day. By 1969, the total complex of three St. Thomas

desalinization plants were producing triple the quantity of

water of the first plant in full operation. 4? In another

development, the Water and Power Authority in 1972 awarded

Envirogenics Company a contract for construction of two

identical distillation plants of 2,250,000 million gallons

per day capacity, one on St. Thomas and one on St. Croix.



Both were scheduled to be in service by mid-1974. However,

neither was in operation at the close of that fiscal year.



Presently, the potable water system on St. Thomas comprises



"pata reported in H. E. McDowell 4 Associates and

Alton A. Adams, Master Plan and Report, Potable Water

System, East End St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, (1973), p. 4



42 annual Report of the Governor, 1969, p. 13.

ay 3



TABLE II



Potable Water by Source, Virgin Islands, 1962-1972"



Source of Supply (gallons)



Year



Distillation



Barged



1962



b



25,261,700



84,354,300



1963



113,684,800



75,914,600



1964



96,311,400



155,706,450



1965



75,900,000



172,000,000



1966



124,300,000



150,700,000



1967



272,697,770



80,262,420



1968



269,865,000



162,406,200



1969



357,928,000



169,008,000



1970



571,412,600



105,261,000



1971



706,222,000



26,114,000



1972



808,916,500



25,462,000



@source:



Annual Reports of the Public Works



Department of the Virgin Islands,



selected years,



b



Period from February 28 to June 30, 1962.

-26-



40 million gallons of storage in steel tanks and 7 1/2



million gallons in concrete tanks.*?



In St. Croix, in order to supplement the public wells

and, by this time, the nine million gallon Creque Reservoir,

water systems for the towns of Christiansted and Frederiksted

were completed in 1951. Each of these systems drew its

supplies from wells -- Christiansted from three wells in the

valley of the Salt River, and Frederiksted from two wells in



at By the early 1960's



the lower valley of Jolly Hill Gut.

potable water from Christiansted was drilled from five wells

drilled in limestone along Salt River. The quantity of water

pumped was ahout 100,000 gallons per day.*5 Potable water for

Frederiksted was from three wells drilled in volcanic rock

three-fourths of a mile north of the city. About 100,000

gallons per day was pumped from this well field, but much of



the water was lost through leaky water mains, “°



‘Spudolf Galiber, "Potable Water Distribution," address

before the WRRC Conference: Augmenting the Virgin Islands

Water Supply, (St. Thomas: Caribbean Research Institute, 1975).



440i ppetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton, Inc., Potable Water

Supply for St. Croix, Virgin Islands, (San Juan, P. R.), p. I.



Sp. E. Ward and D. G. Jordan, Water Resources of the

Virgin Islands: A Preliminary Appraisal, (U. S. Geological

Survey, Open-File Report, 1965), p- 10.



{Scurther more specific details are given in Donald G.

Jordan, A Survey of Water Resources of St. Croix, Virgin

1ahene» (U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report, t575),

pp. 6-9.

=Q7<



During this period, practically all water used for human

consumption was rain water which had been stored in cisterns.

In most places this water was caught on the roofs of build-

ings and piped to a storage tank, but in some places concrete

catchment basins had been constructed. Rural residents

obtained water from more than 100 drilled wells, a few dug

wells, two hillside catchments, and roof catchments. In

addition, about 25 dug or drilled public wells individually

served from a few to, seyeral hundred persons.



Construction of St. Croix's first distillation plant,

manufactured by Stearn-Rogers, with 1,000,000 gallons per

day capacity, began in October 1967, and went into commer -



47 4 10 1/2 million gallon



cial operation in May, 1968.

water reservoir was built near Christiansted and a second

water storage tank, of like proportion, was erected at Kings

Hill, the following year. A 1-million-gallon storage tank

was completed near Frederiksted, and a second one erected on

Recovery Hill. St. Croix's second distillation plant,

manufactured by Envirogenics with a capacity of 2,250,000

million gallons per day, as noted above, is not yet

operational.



By 1970, several improvements were made throughout the

Crucian distribution system. These included the following:

a line extension connecting the million gallon tank at



e

Recovery Hill to the existing system in Frederiksted; the



47



Annual Report of the Governor, 1969, p. 74.

-28-



Kings Hill storage tank line extension from Kings Hill along

Centerline Road providing seryice to homes along its route

and also boosting the pressure toward Frederiksted; and a

line extension at Campo Rico, Golden Rock, Whim, and Two

Williams; a total of some 10,000 linear feet of 4 inch, 6

inch, 10 inch and 12 inch water lines and two additional



. The desalination plant, for fiscal 1970, produced



wells.4

153,000,000 gallons of potable water. Another 158,000,000

gallons was obtained from well fields, while 14,000,000 gal-

lons was barged from Puerto Rico,



Since 1971, the public industry has also relied upon

private enterprises to supplement the potable water supply.

From its in-house desalination plant, Harvey Aluminum

(later Martin Marietta Co.) has contributed significantly to

the total island supply. For example, Table III indicated

that in 1972 Harvey's share was almost one third of total

potable production. As the figures show, in recent years

this proportion of private commercial production is falling,

i.e. 24 percent in 1972. The data also indicate the sizable

share of well water in St. Croix, unusual in comparison with

St. Thomas, which has excluded distillation production in



recent years.



48 annual Report of the Governor, 1970, p. 94.

*a1e0k Tests,



*avok iepuste)



q

*xtoag ‘4g ‘paqsueTIsTAy) ‘sy10M BTTGng FO yuowjzsedog Fo sp10d0y reoinos,

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00g‘ sz ‘Sct S99* LTT 881 SEs TSe‘Tst |oos*stz‘s cor b3oT LEW

urgiey-AdALe}]

mt oo 7 $86‘L90‘b 007‘ 29b‘T Suysieg

000*zrs‘osz $76 ‘S86‘Z6T p7L‘2pe*zcT |000* POS‘ ¥Sz 000‘SS6 ‘9rz vavM

06 ‘789°6Ez 08S ‘S6T'TrZ oostosz'stz | r99'tGS*Z6T LETSTOT’SOT STIOM

ghL/£L6T 9386/2261 zest, glé6l qot6t aoanog



potiog awry



gPL6l-OL61 ‘XTOI] “2g WO UOFIONpOtd 4o1EM FO SeDINOS



ILI ATaVL

6z-

-30-



St. John has, over the years, obtained domestic and

municipal water supply from rain catchments, dug wells, and

barge shipments from St. Thomas and Puerto Rico. A deep-well

pump and a 10,000 gallon water tank are installed at Carolina,

St. John, to augment the water supply. There is a 500,000

gallon steel storage tank and a 100,000 gallon concrete

storage tank at Cruz Bay. 4? Recently, a new distribution

system was completed which includes several thousand feet of

8" pipe and a pump station to deliver water to high levels. °°

There are no water production facilities under the Virgin

Islands Water and Power Authority on St. John. There are a

few of the old Danish wells in occasional use but mainly for

stock water and construction purposes. In addition, Caneel

Bay Plantation, a resort complex and the largest employer of

the island; is served by a paved catchment with large cistern,

roof catchments, and a small distillation plant. >+



The present situation of water supply in the Territory



can be summarized. °7 There are currently six major sources



4§9pudolf Galiber, "Potable Water Distribution," address

before the WRRC Conference; Augmenting the Virgin Islands

Water supply, (St. Thomas: Caribbean Research Institute,

1975).



0.

5 Ibid



Sloliver J. Cosner and Dean B. Bogart, Water in St. John,

U. S. Virgin Islands, p. 5.



S2this summary is drawn from Penn, Cassells, Adams,

Population, Economic Activity, etc., pp. 6-7

=$2



of available water. First, sea water for fire fighting and

sanitary flushing is used predominantly in the dense urban

cores of the three main cities. Second, desalinated sea

water is the major source for industrial consumption and also

supplements urban residential demand. There are 4 desalting

plants operating in St. Thomas and 2 in St. Croix. Third,

rain water collected in private home cisterns is the primary

domestic supply. Although public catchments still exist and

collect water, they are not in use. Fourth, there are approxi-

mately 280 dams across the three islands. This supply is

generally used for watering livestock. Fifth, the greatest

amount of well capacity is in St: Croix (see Table T3T):.

These wells are both publicly and privately owned and they

supply both residential and agricultural needs depending on

their respective water quality. Sixth, wastewater recycling

through treating sewage outflows, is primarily for agricul-

tural usage and for ground water recharge to supplement well

supplies. Finally, barging from Puerto Rico has been dis-

continued except during rare periods of extreme dysfunction

in the desalination complex.°>

Any attempt to quantify in broad strokes the current

scope of the public water industry in the Virgin Islands

demands some definitional distinctions and at least a pre-



liminary discussion of short-comings in the data. First,



Buch and emergency occurred in December, 1976, when

all four St. Thomas distillation plants were down.

a32e:



public or municipal water is restricted to all water consumed

from WAPA desalination plants through the potable water dis-

tribution system plus the publicly owned wells in St. Croix.

Such public water serves residential, commercial, and light

industrial uses. On the other hand, agricultural and heavy

industrial requirements are therefore excluded.



Concerning the data there are several deficiencies.

First, much strategic information is simply unavailable.

Second, it is exceedingly difficult to monitor actual residen-

tial consumption -- the major brunt of the municipal supply --

since much of this demand is satisfied by rainfall caught in



the average cistern required by law.>4



Third, fauch distilled

water passing through the archaic distribution system is lost

through leakage and periodic breaks, Some of what is consumed

however goes unaccounted for because of absent or faulty

neters.°> Despite these data limitations, recent estimates



portray the following picture:°°



34see further problems of distinguishing between the

residential versus commercial components of municipal water

because of the large temporary tourist population, in Penn,

Cassells, Adams, Population, Economic Actiyity, etc., p. 7.



5579 illustrate with just one of the many estimating

porblems, after a broken pipe is repaired and re-opened,

there is a time lapse before the drained system refills. Yet

the flow of air in front of the released water is metered as

an actual water flow since the monitoring device cannot dis-

criminate between air yersus water flows, +



56penn, Cassells, Adams, Population, Economic Activity,

etc. p. 8,

-33-



Presently, the total municipal consumption

for the territory is approximately 4,55

million gallons per day. With 2.5 million

gallons per day on St. Thomas, 2 million

gallons per day St, Croix and 50,000

gallons per day on St. John. On St. Croix

700,000 gpd of the total consumed is sup-

plied from wells.



The Virgin Islands Water and Power

Authority has the capacity to produce



a total of 7.25 mgpd. through its

desalination plants 4 mgpd. on



St. Thomas and 3.25 mgpd. on St. Croix.

Water for St. John is barged to the

island, stored and delivered by trucks

to users. , The Water and Power

Authority which expects the consumption

on St. Thomas to double within 3 1/2

years upon the completion of additional

water line to outlying residential

area, has planned to expand its capabi-

lity to be able to produce on both o

St. Thomas and St. Croix an additionaY

7 1/2 mgpd. by 1977.

PART II



A COMPILATION OF AVAILABLE DATA AND RESEARCH REFERENCE

SOURCES RELATING TO ALL ASPECTS OF DEMAND AND

SUPPLY IN THE PUBLIC WATER INDUSTRY OF THE



UNITED STATES VIRGIN ISLANDS



by

Dr. Jerome L. McElroy*

Senior Research Associate

Caribbean Research Institute

Associate Professor of Economics

College of the Virgin Islands



December 1976



“1 am grateful to Ms. Bernice Moulton for collecting

materials and to aff in government agencies who



assisted her in this task.

Introduction



This document consists of two sections. The first

section summarizes the various types of information that have

been assembled to date. The second is an extended bibliography

of research materials from which the above information was

drawn. Cross-referencing from the type of information in

Section I to the respective bibliographical source in Section

II is readily accomplished because the data summary is clearly

classified according to specific content headings. Also, the

titles in the bibliography are specific and technical in

nature, and are easily identified. Together both sections

provide accessible working materials for the execution of the



final and more analytical phases of the overall project.



Section I: Summary of the Available Data



This section briefly lists the types of information col-

lected in topical form. These types are classified according

to the following eight categories: geology, climate, supply

sources, consumption patterns, production rates, cost

estimates, institutional aspects, and legal aspects.



In most cases, except for topography, the listed

material refers to all three Virgin Islands, and covers most



extensively the recent period from 1960 to the present.

Types of Material



1.



Geology:



a. distinguishing size characteristics

b. inter- and intra-island topography

1) watersheds and basins

2) steam flows

3) ground water

4) water quality and salt water intrusion



Climate:



a. temperature and wind flows



b. rainfall frequency

1) seasonal variation

2) inter- and intra-island distribution

3) estimated runoff



c. evapotranspiration



Supply Sources:



a. wells private and public



b. private cisterns (limited informationy



c. public catchment and storage systems, .capacity and

water quality



d. natural reservoirs and dams



e. distillation production, both public and private



f. barged water from Puerto Rico



+ wastewater reclamation feasibility and experiments



f locations of all of the above in detail (maps)

including for all three islands the potable water

distribution system



Consumption Patterns:



a. demographic profiles plus projections to 2000

b. population distribution

c. past and projected demand rates distributed

up to 2000;

1) residential use

2) agricultural use

industrial use



Production Rates;



a. for the natural sources: groundwater, precipitation,

etc, through source of supply, i.e. wellg, catch-

ments, reservoirs, etc.



b. for the desalination plants since their introduction

in 1962

c.



d.



a



various discussions of production loss of public

potable water through leakage, evaporation, etc.

and various forms of deteriorating water quality

in catchments, wells (intrusion), etc.



rates for private industrial production for heavy

industry (Hess and Martin Marietta).



Cost Estimates:



a.



cost estimates on all of the above under (5) plus

barging from Puerto Rico including:

1) distillation production in public and

private sectors

2) construction and maintenance of public

catchment-storage systems and the

distribution infrastructure (repairs and

proposed extensions)

construction and maintenance of private domestic

cistern systems

metering and monitoring

wastewater reclamation

transportation by truck from central storage tanks

to outlying areas



Institutional Aspects:



organizational charts for WAPA and Public Works and

the deposition of responsibilities between them



financial statements of these agencies, selected years



audits of their financial performance (Comptroller's

Reports), selected years, with specific recommen-

dations for improvement



cost allocation procedures between user payments and

general tax revenues



Legal Aspects



all regulations pertaining to the construction,

installation, and maintenance of private and

public cisterns and catchments



pricing policy including provisions for free rates

for the indigent residents of public housing

projects



meter installation, reading and billing procedures



penalties of various kinds for non-compliance with

any. of these respective regulations.

Section II: Bibliography of Related Research



This compilation of reference material is selective but

extensive. Generally, only those sources which have a direct

bearing to water demand and supply in the Virgin islands have

been included. The majority of the approximately seventy-

five references are housed, in whole or in part, in the Water

Research Section of the Caribbean Research Institute library.

Much of the most relevant detail in the other listed sources



has been summarized in Part One: An Introduction to



the Topography and Climatology of the United States Virgin



Islands Including a Summary of the Evolution of’ the Public



Water Industry.



In addition to these listed entries, there are of

course many other supplemental materials of a more general

nature concerning related water research done elsewhere,

Caribbean archeology and topography, small island systems,

and so on. These documents are also housed in the Caribbean

Research Institute library in both the Water Research and the



Socio-Economic Research Sections.

List of References



ANNUAL REPORTS OF THE PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT. St. Thomas:

Dept. of Public Works of the V.I., Selected years.



ANNUAL REPORTS OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS WATER AND POWER

AUTHORITY. St. Thomas: WAPA, Selected years.



ANNUAL REPORTS OF THE GOVERNOR OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS, 1963-

1969. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.



Biack, Crow and Eidsness, Inc., Waste’ ater Reclamation at

St. Croix, Virgin Islands, An Interim Progress Report

for April, 1971-May, 1972, Environmental Protection

Agency Contract No. 1L1OIGAK, B.C. & #. Project No.

540-70-83, June, 1972.



Bellante, E. L. and ‘J. R. Garfield, Airport site Studies,

St. Thomas, Virgin Islands: Cons tants" report.,

T96T.



Bowden, Martyn J. ct. al., Climate, Water Balance, and

Climatic Change in the North-West Virgin Tsland 5.

St. Thomas: Caribbean Research Institute,-1970



» Water Balance of a Dry Island: The Hydro

Climatology of St. Croix, V. I. and Potential for



Agriculture and Urban Growth. Geography Publications

at Dartmouth, No. 6, I °



Burns, and Roe, Inc., GOVERNMENT OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS POWER

AND WATER PRODUCTION FACILITIES STUDY. New York:

Consultants report, July 1964.



» GOVERNMENT OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS POWER AND

WATER PRODUCTION FACILITIES APPRAISAL REPORT. New York:

‘onsultants report, August, 1964.



Buros, Krisen, "Water and Wastewater Planning and Problems in

the Virgin Islands," Address before the WRRC Conference,

AUGMENTING THE VIRGIN ISLANDS WATER SUPPLY. St. Thomas:

Caribbean Research Institute, May 1975.



Carlson, F. T., "The Challenges of Water Resources Manage-

ment," Address before the WRRC Conference: THE VIRGIN

ISLANDS AND WATER RESOURCES. St. Thomas: Caribbean

Research Institute, April 1976.



Cederstrom, D. J., Geology and Ground-Water Resources of

St. Croix, Vi gin Isiands: U.S. Geological Survey

Water-Supply ap r 1067, 1950.

- 6-



Chemical Quality of Ground Water in St. Thomas, Virgin Islands:

U. S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 450-B, 1965.



COMPARATIVE GROWTH STATISTIC FOR THE VIRGIN ISLANDS, 1960-1973.

St. Thomas: V. I. Department of Commerce, 1974.



Cosner, 0. J., Water in St. John, U. S. Virgin Islands:

U. S. Geological Survey Open-File report, 1972.



Donnelly, T. W., The Geology of St. Thomas and St. John ,

Virgin Islands: Caribbean Geological Conference, 2nd,

Mayaquez, P. R., January 4-9, 1959, Trans., . p. 153-155,

1960.



Dookhan, Isaac, A HISTORY OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE UNITED

STATES. Essex, England: Bowker Publishing Co., 1974.



Engineering-Science, “Inc., Water reclamation study for the



U. S. Virgin Islands, 1968.



Evans, Daniel D., "The Coordination of Water Research,

Planning, and Management," Address before the WRRC

Conference: THE VIRGIN ISLANDS AND WATER RESOURCES.

St. Thomas: Caribbean Research Institute, April 1976.



Galiber, Rudolf, "Potable Water Distribution," Address be-_ore

the WRRC Conference: AUGMENTING THE VIRGIN, ISLANDS WATER

SUPPLY. St. Thomas: Caribbean Research Institute, 1975.



Geology of St. Thomas and St. John, U. S. Virgin Islands:

Geol. Soc. of America Mem. 98, 1966, pp. 85-176.



Geology of St. Thomas and St. John, U. S. Virgin Islands in

Hess, H. H., ed., Caribbean Geol. INV. GSA Memo.

Us, 1966, pp. 85-176.



Grossman, I. G., Ground Water from St. Thomas, Virgin Islands:

U. S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, 1959.



Harley, Randolph, "Preliminary Design Parameters for Next

Evaporator Construction Program," Address befor the WRRC

Conference: AUGMENTING THE VIRGIN ISLANDS WATER SUPPLY.

St. Thomas: Caribbean Research Institute, 1975.



Heilbuth, DENMARK AND ST, CROIX IN THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS.

Buffalo: Lee 4 Thorp's Press, 1845S.



Hendrickson, G. E., Development of the ground-water resources

of St. Croix, Virgin tslands: U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report, 1962.

» Ground water for public supply in St. Croix,

Virgin Isiands: - S. Geological Survey Water-Supply



aper -D, 1963.

=4-



Howell, W. E. Associates, Inc., A Survey of Rain Stimulation

Potential at St. Croix, Virgin Islands, Lexington, Mass.,



Johnson, A. F., Water Supply for St. Thomas, Virgin Islands:

U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, November, 1936.



, Water Supply for the Towns of Christiansted

and Frederiksted, St, Croix, Virgin Islands of the

United States: Bureau of Reclamation, 1936



sserpaaneonaraseitn _____, Preliminary report on the water supplies for

properties managed by the Virgin Islands: U. S. Bureau

Reclamation Ms. rept., 1937.



Jordan, D. G., Land-use effect on the water regimen of the

U. S. Virgin Islands: U. S. Geological Survey Prof.

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3