ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS OF
THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION
SHOWING THE
OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND
CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE
30
1916
WASHINOTON
GOVERNMENT HONTING OFHCE
1917
LETTER
FROM THE
SECRETARY OP THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
SUBMITTING
THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30,
1016.
Smithsonian Institut’ion,
WasMngton, December 21 , 1916.
To the Congress of the United States:
In accordance with
section 5593 of the Kevised
Statutes of the
United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents,
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi-
tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end-
ing June 30, 1916.
I have the honor to be.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
Charles D. Walcott, Secretary.
m.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Letter from the
Secretar}’^ submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to
Congress
in
Contents of the report
v
List of plates
vil
General subjects of the annual report
IX
Officials of the Institution and its branches
xi
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
The Smithsonian Institution
1
The Establishment
1
The Board of Regents
1
Finances
2
The Freer Art Gallery
4
Researches and explorations—
Geological explorations in the Rocky Mountains
5
Mastodon from Indiana
7
Paleontological and stratigraphic studies in the Paleozoic rooks
7
Explorations in Siberia
8
Collecting fossil echinoderms in the Ohio Valley
9
Geological work in Pennsylvania and Viiginia
9
Expedition to Borneo and Celebes
10
Explorations in China and Manchuria
10
Explorations in eastern Siberia
10
Expedition to St. Thomas, Danish West Indies
11
Cactus investigations in Brazil and Argentina
11
P'og-cleaiing investigations
13
Explorations of ancient Maya cities in Guatemala and Honduras
13
Study of nocturnal radiation
14
Researches under Ilarriman trust fund
10
Research Corporation
^
,
10
National Research Council
10
Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory
18
Publications
19
Library
21
International congresses and expositions:
Second Pan American Scientific Congress
22
Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists
23
Panama-Pacific International Exposition
24
Panama-Califomia Exposition at San Diego
20
National Museum
20
V
VI
OOKTEKTS.
Edge.
Bureau of Amerieau Ethnology
28
International Exchanges
30
National Zoological Park
30
Astrophysical Observatory
31
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature
32
Necrology
33
Appendix
1. Keport on the United States National Museum
35
2. Beport on the Bureau of American Ethnology.
49
3. Report on the International Exchanges
73
4. Beport on the National Zoological Park
83
5. Beport on the Astrophysical Observatory^
99
6. Report on the library
104
7. Beport on the International Catalogue of Scientific
1 itoraluie.
.
.
109
8. Beport on publications
112
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND REGENTS
Report of Executive Committee
119
Proceedings of Board of Regents
324
GENERAL APPENDIX.
Administration and activities of the Smithsonian
Institution, by A. Howard
Clark
13
News from the stars, by C. G. Abbot
157
The distances of the heavenly bodies, by W. S. Eithelbergcr.
.
.
169
A census of the sky, by B. A, Sampson
181
Gun-report noise, by Hiram P. Maxim
193
Molecular structure and
life, by Am6 Pictet
199
Ideals of chemical Investigation, by Theodore W. Richards
213
The earth: Its figure, dimensions, and the constitution of its interioi, by T. C.
Chamberlin, Harry Fielding Beld, John F. Hayford, and Frank Schlesinger.
226
Dry land in geology, by Arthur P. Coleman
255
The petroleum resources of the United States, by Ralph Arnold
273
The outlook for iron, by James Furman Kemp
289
The origin of meteorites, by Fr. Berwerth
311
The present state of the problem of evolution, by M, Caullory
321
ISome considerations on sight in birds, by J. C. Lewis
337
Pirates of the deep: Stories of the squid and octopus, by Paul Dartsc h
347
The economic importance of the diatoms, by Albert Mann
377
Narcotic plants and stimulants of the ancient Americans, by W. E. Safford.
. .
387
N^w archeological lights on the origins of civilization in Emope, by Arthur
Evans
425
The great dragon of Quirigua, by W. H. Holmes
447
prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and its people, by
.1
. W. Fewkes
461
J&a art of the great earthwork builders of Ohio, by Charles C. Willoughby. ...
489
A half century of geographical progress, by J. Scott Keltic
601
Hhe relation of pure science to industrial research, by J. J. Carty
623
Mine safety devices developed by the United
States Bureau
of Mines, by
, Vtth H. Manning
633
waterways in the United States, by W. W. Harts
645
N. Gill, by William H. Ball
579
JJplll life and work of Fabre, by E. L. Bouvier
587
LIST OF PLATES,
Page.
Smithsonian Institution (Clark)
Plates 1-4
138
Plates 5-8
140
Plates
9, 10
142
Plates 11-14
148
Plates 15-18
150
Plates 19-22
152
News from the Stars (Abbot)
:
Plates
1,2
158
Plates 3,4
160
Plate 5
163
Census of the Sky (Sampson)
Plates
1-6
192
Gun Report Noise (Maxim)
Plates
1-7
198
Sight in Birds (Lewis)
:
Plates 1-4
338
Pirates of the Deep (Bartsch)
Plates
1, 2
348
Plates
3, 4_,._
350
Plates
5, 6
352
Plates
7, 8
.... 354
Plates 9, 10
356
Plates
11, 12
358
Plates 13, 14
360
Plates 15, 16
368
Plates 17, 18
372
Plate 19
374
Diatoms (Mann)
Plates 1-6
386
Narcotic Plants (Safford)
Plates 1-17
424
Page.
Great Dragon (Holmes)
Plates
1, 2
448
Plates
3, 4
450
Plates
5, 6
452
Plates
7, 8
454
Plates
9, 10
456
Mesa Yerde Pueblo (Pewkes)
Plate 1
464
Plates 2-5
466
Plates 6-9
470
Plates
10, 11
472
Plates 12-15
476
Earthwork Builders (Willoughby)
Plates 1-4
490
Plates
5, 6
494
Plates
7, 8
496
Plates 9-12
498
Plate 13
500
Geographic Progress (Keltic)
:
Plates
1, 2
512
Mine Safety l>evi(*os (^Manning)
Plates
1, 2
538
Plates
3, 4
640
Plates
5, 6_..
642
Plate 7
544
Natural Waterways (Harts)
Plates
1, 2
552
Plates
3, 4
554
Plates
5, 6
558
Plates
7, 8
.
562
Plate 9
668
Theodore N. Gill (Dali)
Plate 1
57d
TO
ANNUAL REPOET OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1916.
SUBJECTS.
1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera-
tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30,
1916, with statistics of exchanges, etc.
2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents,
exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state-
ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the
year ending June 30, 1916.
3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1916.
4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem-
oirs of interest to collaborators and coi-respondents of the Institution,
teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge.
These
memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1916.
IX
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
June 30, 1916.
presiding oficer ex
officio.—Woodeow Wilson, President of the United States.
Chancellor.—^Edwakd Douglass White,
Chief
.Tustice
of
tlie
United
States.
Members of the Institution:
Woodrow Wilson,
I*resident of the United States.
Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States.
Edward Douglass White, Chief Justice of the United
States.
lloBEKT Lansing, Secretary of
State.
William Gibbs McAdoo, Secretary of the Treasury.
Newton Diehl Baker, Secretary of War.
Thomas Watt Gregory, Attorney General.
Albert Sidney Burleson, Postmaster General.
Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy.
Franklin Knight Lane, Secretary of the Interior.
David Franklin Houston, Secretary of Agriculture.
William Cox Redfikld, Secretary of Commerce.
William Bauchop Wilson, Secretary of Labor.
Regents of the Institution:
Edward Douglass White, Chief Justice of the United
States, Chancellor.
Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States.
Henry Cabot Lodge, Member of the Senate.
William J. Stone, Member of the Senate.
Henry Fkenc’h Hollis, Member of the Senate.
Scott Ferris, Member of the House of Representatives.
Ernest W. Roberts, Member of the House of Representatives.
James T. Ta.oyu, Member of the House of Represenattives.
Andrew D. White, citizen of New York.
Alexander Graham Bell, citizen of Washington, D. O.
George Gray, citizen of Delaware.
Charles F. Choate,
Jr., citizen of Massachusetts.
John B. Henderson, Jr., citizen of Washington, D. G.
Charles W. Fairbanks, citizen of Indiana.
Executive
cowwiiftee.—
eorge Gray, Alexander Graham
Bell, Ernest W»
Roberts.
Secretary of the Institution.—Charles D. Walcott.
Assistant secretary.—Richard Rathbun.
Chief Clerk.—Harry W. Dorsey.
Aocoufitant and disbursing agent .
W.
I. Adams.
Editor.—A. Howard Clark.
As^stant librarian.—
aitl Brockett.
Property clerk.—J. H. Hill.
SMTTHSONIAK INSTITUTIOIT,
xn
THK NATIONAL.MUSEUM.
Keeper ex offlcio,—Chakles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution.
Assistant secretary in charge.—Richabd Rathbun.
Administrative assistant.—W. de C. Ravenel.
Head curators.—^William H. Holmes, Leonhard Stejnegee, G. P. Merrill.
Curators.—Paul Bartscii, R.
S. Bassler, A. Howard Clark, P. W. Clarke,
P. V. CoviLLE, W. H. Dall, Chester G. Gilbert, Walter Hough, L. O. Howard,
AleS HrdliOka, Frederick L. Lewton, George C. Maynard, Gerrit S. Miller, Jr.,
Robert Ridgway.
Associate curators,—J. C. Crawford, W. R. Maxon, David White.
Curator^ National Gallery of Art .—W. H. Holmes.
Chief of correspondence and documents.—Randolph
T. Geabe.
Disbursing agent.—W.
I. Adams.
Chief of exhibits {Biology).—James E. Benedict
Superintendent of buildings and labor.—J.
S. Goldsmith,
Editor.—Marcus Benjamin.
Assistant
librarian.—N.
P. Scudder.
Photographer.—^T. W.
Smillie.
Registrar.—S. C. Brown.
Property
clerk.—W. A. Knowles.
Engineer.—C. R. Denmark.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
Ethnologist'inrcharge.—F. W. Hodge,
Ethnologists.—J. Walter Fewkes, John
P.
IlARuiNoroxN,
J.
N.
B. Hewitt,
Francis La Flesche, Truman Michelson, James Mooney, John R. Swanton.
Special ethnologist.—Leo
J. Fra( htenberg.
Honorary philologist.—Franz Boas.
Editor.—Joseph G. Gurley.
Librarian.—Ella Leary.
Illustrator.—De Lancey Gill.
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
Chief clerk.—C. W. Shoemaker.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
Superintendent.—Frank Baker.
Assistant Superintendent.—A. B. Baker.
ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.
Director.—C. G. Abbot.
B. Fowle,
Jr.
Bolometric assistant,—L. B. Aldrich.
IPJOIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED
STATES,
INTERNATIONAL
CATALOGUE OF SCIBNTIFO LITERATURE.
in charge,—Leonabd C. Gunnkii.
REPORT
OF THE
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
CHARLES D. WALCOTT,
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1916.
To the Board of Regents of the Simthsonian Institution:
Gentlemen
; I have the honor to submit herewith the customary
annual report on the operations of the Smithsonian Institution and
its branches during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, including
work placed by Congress under the direction of the Board of Eegents
in the United
States National Museum, the Bureau
of American
Ethnology,
the
International Exchanges,
the
National
Zoological
Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the United States Bureau
of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.
The general report reviews the affairs of the Institution proper and
briefly summarizes the operations of its several branches, while the ap-
pendices contain detailed reports by the assistant secretary and others
directly in charge of various activities.
The reports on operations of
the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology will
also be published as independent volumes.
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
THE ESTABLISHMENT.
The Smithsonian Institution was created an establishment by act
of Congress approved August 10, 1846.
Its statutory members are
the President of the United
States, the Vice President, the Chief
Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.
THE BOARD OF REGENTS.
The Board of Eegents, which is charged with the administration of
the Institution, consists of the Vice President and the Chief Justice of
the United States as ex officio members, three Members of the Senate,
three Members of the House of Bepresentatives, and six citizens, “ two
of whom shall be residents in the city of Was^ngton and the other
four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them from the
same State.”
1
2
AKlsrtTAL BEPOax SMlXHSOIiriAN IKSXlXtJTIOK,
1916.
In regard to the personnel of the board the only change during
the fiscal year was the appointment of James T. Lloyd, Eepresenta-
tive from Missouri.
The roll of Eegents on June 30, 1916, was as
follows: Edward D.
White,
Chief
Justice
of
the United
States,
Chancellor; Thomas E.
Marshall,
Vice
President
of
the United
States; Henry Cabot Lodge, Member
of
the
Senate; William
J.
Stone, Member of the Senate; Henry French Hollis, Member of the
Senate;
Scott
Ferris, Member
of
the House
of
Kepresentatives
Ernest W. Eoberts, Member of the House of Eepresentatives; James
T. Lloyd, Member of the House of Eepresentatives; Andrew D.
White,
citizen of New York; Alexander Graham
Bell,
citizen
of
Washington, D. C.; George Gray, citizen of Delaware; Charles F.
Choate, jr., citizen of Massachusetts; John B. Henderson, jr., citizen
of Washington, D. C.; and Charles W. Fairbanks, citizen of Indiana.
The board held its annual meeting on December 9, 1915.
The i)ro-
ceedings of that meeting, as also the annual financial report of the
executive committee, have been printed, as usual, for the use of the
Eegents, while such important matters acted upon as are of public
interest are reviewed under appropriate heads in the present report
of the Secretary. A detailed statement of disbursements from Gov-
ernment appropriations, under the direction of the Institution
for
the maintenance of the National Museum, the National Zoological
Park, and
other branches,
will be submitted
to Congress by
the
Secretary in the usual manner in compliance with the law.
FINANCES.
The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which
it was derived are as follows
Deposited in the Treasury of the United States,
Bequest of James Smithson, 1846
Residuary legacy of James Smithson, 18G7
Deposit of savings of income, 1887
Bequest of James Hamilton, 1875
$1,000
Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895
1,000
Bequest of Simeon Habel, 1880^..
Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881
Gift Of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1891
Fart of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894
peiptMit from savings of income, 1903
IftOUdnary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1907
Dl>posit iWih savings of income, 1913
of bequest of WlUiam Jones Rhees, 1913^*.
of proceeds from sale of real estate
(gift of Robert Stan-
^Oh Avery), 1913
:
* hJ^aest of Addison T. Reid, 1914
of savinp from income, Avery bequest, 1914
$515, 169. 00
26,210.63
108, 620. 37
2, 000.00
500.00
51, 500. 00
200,000*00
8,000.00
25,000.00
7.918.00
036.04
251.96
9 . 092*^
4,795.91
204.09
SSPOBT OP THB SEOBEXABT.
3
Deposit of savings from income, Avery fund, 1916
$1, 862. 60
Tieposit of savings from Income, Reid fund, 1916
420. 04
Deposit of balance of principal, $248.05, and Income, $28.89, Rhees
fund, 1915
2X6.44
Deposit of first payment of Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund,
1915
24,534.92
Deposit of part of principal of Addison T. Reid fund, 1910
4, 698. 69
Deposit of principal of George H. Sanford fund, 1916
1, 020. 00
Deposit of savings from Income, 1916
2, 681. 41
Total of fund deposited in the United States Treasury
996, 000. 00
Other regources.
Registered and guaranteed 4 per cent bonds of the West Shore
Railroad
Co.,
part
of
legacy
of Thomas
G.
Hodgkins
(par
value)
42, 000. 00
Coupon 5 per cent bonds of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co., due
July
1, 1918
(cost)
5,040.63
Coupon 6 per cent bonds of the Argentine Nation, due Dec.
15,
1917
(cost)
5,093.75
Total permanent fund
1, 048, 134. 38
The second installment to the Addison T. Keid fund, amounting
to $4,698.59, and a bequest to be known as the George H. Sanford
fund, amounting to $1,020, were added during the year to the per-
manent fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States, which,
together
with
incomes
of
several
specific
funds
amounting
to
$2,681.41, now aggregates the total sum of $996,000, which bears
interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum.
The sum of $10,000, being a part of the bequest designated as the
Frances Lea Chamberlain fund, the income of which is to be applied
to the maintenance of the Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks
in
the
National
collections, was
received by
the
Institution
in
October, 1915, and on the advice of the executive committee was in-
vested in gold notes maturing on December
15, 1917, and July
1,
1918.
These investments form a nucelus of what will hereafter be
known as the consolidated fund.
The income account of each specific
fund will be credited with the proportion of income which each in-
vested fund bears to the whole fund.
The income of the Institution
during
the
year, amounting to
$107,670.26, was
derived
as
follows: Interest
on
the
permanent
foundation, $60,751.23 ; contributions from various sources for specific
purposes, $22,954.99 ; first payment of the Frances Lea Chamberlain
fund, $10,000; second payment on account of the Addison T. Beid
fund, $4,698.59 ; and from other miscellaneous sources, $9,265.45.
Adding the cash balance of $42,165.86 on July
1, 1915, the total
i«Boaroes for the fiscal year amounted to $149,8^6.12.
The disbu]^-
EdOnts, wbidi are given in detail in the annual report of the executive
4
AiriTOM. BIPOBX SMITHSOKUH IKSXIXtJXIOK, im.
committee, amounted to $105,125*10, leaving a balance of $44,711.02
on deposit June 30, 1916, in the United States Treasury and in cash.
The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement of
the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1916
International exchanges
$32,000
American ethnology
42, 000
Astrophysical Observatory
13,000
National Museum:
Furniture and fixtures
25,000
Heating and lighting
46, 000
Preservation of collections
300, 000
Books
2,000
Postage
500
Building repairs
15,000
Bookstacks for Government bureau libraries
6, 500
National Zoological Park
100, 000
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature
7, 500
Total
589,500
In addition to the above specific amounts to be disbursed by the
Institution there was included under the general appropriation for
printing and binding an allotment of $76,200 to cover the cost of
printing and binding the Smithsonian annual
report, and reports
and
miscellaneous
printing
for the Government branches
of
the
Institution.
THE FREER ART GALLERY.
One of the most important events since the foundation of the In-
stitution was consummated in December last.
In my last report it was
mentioned that Mr. Charles L. Freer was considering the question
of erecting a suitable building for the permanent preservation of
the splendid collection of objects of art which he presented to the
Institution in 1906 and has since augmented by many further gifts.
It is exceedingly gratifying here to record the gift by Mr. Freer of
$1,000,000
in cash
for the immediate
erection
of
a building and
that the site and preliminary plans have been agreed upon, so that
the actual construction work will soon begin.
The building will be
of granite and located at the southwest corner of the Smithsonian
reservation at Twelfth and B Streets.
The munificent donation by Mr. Freer of his collection and pro-
visioil for its preservation is unsurpassed in this country, and is one
ef the most notable gifts of its character in the world’s history.
Mr. Freer describes his collection as follows:
l^iejse several collections Include specimens of very widely separated periods
artistic development,*beginning before the birth of Christ and ending t04ay.
etteihpt has been made to secure specimens from unsympathe^e sonrceSi
having been confined
to American and Asiatic
schools.
My
greie^
Of 1?HE SBCBBTAilY.
5
desire has beea to unite modern work with masterpieces of certain periods of
hi^h
civilization harmonious
in spiritual and physical suggestion, having the
power to broaden esthetic culture and the grace to elevate the human mind.
The original collection consisted of about 2,300 paintings and other
objects of art, and has since been increased to 5,346 items, including
American
paintings and
sculptures,
the
Whistler
collection,
and
oriental paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades from China, Korea,
Japan, and other Asiatic countries.
A full catalogue of items is given by Mr. Eathbun in his Museum
Bulletin on the National Gallery of Art.
EXPLOllATIONS AND RESEARCHES.
The usual
activities were continued during the past year in ad-
vancing one of the fundamental objects of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, the increase of knowledge.
In this work various explorations
and researches were inaugurated or participated in by the Institution
and
its branches, covering practically
all divisions of astronomical,
anthropological,
biological, and geological
science.
The extent of
these explorations and researches during the history of the Institu-
tion covers a wide range, although a great deal more of most impor-
tant work could have been accomplished had adequate funds been
available.
Friends of the
Institution have generously
aided
this
work, particularly during the last few years, through the contribu-
tion of funds for specific purposes, but much yet remains undone, and
opportunities for undertaking important lines of investigation are
constantly
being
lost through
lack of means
to carry them
into
execution.
Several proposed expeditions to various parts of the world have
been temporarily delayed by the war in Europe.
I will here mention only briefly some of the recent activities of the
Institution in these directions and for details of other investigations
may refer to the appendices containing the reports of those directly
in charge of the several branches of the Institution.
GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.
In continuation of my previous work in the Eocky Mountain re-
gion, I was engaged during the season of 1915 in field investigation
in the Yellowstone Park area and from there north into the Belt
Mountains east of Helena, Mont.
The work in the Yellowstone Park
Was carried on with two objects in view
First. To determine, if possible, the extent to which the lower forms
of algae and possibly bacteria contributed, through their
activities,
to the deposition from the geyser and hot spring waters of the con-
tained carbonate of lime and silica.
73839"—SM 1916
2
$
JOSKOU, IQPSPOST SlifllHSOKUir IKSTITVllOlr,
ISlfi.
Second. The securing for the National Museum of a
series of
geyser and hot spring deposits, also silicified wood from the petrified
forests and certain types of volcanic rocks.
During the investigation and
collecting, numerous photographs
were taken of geysers and hot springs and of deposits made from the
waters through evaporation and organic agencies.
The collections were brought to the camps by pack horses and
buckboard and subsequently packed for shipment at Fort Yellow-
stone and Yellowstone.
Material assistance was afforded by the co-
operation of the acting superintendent of the park, Col. L. M. Brett,
United States Army, and officers of the United States Engineer Corps
in charge of the maintenance and development of the park roads and
trails.
Upward of 5 tons of specimens were
collected and shipped
to
the National Museum.
This collection permits of the preparation of
a special Yellowstone Park exhibit of great beauty and interest.
It was found that algal growth was everywhere present when the
temperature of the waters was from 70° to not much above 180° F.,
and that this growth had a marked effect upon the amount and charac-
ter of both calcareous and siliceous deposits.
After completing the investigation of the geyser and hot spring
deposits, a trip was made to the Fossil Forest in the northeastern
section of the park, in the Lamar Eiver Valley.
Large collections
were made here of silicified wood and various minerals, one of the
latter being a remarkable and beautiful form
of
calcite
rosettes,
Which were illustrated and technically described in the pamphlet on
Smithsonian explorations in 1915.^
The camp
site in the Lamar Valley was one of unusual interest
and beauty.
The high hills to the south showed the rock cliffs con-
taining silicified woods, calcite rosettes, and beautiful specimens of
chalcedony. A
little way from
the camp
the
party met with
a
large herd of bison grazing freely in the broad open valley; also
herds of elk, bands of antelope, a few black bear, and an occasional
wolf.
On leaving the park, after 675 miles of travel with the camp out-
fit, the party proceeded down the West Gallatin Eiver Canyon, stop-
ping to examine the
section
of Cambrian
rocks
at the mouth of
Squaw Creek.
The next permanent camp was made in Deep Creek
Canyon, 17 miles east of Townsend, Mont., where the extensive pre-
Cambrian sections of the Big Belt Mountains are beautifully shown.
About 2
tons
of
pre-Cambrian
specimens were
collected
in
this
vi(|imty before the storms of late September (1915)
closed the sea-
smi’s field work.
^ SmltliBonia&
MlBcella&eous
Collectloii8»
Vol.
60,
No.
6,
1616.
laEPOIKT OP THB BWmtABY,
(
MASTODON PROM INDIANA.
Many finds of mastodon and mammoth remains, especially from
different localities in States bordering, on the Great Lakes, are con-
stantly being reported to the Institution.
These “ finds,” chiefly in
swamp deposits of the Pleistocene, generally consist of a few isolated
bones or teeth, but afford evidence of an abundance of these great
creatures during the geological age just preceding the present.
Com-
pared, however,. with the great number of remains found, complete
skeletons are rare, principally because the finds are generally brought
to light by workmen who have little or no knowledge of the scien-
tific
value
of
the remains.
The National Museum was
therefore
fortunate during the past year in the acquisition of a
fine, nearly
complete adult male mastodon
skeleton from
a swamp
deposit in
northwestern Indiana.
A part of the
skull, four limb bones,
a few
ribs and
vertebrae
were unearthed by a dredge crew while excavating a drainage canal
and shipped to the Institution.
Mr. J. W. Gidley, of the National
Museum, later succeeded in finding the lower jaws, most of the re-
maining vertebrae and ribs, parts of the pelvis, and a few more limb
and foot bones, and on a second visit found the missing sections of
the vertebral column, several more foot bones, and other important
fragments.
On assembling all the bones recovered it has been found
that, with comparatively little artificial restoration, an unusually fine
and complete specimen of the American mastodon can be prepared
for exhibition.
PALEONTOLOGICAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES IN THE PALEOZOIC ROCKS.
Dr. E. 0. Ulrich of the National Museum, was occupied for sev-
eral months during the
field season of 1915, under the auspices of
the
United
States
Geological
Survey,
in
a
study
of
the
lower
Paleozoic
deposits
of
the
Mississippi
Valley.
He
was
engaged
chiefly in seeking evidence respecting the boundary line between the
Cambrian and Ozarkian
systems.
For
this purpose many of the
outcrops of these rocks were visited, but the most important evidence
was found in the upper Mississippi Valley and in the Missouri where
the Upper Cambrian rocks are particularly well displayed, and the
succeeding
deposits
of
the Ozarkian
system
are more commonly
fossiliferous than elsewhere.
The relative abundance of fossils in
these areas permitted the actual boundary between the two systems
to be accurately determined after considerable
study.
This boun-
dary was found to coincide with the uneven plane formed at the
junction of the deposits laid down by the retreating Cambrian sea
with those formed by the return of the waters in the succeeding
Ozarkian time.
During the progress of these stratigraphic studies
8
AirmrAL Mpom bmitbsonun iBsmvnoiT, me.
numerous collections of fossils were secured for the museum series,
and incidentally the inyestigations resulted in the proper placement
of many fossils whose stratigraphic position had hitherto been un-
certain.
In the latter part of the season Dr. Ulrich worked out the field
relations of some insufficiently located collections of Paleozoic fossils
made in southwest Virginia at various times in the past.
The most
important result of these investigations
is the proof that a large
coral fauna, exceedingly like that which marks the horizon of the
Onondaga limestone throughout the extent of this well known and
widely
distributed Middle Devonian
formation, had
already
in-
vaded the continental basins as far as southwest Virginia during the
closing stages of the preceding Lower Devonian.
This instance of
recurring fossil faunas is regarded as one of the most important of
the many similar instances that have been established through the
field studies of Dr. Ulrich during the past 25 years.
All have served
in correcting erroneous correlations of formations that had arisen
through the confusion of earlier or later appearances of faunas with
the one recognized
in the standardized
sequence of
stratigraphic
units.
Mr. E. D. Mesler, under the supervision of Dr. Ulrich, spent the
summer of 1915 in making collections of Ordovician and Silurian
fossils from formations and localities in the Appalachian and Missis-
sippi
Valleys which had
hitherto
been
little
represented
in
the
museum
collections. A large number of
fossils resulted from his
trip, particularly from the Middle Ordovician rocks of east Tennes-
see, which will form the basis of a future monograph on the paleon-
tology of that region.
EXPLORATIONS IN
SIBERIA.
Through the liberality of the Telluride Association the Institution
was enabled to send Mr. B. Alexander with the Koren Expedition
to the Kolyma Kiver region of northern Siberia.
The expedition left
Seattle, Wash., in June, 1914, and returned in September, 1915.
The
immediate purpose of the trip was to obtain remains of large extinct
animals, particularly of the mammoth for which the region is noted.
The results were not all that were hoped for, but a considerable quan-
tity of material was obtained, though no complete skeleton. A re-
port, with photographs taken by the party, was published in the
pamphlet on Smithsonian explorations and field work in 1915.
-The
collection of bones sent in by the expedition contains a few fine speci-
mens, together with a considerable number of isolated bones, which
valuable for study and comparison.
They
all
indicate a late
l^eistocene age, as the bones of many of the forms represented can
with difficulty be distinguished from those of species still livmg in
BEPOBT OP IHB SBOEETABY.
9
that region.
The animals represented include the mammoth, bison,
carabou, horse (two or more species), rhinoceros, musk-ox, wolverine,
and wolf.
The priae specimen is a finely preserved, almost complete
skull of Elefhas frimigemua.
It is of especial interest as being the
only
skull
of
the
Siberian mammoth
in
any
of
our American
museums.
COLLECTING FOSSIL ECHINODERM8 IN THE OHIO VALLEY.
Explorations
for
fossil echinoderms were conducted during the
summer of 1915, under the supervision of Mr. Frank Springer, asso-
ciate in paleontology in the United States National Museum.
The
work was limited to two areas of Silurian rocks in the Ohio Valley
from each of which much valuable material was procured for the
study of certain definite problems.
In southern Indiana Mr. Her-
rick E. Wilson, under Mr. Springer’s direction, spent a number of
weeks quarrying for Niagaran echinoderms, particularly crinoids, in
the vicinity of St. Paul where numerous outcrops of the Laurel lime-
stone occur.
The object of this work was to secure as many speci-
mens as possible for comparisons of this peculiar fauna with those
from European Silurian rocks.
Not only was much material
ob-
tained by the quarrying operations, but all of the local collections of
fossils were purchased for Mr. Springer, so that the Museum, which
hitherto had practically no fossils from the Laurel limestone, is now
in possession
of a splendid general
collection
of
fossils from
this
particular formation.
The second area of exploration was in west Tennessee along the
Tennessee Eiver, where Mr. W. F. Pate spent some weeks in search-
ing for the peculiar crinoidal bulb, Camarocrinus, and the associ-
ated crinoid, Scyphocrinus, both of which Mr. Springer has proved
to belong to the same organism.
Mr. Pate was successful in finding
several localities where excellent specimens of the Camarocrinus and
Scyphocrinus were associated.
Much material was secured and the
specimens will be used in the preparation of Mr. Springer’s mono-
graph upon this group of crinoids.
GEOLOGICAL WORK IN PENNSYLVANIA AND VIRGINIA.
By arrangement with the United States Geological Survey, Dr.
Edgar T. Wherry, of the National Museum, continued his studies
of the geology of the Reading quadrangle in eastern Pennsylvania
for a month during the summer of 1915.
He completed the areal
mapping of the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks of the region, and
has transmitted to
the Survey the manuscript
of a report upon
his work.
He also mapped Cambrian and Triassic formations on
M
AsriTOAL BBPOUT sifraHsosruK iJromrtriTOur, mi
the Quakertown and Doylestown quadrangles, which lie to the east
of the Beading.
A brief visit was made to a newly discovered cave near Lurich,
Va., where the cave marble was reported to be of economic im-
portance.
This view proved to be
unjustified, but some unusual
stalactitic
formations were
found, two specimens
of which were
obtained for the Museum collections.
EXPEDITION TO BORNEO AND CELEBES.
As the result of zoological explorations carried on by Mr. II. C.
Eaven in Celebes, through the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, the
Museum has received 464 mammals, 870 birds, 50 reptiles, and some
miscellaneous
specimens.
The mammals and
birds
are
of
great
value as the first adequate representation of a fauna that has par-
ticular interest
in connection with previous work
in
other
parts
of the Malay Archipelago.
Early in the summer of 1915 Mr. Raven
returned to America and spent several months on vacation and in
preparing for further explorations m Celebes and other paits of the
East Indies.
Dr. Abbott has offered his continued support to this
work.
Mr. Raven left Washington for the East by way of Japan
and Singapore, about the middle of October.
Two months
later
he reported from Buitenzorg, Java, that he was making good prog-
ress toward the collecting ground.
EXPLORATIONS IN CHINA AND MANCHURIA.
Zoological explorations, mentioned in previous reports, have been
continued in China and Manchuria by Mr. Sowerby through the
generosity of a friend of the Institution who desires to remain un-
known.
During July, August, and September, he made an expedi-
tion to the lower reaches of the Sungan River and the I-mien-po
district in north Manchuria, where he succeeded in collecting some
interesting
specimens
of mammals,
birds, and
fishes
to
be
for-
warded to the Institution.
EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN
SIBERIA.
In the summer of 1915 Mr, Copley Amory, jr., returned from the
]9i<»iheast
coast
of
Siberia, where for about
a year he had been
gathering
zoological
material
in
connection with
a
party
under
Caph John Koren.
As his part of the results of the expedition Mr.
Jutamy turned over to the National Museum 366 mammals, 264 birds,
thd various miscellaneous specimens principally of plants, fish, and
Most of this material was prepared by Mr, Amory him-
^
though various members of the expedition contributed to tho
Sotwctlbns of both mammals and birds. Among the mammals, about
BBUPOM* OF
SECSBTAET.
H
Sfi wild species are represented and are of interest for comparing
the Alaskan species with their nearest Asiatic relatives.
EXPEDITION TO ST. THOMAS, DANISH WEST INDIES.
Mr. C. K. Shoemaker, of the division of marine invertebrates in
the National Museum, spent the two months from the middle
of
June to the middle of August, 1915, in the Danish West Indies,
under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D. C.,
securing collections of corals and other marine invertebrates.
This
expedition has enriched the collections of the National Museum by
about
5,000 specimens, which
it
is hoped
will throw
considerable
light on the correlation of these islands in the West Indian complex.
The collecting was done in the open water, bays, and channels at
St. Thomas, St. John, and St. James.
The deeper waters were ex-
plored by means of dredging from a motor boat, while native divers,
working from the heavy West Indian row
boats, were used
for
collecting in the shallow waters.
In addition to this, much shore
collecting was done.
Owing to the very strong and constant trade
wind, work on exposed reefs was in many cases made impossible by
the heavy surf.
Collecting in the protected bays, however, was most
successful, as a great variety of bottom was to be found in many
of them.
While the chief aim of the expedition was to secure as complete
a representation of the coral fauna as possible—and
this aim met
with considerable success—fine collections of other marine inverte-
brates were
also obtained,
including protozoa,
sponges,
hydroids,
medusae, alcyonarians, anemones, bryozoans, starfish, sea urchins, holo-
thurians, annelids, crustaceans, mollusks, and ascidians.
Collections
were
also made on land whenever opportunities
offered, including
insects, mollusks, reptiles, and batrachians.
CACTUS INVESTIGATIONS IN BRAZIL AND ARGENTINA.
Dr.
J.
N.
Rose,
associate
in
Botany,
United
States
National
Museum
(at
present
connected with
the
Carnegie
Institution
of
Washington in the preparation of a monograph of the Cactacese of
America), accompanied by Mr. Paul G. Russell, of the United States
National Museum,
continued
the
botanical
exploration
of
South
America during the summer of 1915, spending over five months in
travel and field work in Brazil and Argentina.
In addition to the good-sized collections of cactuses, consisting of
living, herbarium, and formalin specimens, moderately large collec-
tions of insects, shells, diatoms, and other natural-history specimens
were obtained.
In
all about
8,000 herbarium specimens were ob^
tained and over 90 cases, large and small, of living plants were s^fit
life
IfflPOBT SMITHSOKUN IN8«mTTIOir,
1916.
back to the United States.
The living collection is now on exhibition
at the New York Botanical Garden.
Bahia,
Brazil, was the
first place visited, which
city served as a base for
CollectlnjEi: trips into the interior of the State of Bahia.
One of the^^e was to the
town of Joazeiro, located about 300 miles north-northwest of Bahia, and lying
In a typical cactus desert, although this region
is traversed by the large Rio
Sao Francisco.
Notwithstanding the fact that
this stream
is
full the entire
year, little or no attempt is being made to use the water for irrigation purposes.
The country Is of that type known as “ catlnga,” and resembles in a remarkable
way the deserts of the West Indies ; indeed, the genera of plants are in many
cases the same, though the species are distinct.
Here was seen the “ carnuba,”
or wax palm, from which
is obtained the wax utilized
in making records for
phonographs.
Near
Joazeiro
is
the Horto
Florestal,
or
“forest
garden,”
a
Government exi)erlment station
in charge of Dr. Leo Zehntner, who rendered
great assistance in the study and collection of the cactuses of the region.
After making short stops at various stations
in returning to Bahia, a trip
was made to Machado Portella, a small town about 175 miles west and a little
south of Bahia, the terminus of a
little narrow-gauge railway.
This
is
also
a semiarld
region and proved
exceedingly
Interesting
botanically.
The next
side
trip was to Toca da
Onca,
still farther
south, on
the edge
of a
thick
tropical forest and in a region much more humid than the northern part of the
State.
About six weeks were then spent in beautiful Rio de Janeiro and
vicinity.
Here, even in the city
itself, a botanist finds a great deal to interest him, for
the trees are covered with epiphytic cactuses, mostly of the genus Rhipsalis,
and within the city
itself
rises the picturesque Corcovado, a
thickly wooded
mountain on whose
slopes
are
found many
rare
ferns and
tree-inhabiting
cactuses.
The Jardin Botanico in this city
is one of the finest
in the world.
Over 200 species of palms from all parts of the tropics are here grown
in the
open, besides many other rare tropical plants.
In another section of the city,
in a fine large park called the Quinta Boa Vista,
is the Museo Nacional, where
a number of rare cactuses were found in the herbarium.
From Rio de Janeiro an ascent of Itatlaya, the highest mountain in Brazil,
was made, and on the very
top, 10,000 feet above the sea, was found a small
cactus
with
beautiful
rose-colored
flowers.
Excursions were
also
made
to
Cabo Frio, to Ilha Grande, and to the islands in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro.
A
few days were spent in the Organ Mountains, near Petropolls, the summer home
Of the wealthiest classes of Rio de Janeiro.
This range of mountains merits a
more thorough biological exploration than has been hitherto undertaken.
Proceeding southward, a day was spent at Santos, Brazil, the world’s greatest
coffee center.
Buenos Aires was visited next, although but little time was spent
in the city.
Several visits were made to the fine suburb of La Plata, where
resides Dr. ‘Carlos Spegazzini, the leading authority on Argentine cactuses.
From Buenos Aires a
trip was taken across Argentina
to Mendoza, a
city
altnnted near the foot of the Andes, in a region favorable to the growth of sue-
«^lent plants.
From there a short excursion was made to Portrerillos, Argen-
tina, OB the railway which leads to Valparaiso,
Chile.
Many very Interesting
fianta were found in both these places.
In the dty of Cordova, Argentina, northwest of Buenos Aires, the cactus coh
lientthn of I>r4 Frederick Kurtz was found to contain some rare types, which were
Jtindly submitted for examination and study.
In this vicinity, m well as
in |he neighboring town of Cosquln, many cactuses were collected on the semi-
V
^
BBPOET OF /tea 8BCBETABT.
1ft
FOG-CLEARIKQ INVESTIGATIONS.
Aided by a grant of $2,000 from the Smithsonian Institution and a
grant from the Eesearch Corporation, a committee of electrical engi-
neering experts, under the general direction of Mr. F. G.
Cottrell,
continued during 1915 the investigations begun at San Francisco by
the University of California, in cooperation with the United States
Lighthouse Service, relative to the clearing of fog by means of elec-
trical precipitation.
In a preliminary report read at the first meet-
ing of the committee. Prof. Kyan, of Stanford University, says:
Science has established the fact that
all dust and fog particles in the open
atmosphere are electrified and subject to dispersion or precipitation.
It is ap-
parent, therefore, that a source of very high direct voltage, with
facilities for
control and
application, may be of inestimable value
in certain quarters and
seasons for clearing fog away from a street, from along a passenger railway, from
around the landing stages of a ferry, or, possibly, about or in advance of a ship
under headway at sea.
The clearing of fog differs from the treatment of smoke and fumes
in several respects, principally in that the smoke particles must be
actually deposited on the electrodes to bring about the desired effect,
whereas in treating fog
it
is only necessary to cause coalescence of
the minute particles into larger ones to give much greater transpar-
ency, even disregarding the more rapid settling of the larger drops.
However,
other
difficulties
arc
to be expected
in
the problem of
clearing
fog,
such
as
the
conditions
arising from
the
continual
immersion in the wet atmosphere.
What
is chiefly needed for an
intelligent conception of the problem
is actual first-hand experience
in handling these and other unusual conditions.
The most striking features of the apparatus used in these experi-
ments
are the Thordarson
350,000
to
1,000,000
volt transformers,
which I saw while visiting the San Francisco Exposition.
A great
deal was learned during the year about
the
electrical
technique of the problem, and although days of suitable fog condi-
tions were extremely scarce, on the rare occasions of actual trial very
perceptible
clearing
for
a
short
distance around the
high-tension
wires was obtained as the fog swept past.
EXPLORATIONS OF ANCIENT MAYA CUTES IN GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS.
Through the courtesy of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
the Smithsonian Institution has been enabled to participate in some
very
interesting
explorations
in
Central America.
Prof. W^ H#
Holmes, head
curator
of anthropology
in
the
National Museum,
gives the following general account of his work in that country
In February, 1916, owing to a generous graa^ of funds by the Smithsonian
Institution, the writer had the good fortune to become a member of the Oai>i
t4
annual mmtw£ Smithsonian iNsimmoN, me.
uegie Iiistitutioii*s archeological expedition to Central America under the able
direction of Sylvanus G. Morley.
The work of exploring and studying in detail
the remarkable remains of the ancient Mayan culture was vigorously carried
forward.
An especial object of the expedition was the discovery of additional
inscriptions embodying glyphic dates, for it is the dates, now read with facility,
which furnish tlie skeleton of Maya history.
Among the ancient
cities
visited while the writer was associated with the
expedition
were
Antigua,
the
ancient
Spanish
capital
of
the
kingdom
of
Guatemala, built on the
site of a prehistoric
city
; the extensive ruins of the
ancient
city
of
Ixiiuache,
near
the
site
occupied
to-day
by
the
capital
of
Guatemala, Guatemala City
; the ruined city of Quirigua in eastern Guatemala,
the subject of much
scientific interest during recent years; and the ruins of
Copan, in Honduras, perhaps the most remarkable of
all the American monu-
ments of antiquity.
Especial
attention was given by
the writer
to the
collection
of data and
drawings
to be
utilized
in preparing panoramic views
of
the
several
cities
visited, and every effort was made to obtain information regarding the techni-
cal methods employed by the ancient builders.
The quarries from which the
Stone was obtained were too deeply buried
in
tropical vegetation
to yield up
their story without extensive excavation and the methods employed in dressing
and carving the stone remain in large part undetermined.
Certain chipped and
ground stone implements that could have served in dressing the stones used in
building were found in numbers, but the story of the carving, especially of the
very deep carving of the monuments of Copan, remains unrevealed.
Although
it
Is thought that stone
tools may have been equal
to the great
task,
it
is
believed by some
that without bronze
the work
could
not have been
done.
There are, however, no traces of the use of bronze by the Central Americans.
The monuments are on a grand scale and great skill and excellent taste are
manifest
in
their
embellishment,
the whole
giving
evidence
of
a
state
of
culture advancement unsurpassed In any other part of aboriginal America.
STUDY OF NOCTURNAL RADIATION.
Several grants from the Hodgkins fund have been made to Prof.
Anders Angstrom during the past few years to enable him to carry
on researches on the radiation of the atmosphere, particularly noc-
turnal
radiation.
The
results
of
observations made by him
in
Algeria
in
1912 and
in
California
in
1913
were embodied
in
a
pamphlet published by the Institution in 1915.
In this pamphlet he
summarizes his work as follows
The main results and conclusions that will be found in this paper are the
fohowing.
They relate to the radiation emitted by the atmosphere to a radiat-
ing aurface at a lower altitude, and to the loss of heat of a surface by radiation
toward space and toward the atmosphere at higher altitudes.
I. The variations of the total temperature radiation of the atmosphere are
at low altitudes
(less than 4,500 m.) principally caused by variations in tem-
|)0*rdtiire and humidity.
^
The total radiation received from the atmosphere is very nearly propor*
^<|(nal to the fourth power of the temperature at the place of observation.
' III The radiation is dependent on the humidity in such a way that an in-
in the water-vapor content of the atmosphere will Increase Its radiation.
|t#«»ndence of the radiation on the water content has been expressed hy
H #i;panantial law.
mPotT Of Tsm momTAm.
15
IV. An
Increase
in
tlie water-vapor pressure
will cause a decrease
In
the
effective radiation from the earth to every point of the sky.
The fractional
decrease Is much larger for large zenith angles than for small ones.
V. The total radiation which would be received from a perfectly dry atmos-
cal.
phere would be about
a temperature of 20° C. at the place of
observation.
VI. The radiation of the upper, dry atmosphere would be about 50 per cent
of that of a black body at the temperature of the place of observation.
VII. There is no evidence of maxima or minima of atraosplieric radiation dur-
ing the
niglit that can not be explained by the influence of temperature and
humidity conditions.
VIII. There are indications that the radiation during the daytime
is subject
to the same laws that hold for the radiation during the nighttime.
IX. An increase in altitude causes a decrease or an increase in the value of
the effective radiation of a blackened body toward the sky, dependent upon the
value of the temperature gradient and of the humidity gradient of the atmos-
phere.
At about 3,000 meters altitude of the radiating body the effective radia-
tion generally has a maximum.
An increase of the humidity or a decrease of
the temperature gradient of the atmosphere tends
to
shift
this maximum
to
higher altitudes.
X. The
effect of clouds
is very variable.
Low and dense cloud banks cut
down the outgoing eftectne radiation
of a blackened surface
to
about
0.015
calorie per cm,* per minute
; in the case of high and thin clouds the radiation is
reduced by only 10 to 20 per cent.
XI. The effect of haze upon the effective radiation to the sky
is almost
in-
appreciable when no clouds or real fog are formed.
Observations in Algeria
in 1012 and in California in 1913 show that the great atmospheric disturbance
caused by the eruption of Mount Katmai in Alaska, in the former year, can only
have reduced the nocturnal radiation by less than 3.0 per cent.
XII. Conclusions are drawn in regard to the radiation from large water sur-
faces, and the probability
is indicated that this radiation is almost constant at
different temperatures, and consequently in different latitudes
also.
Another grant was made to Prof. Angstrom in October, 1915, for a
study
of
nocturnal
radiation
in
the
far
north
during
the
long
Arctic night.
Concerning this study he wrote to the Institution on
February 16, 1916, as follows:
Through
this
grant
I
have
been
able
to make
observations
on
nocturnal
radiation during the Arctic night in the north of Sweden,
at a place named
Abisko,
at about
68°
30'
latitude.
The
observations
were
extended
during
about a month
(Jan. 1-26) and were obtained under various atmospheric con-
ditions.
One
night
observations were
taken
at
a
temperature
of —30°
C,
(—20° F.), when consequently the absolute humidity must have been very low.
In
general,
these observations confirm the views expressed
in my paper ^ in
regard to the influence of temperature and humidity upon the nocturnal radia-
tion and the radiation of the atmosphere.
In connection with the named measurements observations were also made oh
the cooling of snow surfaces under the temperature of the surrounding nlr as 9
consequence of nocturnal radiation.
As was to be expected, a linear relation
wns found to exist between the radiation and the named temperature difference.
1 Smithsonian Mtoc.
Coll.» Vol. 65, No.
3,
1916.
18
AmSTUAI, BBPOBT SMMHSOWlAJi: INSEmmON.
1919.
I hope in the neai^ future to get an opportunity to extend these important
observations on the connection existing betwe«i radiation and the cooling of
various
materials
existing on
the
earth’s
surface.
The
question
Is one
of
scientific as well ns of practical agricultural Interest.
HARRIMAN TRUST FUND.
Dr. C. Hart Merriam, research associate of the Institution, aided
by the income of a trust fund established for the purpose by Mrs.
E. H. Harriman, has continued his zoological investigations, par-
ticularly the study of the big bears of North America.
RESEARCH CORPORATION.
The Research Corporation was established in 1912 under the New
York State laws with the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
as one of the directors and
a member of the executive committee.
The primary object of the organization was to develop certain pat-
ents
described
in previous
reports which had been
offered
to the
Institution by Dr. F. G. Cottrell but which could not be administered
directly by the Institution.
Other inventions and patents have since
been acquired by
the corporation, and through
royalties from
the
installation and utilization of these patents a considerable fund has
been created and the income therefium will be devoted to the ad-
vancement of technical and scientific investigation and experimenta-
tion through the agency
of the Smithsonian Institution and such
other scientific and educational institutions and societies as piay be
selected by the directors.
The
Cottrell patents
relate to the precipitation of dust, smoke,
and chemical fumes by the use of
electrical
currents.
Successful
commercial installations have already been made on the following
fumes
(a)
Silver fumes from electrolytic slimes of copper refinery;
(&)
tin fumes from detinning process residues;
(c)
hydrochloric
acid
fumes from cleaning vats in electrogalvanizing plant;
(d)
tin and
zinc fumes from waste metal recovery plant;
(e) ‘‘low bleach” from
electroljdiic plant;
(/) sulphuric acid mist from contact acid plant;
(g) lead fumes from copper converters;
(A) fumes from roasting of
zinc ores ; and
(i) dust from bufing wheels and from machines for
powdering slate.
NATIONAL. RESEARCH COUNCIL.
At its annual meeting in Washington in April, 1916, the National
A<5idemy of Sciences voted unanimously to offer its services to the
President of the United States in the interest of national prepared-
and it was suggested that the academy “ might advantageously
MFOBT OF CTtl SBOBEl?ABy.
17
organize the scientific resources of educational and research institu-
tions in the interest of national security and welfare.”
The President
accepted the offer and requested the academy to proceed with the
^organization.
An organizing committee was accordingly appointed,
and on June 19 the council of the academy, acting upon recommenda-
tions of that committee, voted—
That there be formed a National Resaarch Council whose purpose shall be to
briH^ into cooperation existing governmental, educational, industrial, and other
research
organizations
with
the
object
of
encouraging
th«
Investigation
of
natural phenomena, the increased use of scientific research in the development
of American industries, the employment of scientific methods in strengthening
the national defense, and such other applications of science as will promote the
national security and welfare.
That the council be composed of leading American Investigators and engineers,
representing the Army, Navy, Smithsonian
Institution, and
various
scientific
bureaus of the Government
; educational institutions and research endowments
and the research divisions of industrial and manufacturing establishments.
After the close of the
fiscal year the National Research Council
was fully organized, the President of the United States appointing
the representatives of the Government and authorizing the appoint-
ment of other members by the president of the National Academy of
Sciences.
OFFICERS AND EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
Chairman,
George
B.
Halee;
vice chairmen,
Charles
D.
Walcott and Gano
Dunn;
secretary,
Gary
T.
Hutchinson;
executive
committee,
John
J.
Carty
(chairman), William H. Welch (ex officio), George E. Hale
(ex officio), Edwin
G. Conklin, Gano Dunn, Arthur A. Noyes, Raymond
Pearl, Michael
I. Pupin,
S. W. Stratton, V. C. Vaughan (others to be appointed).
MEMBERS OF NATIONAB RESEARCH COUNCIL.
Dr,
L. H. Baekeland,
Yonkers, N.
Y.
Dr. Marston T. Bogert, professor of organic chemistry, Columbia University,
Dr. John A. Brashear, Allegheny, Pa.
Dr. John J. Carty, chief engineer, American Telephone & Telegraph Co,
Dr.
Russell H.
Chittenden,
director,
Sheffield
Scientific
School, Yale Uni-
versity.
Dr. Edwin G. Conklin, professor of aoology, Princeton University.
Dr. John M. Coulter, professor of botany, University of Chicago.
Brigadier General William Crozier, Chief of Ordnance, U.
S. Army.
Mr. Gano Dunn, president The J. G. White Engineering Corporation.
Dr. Simon Plexner, director. Rockefeller Medical Institute.
Major General William Crawford Gorgas, Surgeon General, U.
S. Army.
Dr. W. F. M. Goss, dean of engineering, University of Illinois,
Dr, George E. Hale, director, Mount Wilson Solar Observatory.
Mr. Clemens HerscRel, president American Society of Civil Engineers,
Prof. William H. Holmes, head curator of anthropology. United States Na-
tional Museum.
Dr. W. W. Keen, president American Philosophical
Society.
Mr. Van H. Manning, Director U. S. Bureau of Mines.
,Prof. Charles F. Marvin, Chief United States Weather Bureau,
18
ANNUAL BffiPOB® 8MITH8UNUN INSTOTUTION,
1910.
Prol A. A. Mlchelson, director, Ryerson Physical Laboratory, University of
Chicago.
Dr. Robert A. Millikan, professor of physics, University of Chicago.
Dr. Arthur
A.
Noyes,
director,
research
laboratory
of
physical
chemistry,
Massachusetts
Institute
of Technology.
Dr. Raymond Pearl, director, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.
Prof. E. C. Pickering, director, Harv4ard College Observatory.
Dr. Michael
I.
Pupin,
professor
of electro-mechanics, Columbia
University.
Mr. Charles F. Rand, president United Engineering Society.
Prof. Theodore W. Richards, director of the Wolcott Gibbs Momoidal Labora-
tory, Harvard University.
Mr.
C.
E.
Skinner,
director,
research
laboratory, Westinghonse
Electric &
Manufacturing Co.
Lieutenant Colonel George O. Squier, Chief of Aviation, U. S. Army.
Dr.
S. W. Stratton, Director U.
S. Bureau of Standards.
Mr. Ambrose Swasey,
Cleveland,
Ohio.
Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, Chief Constructor U.
S. Navy.
Dr. Elihu Thomson, Swampscott, Mass.
Dr. C. R. Van Hise, president of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science.
Dr.
Victor
Clarence Vaughan,
director,
medical
research
laboratory.
Uni-
versity of Michigan.
Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Dr. William H. Welch, president of the National Academy of Sciences.
Dr. W. R. W’hitney, director of the research laboratory, General Electric Co.
The
council
will be gradually enlarged by
the addition
of new
members who are to serve as chairmen of important committees or
who are otherwise to engage in some special work.
To carry out the work of the council committees are being ap-
pointed, including
{a) committee on rules and procedure;
(5) com-
mittee on
publication;
(c)
committee on
research
in
educational
institutions to consider general plans for the promotion of research
in educational
institutions and to arrange for
local committees
in
each institution;
(d) committee on promotion of industrial research
with functions in the field somewhat similar to those of the preceding
committee;
(e) committee on a national census of research to pre-
pare a national census of equipment for research, of the men engaged
in
it, and of lines of investigation pursued in cooperating Govern-
ment bureaus, educational institutions, research foundations, and in-
dustrial research laboratories.
It has also been decided to form joint
committees in various branches of science in cooperation with the
corresponding national scientific societies.
THE LANGLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY.
In view of the organization of the National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics, provided for by act of Congress
. approved march
8, 1915,
it has appeared unnecessary at present to proceed further
toward the permanent establishment of the proposed Langley labora-
BffiPOBT OF THE SEOEETAEY,
19
tory.
As secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, I was appointed
a member of the National Advisory Committee and elected chairman
of its executive committee, and in this connection I have been able
to cooperate toward the solution of many important problems per-
taining to the science and art of aviation.
One of the chief advan-
tages already being realized by the establishment of the advisory
committee is a closer cooperation between the Army and Navy and
other Federal departments and coordination of work in the general
advancement of aviation.
The Institution published during the year
two pamphlets on
aeronautics,
one,
a
series
of
reports on wind
tunnel experiments, and the other on “Dynamical stability of aero-
planes,” both of them by J. C. Hunsaker and associates.
PUBLICATIONS.
The publications of the
Institution proper include
three
series:
Smithsonian
Contributions
to Knowledge;
Smithsonian
Miscellan-
eous Collections; and Smithsonian Annual Reports.
Under the di-
rection of the Institution there are also issued the Annual Reports,
Proceedings, and Bulletins of the United States National Museum,
including the Contributions fi^om the National Herbarium; Annual
Reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology; and
the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory.
All of these
series
except the “ Contributions ” and “ Collections ” are printed through
annual Congressional allotments.
In all of these series there was pub-
lished during the year a total of 8,498 pages and 623 plates of illus-
trations.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—This series is intended
to show results of original research constituting important contribu-
tions to knowledge.
One memoir of the series was in press at the
close of the year giving the results of an extended study on the com-
parative histology of the femur.
* Smithsonian
Miscellaneous
Collections.—^Twenty-two
papers,
forming parts of five volumes of this series, were issued, among them
three papers on Cambrian geology by your secretary.
In this series
the annual exploration pamphlet was issued, giving brief accounts
of
the explorations and
field work
of the Institution
in geology,
biology, and anthropology, covering every continent on the globe,
and illustrated by 141 photographs taken in the field by the scien-
tists themselves.
The Smithsonian Physical Tables, which together
with the Mathematical and Geographical Tables have become stand-
ard works of reference in educational and research institutions, are
published in this series.
The sixth revised edition of the Physical
Tables, issued during the preceding year, was quickly exhausted,
making it necessary to print additional copies.
Still another edition
is now in press, indicating the constant demand for this work.
AlsrKUAL KBPORT SMITHSOKUK IKSTITITTIOK,
191G.
Smiths&mm report.^
complete volume of the 1914 report was
received from the printer and distributed at the beginning of the
year.
Material for the 1915 report was sent to press in December,
and was completed just before the fiscal year closed.
In the general
appendix are 22 papers showing recent progress in various branches
of science, including “ The utilization of solar energy,” “ Evidences
of primitive Jife,” by your secretary, “ Heredity,” “ Linguistic areas
in Europe,” and “ Recent developments in telephony and telegraphy.”
The custom of printing special editions in pamphlet form of papers
in the general appendix has proved of great advantage; in several
cases there has been a demand for a very large number of copies,
which was especially noticeable in connection with an article on “ The
value of birds to man ” in the 1913 report.
Special pvhlications.—Opinion 67 of the Opinions of the Inter-
national Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was
issued
as a
special publication. A special paper by Chester G. Gilbert of the
National Museum, on “ Sources of nitrogen compounds in the United
States” attracted considerable attention.
Among other conclusions,
he states:
The
evolution
of
a
practicable
process
for
the
oxidation
of
by-product
ammonia
to render present
resources
available, with
the development
of an
atmospheric nitrogen fixation output by the Cyanamide process carefully timed
to meet growing demands
following a reduction
in
the
retail
price of
nitro-
genous
fertilizer, would appear to be the desirable governmental procedure as
being the one least liable to disastrous consequences.
National Mmeum pvhlicatiom.—The National Museum issued an
annual report, 2 volumes of the proceedings, 52 separate papers form-
ing parts of these and other volumes, and 4 bulletins.
Bureau
of
Ethnology
publications-—^The Bureau
of American
Ethnology published 2 annual reports, separates of 4 accompanying
papers in these reports, and 2 bulletins.
Reports of historical and patriotic societies-—The annual reports
of the American Historical Association and the National Society of
the Daughters of the American Revolution were submitted
to the
Institution and communicated to Congress in accordance with the
charters of these organizations.
Allotments for printing-—^Most of the allotment to the Institution
aud its branches for printing was used during the year, though
it
was impracticable to complete a large amount of material in press
at the close of the year in the National Museum and Bureau of
.American Ethnology series.
The allotments for the year ending June 30, 1917, are as follows:
Por the Smithsonian Institution : For printing and binding the annual
flirts of the Board of Regents, with general appendices, the edi-
tiidhs of which shall not exceed 10,000 copies
^10, 000
BEPOBT OF THE BBOBErABY.
21
For the annual reports of the National Museum, with general appen-
dices, aiid for printing labels and blanks, and for the Bulletins and
Proceedings of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not
exceed 4,000 copies, and binding, in half morocco or material not more
expensive,
scientific books, and pamphlets presented to or acquired
by the National Museum library
$37, 500
For the annual reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the bureau
21, 000
For miscellaneous printing and binding:
International Exchanges
200
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature
100
National Zoological Park
200
Astrophysical Observatory
200
For the anmial report of the American Historical Association
7, 000
Total
76, 200
Committee on printing and pvklication .—All manuscripts submit-
ted for publication by the Institution or its branches have, as usual,
been referred to the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and
publication.
During the year 18 meetings were held and 96 manu-
scripts examined and passed upon.
The personnel of the committee
was as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology,
Jfational Museum, acting chairman; Dr. C. G. Abbot, director of the
Astrophysical Observatory ; Dr. Frank Baker, superintendent of the
National Zoological Park ; Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the Smith-
sonian
Institution, secretary of the committee; Mr.
F.
TT. Hodge,
ethnologist
in charge of the Bureau
of American ethnology; and
Dr.
George
P.
Merrill,
head
curator
of
geology,
United
States
National Museum.
LIBRARY.
The accumulation of a
scientific library has always been an im-
portant phase of the Institution’s work in the “ increase and diffusion
of knowledge,” and the collection has increased in size from year to
year until at present it numbers well over half a million titles.
The
accessions of the year aggregated about 15,000 books and pamphlets.
The main Smithsonian library is assembled in the Library of Con-
gress and
is known
as the Smithsonian
deposit.
In addition the
Institution maintains the Smithsonian
office
library, the National
Museum library, the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
the Astrophysical Observatory library, and the National Zoological
Park
library, besides some 85 specialized
sectional
libraries main-
tained in various offices for the use of the scientific staff of the Insti-
ttitidn and
its branches.
The Smithsonian
office library contains a
collection of books relating to art, the employees’ library, and an exten-
sive aeronautical library.
This collection of aeronautical works has
been notably
increased by
additional
gifts from
Dr.
Alexander
78830*’—BM 1916
3
22
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Graham Bell, consisting of 83 books and 87 portfolios of periodicals,
and by a number of reference works from the library of Major
Baden-Powell,
The
National Museum library received
4,840
accessions, among
them 207 titles contributed by Dr. William Healey Dali to his col-
lection of works relating to mollusks; and the
scientific library of
Dr. Theodore Nicholas
Gill, numbering about 3,000 volumes, pre-
sented to the Institution by his brother, Mr. Herbert A. Gill, which
is
a
valuable
addition
to
the natural
history
series,
especially
in
ichthyology.
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES AND EXPOSITIONS.
SKCOND PAN AMEKICAN SCIENTITIC CONGRESS.
The Second Pan American Scientific Congress, which held its ses-
sions in Washington from December 27, 1915, to January
8, 1916,
was the
fifth of a series of
scientific congresses, the
first three of
which
included only
the Latin American
countries.
At
the
first
strictly Pan American Congress, held in Peru in 1908, in which the
United States was invited to participate,
it was unanimously voted
to hold the next meeting in Washington.
The congress held
its
inaugural session at 10 a. m., December 27, at Memorial Continental
Hall, and business sessions and social affairs were arranged for every
day thereafter until January 8.
The following are the sections into
which the congress was divided;
I. Authiopologv
II
Astronomy,
Meteorology, and
Seismology
III
Conservation of Natural Resources, Agriculture, Irrigation, and Forestry.
IV. Education.
V
Engineering
VI. International Law, Public Law, and Jurisprudence.
VII. Mining and Metallurgy, Economic Geology, and Applied Chemistry.
VIII. Public Health and Medical Science.
IX. Transportation, Commerce, Finance, and Taxation.
At the meetings of these sections a great number of papers of
scientific and economic importance were read.
The Institution proper was represented in the congress by your
secretary and Prof. W. H. Holmes, head curator of anthropology,
United States National Museum, as delegates.
Of the branches of
the Institution, the Bureau of American Ethnology was represented
by the ethnologist in charge, Mr.
F. W. Hodge, and Dr.
J. W.
Fewkes, delegates; and the Astrophysical Observatory by Dr. C. G.
Abbot, delegate, and Mr. F. E. Fowle, alternate. A reception was
held for the Latin American delegates by the Board of Begents and
BEPOET OP THE SEOBETABY.
23
the Secretary of the Institution in the new building of the National
Museum on the evening of December 29.
This highly successful and important congress was attended by
approximately 100 official delegates from the 21 American Eepublics.
and 60 by special invitation, or representing societies Or universities.
The United States was represented by approximately 1,000 unofficial
delegates or members.
NINETEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS.
The
Nineteenth
International
Congress
of
Americanists, which
was to have been held at Washington on the invitation of the Smith-
sonian Institution in October,
1914, was postponed on
account of
the war in Europe until a more favorable time for an international
gathering.
When
it became evident that a fully attended meeting
would be out of the question in the near future,
it was decided to
hold the congress in affiliation with the section of anthropology of
the Second Pan American
Scientific Congress and jointly with the
American
Anthropological
Association,
the
American
Folk-Lore
Society, the American Historical Association, and the Archaeologi-
cal Institute of America.
In consequence the date of the meeting
was definitely fixed for December 27-31, 1915.
Mr. John W.
Foster, ex-Secretary
of
State, former minister to
Mexico and Russia, ex-president of the Washington Society of the
Archaeological
Institute,
etc., served
as president
of the congress.
The honorary presidents were the Secretaiy of the Smithsonian In-
stitution;
Mr.
Clarence
B.
Moore,
of
Philadelphia;
and
Prof.
William H. Holmes,
of
the
National Museum.
Mr.
Clarence
F.
Norment, of Washington, served as treasurer, and Dr. Ales Hrdlicka,
of the National Museum, as secretary of the Congress.
There was
a long
list of honoiary
a ice presidents, a general
(honorary) com-
mittee,
associate foreign
secretaries, and an organizing committee
(with the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution as chairman).
Official representati\e& of foreign Governments were in attendance
from Austria, Chile, Cuba, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Guate-
mala, Nicaragua, Peru, Russia, Sweden, and Uruguay, and about
100 official delegates from various learned societies and universities
in the United States and foreign countries.
The headquarters of the congress were at the National Museum,
and most of the sessions were held there.
Nearly
100
papei's
relating
to the study
of somatology,
arche-
ology, ethnology, folklore, history, and linguistics were read at the
sessions of the congress, among them papers by several members of
the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology and of the National
Museum.
24
ANNUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
PANAMA-PACmO INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION.
Only s very small allotment was allowed the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and its branches from the congressional appropriation for Gov-
ernment exhibits at San Francisco in 1915.
It was possible, how-
ever, to make a small display showing in a general way the scope and
activities of the Institution, and an ethnological exhibit illustrating
the
characteristics and culture status of typical primitive peoples.
The exhibits were located in the Liberal Arts Palace, covering a floor
space of about 6,000 square feet.
The exhibit of the Institution proper consisted of a series of photo-
graphs of its founder, James Smithson, the four secretaries, pictures
of the building and departments, and a complete set of its publica-
tions.
There
was
also
displayed
an
exact
reproduction
of
the
Langley experimental steam flying machine which performed the
epoch-making flights over the Potomac Eiver, May 6, 1896, together
with photographs taken at the time.
T^angley’s success as a pioneer
in aviation was commemorated on the Column of Progress at the
exposition (pi. 1) by a tablet with the following inscription:
To commemorate science’s ^ift of aviation to the world through Samuel Pler-
pont Langley, an American.
The
princiiial exhibit by the National Museum dealt with eth-
nology, or the scientific study of the races of men, their origin, distri-
bution,
relations, and
culture.
It included four family
lay-figure
groups, the Eskimo of Alaska, the Dyak of the East Indies, the
Zulu-Kaffir of South Africa, and the Carib of South America; also
village groups in miniature illustrating the houses and house life of
various peoples, together with
cases of specimens relating
to the
primitive arts and industries.
The remaining departments or branches of the Institution, includ-
ing the International Exchange
Service, the Bureau of American
Ethnology, the Astrophysical Observatory, the Zoological Park, the
Hodgkins fund, the Aerodynamical Laboratory, and the Kegional
Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, were
represented by charts, photographs, maps, instruments, and publi-
cations illustrative of their various functions.
Mr. W. de
C.
Eavenel,
administrative
assistant
of the United
States National Museum and secretary to the exposition board, acted
aii the representative of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches,
with the
assistance
of Dr. Walter Hough, curator of ethnology,
United States National Museum.
The exhibits were enumerated in detail in a descriptive catalogue
y 12I3 pa<5fes.
B^IPOET OP THE SEOEBTAEY.
26
The family groups illustrated the most effective museum method
of presenting ethnological
material.
The catalogue
describes the
groups as follows
The Eskimo family group comprises seven life-size figures clad in the native
costumes and colored according to
life, engaged in the usual summer vocations
and amusements.
At the
left a woman
is cooking meat in a primitive pottery
vessel, and another woman is putting dried fish in the storehouse.
In the back-
ground a man with a sinew-backed bow is watching a youth practicing with his
sling.
On the right another man
is seated on the ground carving a wooden
dish with a curved knife, and two little girls are playing with their native toys.
The structure
in the back of
the case
is a representation of the storehouse
commonly used by the western Eskimo.
The dwelling groups show the houses
to be dome-shaped, made of earth piled over a cobwork of timbers erected
in
an excavation in the ground.
In the summer a passageway gives entrance, but
in the winter a tunnel is built. A bench on which the people sleep runs around
the wall on the inside of the house.
The cooking within the dwelling
is done
in a pottery vessel suspended over a lamp.
The group representing the Znln-Kaffir and Bantu
tribes, which
live in the
semiarid southern extremity of the African comment,
depicts the natives as
physically strong and energetic and not so dark as the true negro.
This race is
superior
in
military and
social
organizations and compares favorably
in
the
arts and industries with other African families.
The group shows a section of
a house with a doorway, a
fireplace on which a woman
IkS cooking mush, a
woman dipping beer from a large pottery jar, a woman from the
field with a
hoe, a water
carrier with a jar on her head, a man playing a marimba or
xylophone, and a boy
driving a
goat.
The natives
are represented
as
they
existed some years
ago, before they were affected by contact with
the white
man.
Other cases include models of the native African dwellings and examples
of the handiwork of these people, an Interesting feature of which
is the primi-
tive ironwork in which many African tribes were higlily skilled.
The next group takes the exposition visitor from Africa across the Atlantic
to northern South America, where dwells the Carib
in
the
forested
tropical
interior of British Guiana.
Some of the tribes of
this great race have only
recently been visited by white men.
Here is to be seen a Carib warrior with
his blowgun,
a woman and
a
child
squeezing
cassava
in
a
primitive
lever
press, another woman decorating a tree gourd with characteristic interlocking
designs, and a child playing with a pet parrot.
A hammock swung between two
house posts represents the form
of bed
in general use
in ancient as well
as
modern Latin America.
Among
the
articles manufactured by
these
natives
examples
of ceremonial
objects and
articles
of personal adornment
are
ex-
hibited, Including headdresses, earrings, belts, arm bands, necklaces, and capes.
A fourth family group represents the Dyaks of the island of Borneo.
They
are expert house and bout
builders and
skilled
in
the
use
of
the blowgun.
Bice,
sago,
tropical
fruits,
monkeys,
wild
pigs,
and
other game,
yield them
subsistence.
The men are warlike, and are
still, to some extent, head-hunters,
their weapons
being
spears,
short
swords,
and blowguns with
poison-tipped
darts.
The Dyak family group
is represented on
the porch of a communal
house, carrying on various occupations.
A woman is pounding rice in a wooden
niortar. while another
Is represented as bringing
in a basket of rice on her
back, a third
is making a basket, a man armed with a bayoneted bjowgan
Is
approaching with a freshly killed monkey, and two children are shown playing
Cat’s cradle, a popular native game.
26
AN'lSrXTAL RBPOjaT SMITHSONtAK INSTITUTION,
1910,
The museum exhibits also included a series of objects illustrating
the development of six kinds of implements and appliances of the
arts—apparatus for fire making, the jackknife, the saw, the spindle,
the shuttle, and the ax.
Pictures of othei* exhibits in biology, geol-
ogy, and anthropology in the National Museum were shown by a
‘‘ stereomotorgraph ” machine.
The Smithsonian Institution was awarded a grand prize, under
the head of scientific investigation, for the collective exhibit by the
Institution proper, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Museum,
the Astrophysical
Observatory, and
the Bureau
of
International
Catalogue of
Scientific Literature;
a grand prize
for the balloon
pyrheliometer designed and exhibited by the Astrophysical Observa-
tory
; a gold medal for the
Group of elk ” shown by the Museum
and
a
silver medal for investigations for the betterment of
social
and economic conditions.
The balloon pyrheliometer,
as
its name
implies,
is an instrument for measuring the heat of the sun.
It
is
carried aloft by a pair of rubber balloons until one of them bursts,
when
it gradually descends to the earth, supported by the
other.
Records have thus been obtained at heights of over 9 miles.
PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION AT BAN DIEGO.
Although no appropriation was made by Congress
for exhibits
at San Diego in
1915,
it was possible for the Institution, through
cooperation with the exposition authorities, to arrange an interesting
exhibit
of
physical
anthropology
and
one
illustrating American
aboriginal industries.
These exhibits were described
in my report
of last year.
At the
close of the San Francisco Exposition
a number of the
Smithsonian exhibits were transferred to San Diego, this fair having
been extended over another year.
These exhibits were located in the
Science of Man Building, and included four large cases containing
the family groups of natives from different quarters of the globe, as
described above, and some cases containing specimens of their arts
and industries, together with several small family dwelling groups.
NATIONAL MUSEUM.
The report of Assistant Secretary Rathbun, appended hereto, re-
views in detail the operations of the National Museum.
The total
number of new specimens acquired was 243,733; about one-half per-
tained to the department of zoology, about one-third were botanical
And paleontological, and the
rest were additions to the anthropo^
logic0 and
other
collections.
Among
the
ethnological
additipm
of special
interest may
be
noted
a
series
of
costumes,
weapons/
and
utensils from
British
Guiana; many
objects
from
Celebes,
EEPOET OP' THE SEORETAEY.
27
Borneo, and the Philippines; and a large collection from aboriginal
mounds and ruin sites in Ut?th*
To the division of American his-
tory the additions included china and glassware and other objects
once the property of General and Martha Washington.
The memor-
ials of Gen. Sherman, which had long been in the custody of the
Museum, have now been pre^nted by his son, Hon. P. Tecumseh
Sherman, and the Cromwell collection of 20/)00 domestic and for-
eign postage stamps, deposited some years ago, became the absolute
property of the Museum on the death of Mr. Cromwell in Septem-
ber, 1915.
To the interesting collection of historical costumes there have been
added costumed
figures representing
four
hostesses
of
the White
House, Mrs. James Monroe, Mrs. John Quincy Adams, Mrs. Abraham
Lincoln, and Mrs. James
It. McKee.
By the will of Dr. Shepard there was bequeathed an important
collection
of
meteorites which had been
in the
possession
of the
Museum for a number of years.
In the department of biology the additions were representative of
many parts of the world, including mammals,
birds, and
reptiles
from Celebes and Borneo, collected through the long-continued gen-
erosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott ; and like collections from Siam, Kash-
mir, northern China, and Manchuria.
Part of the
results of the
Smithsonian
biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone
wass a
collection of about 18,000 fishes.
The Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington deposited some
8,000 botanical specimens gathered by Dr.
J. N. Pose in Brazil and Argentina.
Mr. Kathbun enumerates many other interesting objects recently
received, particularly those pertaining to the industrial arts, a depart-
ment which has been very greatly developed since the removal of the
natural history exhibits to the new building, yet the proper installa-
tion of series illustrating the many branches of the arts and indus-
tries
is already seriously hindered through lack of space.
It
is in
this department in particular that the Museum manifests one of its
principal functions.
The exhibits are so selected and so installed as
to teach visitors how things are made and what they are made of,
and not so much who makes the best articles or how they should be
packed to meet the demands of trade.
And yet while these collec-
tions first of all educate the public they also teach the manufacturer
and therefore are of decided economic importance.
One of the lead-
ing New England manufacturers not long
since,
'while examining
the
exhibits
in
his own
industrial
line,
remarked,
“this
helps
business.”
I can not too strongly urge the need of still greater advancement
in this department of Smithsonian activities.
The time is fast ap-
AK2Sr0AL BEPORt SMITHSONIAN IN^TtTTIOK,
1916.
proaching when
there
should be
constructed
in
the
Smithsonian
reservation
another new
building,
a Museum
of
Industrial
Arts.
The collections are here and in many respects they surpass similar
collections in Europe or elsewhere.
The splendid new building in
which the natural history collections are now so adequately housed
has
offered
opportunity
for the development
of
that department
beyond the highest expectations.
Like progress could be made with a
Museum of Industrial Arts.
European countries have such
struc-
tures, one is needed hero in Washington.
It is an economic question.
Commercial museums have
their
place
for
developing
trade and
commerce, and are of much value for such purpose, but the develop-
ment
of
the
artistic
taste
of
the
public
through
an
educational
Museum of Industrial Arts is of even greater importance.
It would
stimulate inventive skill and advance eveiy art and every industry.
The exhibits illustrating textile industry and mineral technologj^ in
particular are very complete, consisting of specimens of raw mate-
rials, machinery used in manufacture, and the finished products.
To the National Gallery of Art there has been added a collection
of 82 drawings in pencil, pen, etc., by contemporary French artists,
a gift from citizens of France to the peo])le of
tlie United States;
also an oil i^ainting of Abraham Lincoln, by Story, the gift of Mrs.
E. H. Harriman.
The paintings in the National Gallery collection
are bf much popular interest and of great artistic and intrinsic value,
but they are crowded in temporary quarters in a building designed
for purposes other than a gallery of art.
During the last year Mr. Freer made 535 additions to his collection,
including 23 paintings and sculptures by American artists, and over
500
oriental
objects consisting of paintings,
pottery, bronzes, and
jades.
The entire collection now aggregates about 5,340 items.
The auditorium in the new building has been the meeting place of
a number of scientific bodies and of international congresses; and in
the foyer opportunity was offered for several special exhibitions.
In cooperating with schools and
colleges there were
distributed
some 7,000 duplicate specimens of minerals,
fossils, mollusks, and
other objects, classified and labeled for teaching purposes.
The number of visitors to the new building averaged 1,012 on week
days and 1,240 on Sundays.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
The Bureau of American Ethnology is under the direct charge of
Mr. F. W. Hodge, whose detailed report
is appended hereto.
The
operat;ions of the bureau include
field work and special researches
pf|rtaining to the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii.
With the cooperation of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation, the Nacoochee mound in Georgia was excavated and
EEPOKT OF ME SEORETABY.
29
proved to have been used both for domicile and for burial purposes.
In the mound were found a large number of smoking pipes and a
great amount of broken pottery.
In New Mexico, also in cooperation
with the Museum of the American Indian, plans were made
for
excavating the historic pueblo of Ilawikuh in the Ziuli Valley south-
west of Zufii pueblo.
Among the most interesting iield operations
during
the year were
those by
Dr.
Fewkes
in
the Mesa
Verde
National Park, Colo., where he unearthed a type of structure archi-
tecturally different from any hitherto found in the Southwest.
The
excavation was carried on under the joint auspices of the bureau
and the Department of the Interior, and the building, which Dr.
Fevl^es has named the Sun Temple,
is
described
in
a pamphlet
published by that department.
The Sun Temple is a large D-shaped
structure, the longest wall of which measures 131 feet 7 inches.
The
walls are 2 to 5 feet in thickness and show structural qualities that
compare favorably with any building of this type north of Mexico.
Dr. Fewkes is of tlie opinion that though the building was used pri-
marily as a place of worship,
it
Avas intended
also for a place of
refuge in case of attack.
In the Northwest,
in\’estigations were continued
b}^ Dr. Frach-
tenberg on
the
languages,
history, and
traditions
of
the
various
Indian tribes of Oregon and Washington.
In conneetion with^this
Avork it is interesting to note that in revising some manuscript mate-
rial Dr. Frachtenberg secured
tlie assistance of the
last surviving
member of the Atfalati tribe of the Kalapiiya Indians.
A number of special I’esearches have been in progress during the
year, among them research work by Dr. Franz Boas in connection
with the completion of part 2 of the Handbook of American Indian
Languages.
Through the liberality of Mr. Homer E, Sargent, of
Chicago, work has been well advanced on an extended study of the
Salish dialects, as well as on a study of Salish basketry, which
it
is
intended to describe in an illustrated memoir.
Part 1 of the Hand-
book of American Antiquities by Prof. W. H. Holmes was in type
at the close of the year, and the preparation of part 2 Avas well under
way.
The study of Indian music by Miss Frances Densmore, which has
attracted considerable attention among musicians, has been continued
during the year, chiefly among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians in
North Dakota. A number of ceremonial and war songs were
re-
corded phonographically and a neAv phase of the work was under-
taken, consisting of testing the pitch discrimination of the Indians
by means of tuning forks.
There was in press at the close of the year
a bulletin by Miss Densmore
entitled
Teton Sioux music.”
30
ANKITAL KEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, M6.
The publications of the bureau issued during the year comprise
two annual reports with their accompanying pajoers, and two bulle-*
tins.
In press or in preparation at the close of the year were three
annual reports and five bulletins.
The bureau library was enriched
by the addition of 1,078 volumes, among them 20 volumes of Bibles
and portions of the Bible in American Indian languages.
international exchanges.
The total number of ]:>ackagcs of governmental and other docu-
ments handled by the
International Exchange
Service during the
year was 301,025, an increase of 25,809 over the previous year.
This
figure, however,
still shows a decrease as compared with the
total
handled in 1914, owing to the suspension of shipments to 10 countries
involved in the European war.
Effoids have been made to resume
shipments to certain of these countries, vhich
liaA-e met
^\itll some
degree of success in the case of Germany and Russia.
The Exchange
Sei’vice has continued
its policy
of international
helpfulness by assisting governmental and
scientific establishments
to procure publications esi)ecially desired both in this country and
abroad.
One instance showing the value of this policy may be cited.
The Pan American division of the American Association for Inter-
national Conciliation, of New York, wished to assemble a collection
of several thousand volumes of North American origin for presen-
tation to the Museo Social Argentino at Buenos Aires.
Through the
Exchange Service the matter
y\i\s brought
to the attention of the
proper establishments and several hundred governmental and other
publications were received for the proposed collection.
The number of sets of United States governmental documents sent
through the Exchange Service to foreign countries has been reduced
from 92 to 91, owing to the discontinuance of shipments to the gov-
ernment of Bombay at the request of that government.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
The National Zoological Park is becoming each year a greater and
greater attraction to the public, and as its collections increase so does
its value become of more importance as a source of information to
the zoologist in his study of animal life.
There is now in the park a total of 1,383 individual animals, rep-
resenting 360 species, as shown by the detailed census in the report
of the superintendent.
Among the recent accessions may be mentioned a pair of young
lions, a pair of Siberian tigers,
a great red kangaroo, several mon-
keys, and a number of interesting birds, but the newly acquired ani-
EEPOET OF THE SECEETARY.
31
mal that seems most popular is a male chimpanzee, about 4^ years
old, from the forests of French Congo.
The number of visitors during the past year was 1,157,110, as com-
pared with 794,530 in the year preceding.
This included 161 schools,
classes,
etc., niiinbering 8,679 individuals.
Eecent improvements include the construction of a hospital and
laboratory building and the grading of some ridges and gullies to
secure additional building sites and paddocks for the deer and other
large animals.
As mentioned in previous reports an appropriation was made in
1913 for the purchase of several acres as an extension to the western
boundary of the park, but legal proceedings and complications inci-
dent
to adjustment of values and benefit assessments caused such
delay that the appropriation, not being a continuing one, lapsed on
June 30, 1915, and Congress has failed to renew the allotment for this
much desired improvement.
Many important needs are urged by the superintendent, some of
which I have mentioned year after year.
One of these is an aviary
building
for
the
birds now being housed
in
temporary
quarters
greatly deleterious to their health.
Other needs are a building for the
elephants, hippopotami, and similar animals; an ape house; a reptile
house; a pheasantry; an ostrich house; an aquarium; and an insect-
ary
; also a gatehouse and a permanent boundary fence.
THE ASTEOPHYSICAL OBSEEVATOEY.
Observations of the solar constant were continued at Mount Wil-
son, Cal., from July to October, 1915, and were begun again in 1916.
During the year there was published the results of solar-constant
observations made under Prpf.
Pickering’s direction
at Arequipa,
Peru, since August,
1912, with a
silver-disk pyrheliometer lent by
the Smithsonian Institution.
These observations confirm the vari-
ations of the sun observed at Mount Wilson.
An interesting feature
of the Arequipa observations was the fact that the volcanic eruption
of Mount Katmai in 1912, which produced a great deal of dust over
the northern hemisphere, apparently had no effect on the atmosphere
south of the equator.
The results of observations at Mount Wilson in 1913 and 1914 on
the distribution of radiation along the diameter of the sun’s disk
were published during the year.
It is thus shown that the average
distribution over the disk varies from year to year as well as from
day to day.:;;
Observations have been continued on the transmission of rays of
great wave length through long columns of air, which it is expected
will be
of much
interest
in studying
the
earth’s temperature
as
dependent on radiation toward space.
n
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
After several years of experimenting the Astropliysical Observa-
tory has constructed an instrument called the pyranometer, designed
for measuring the intensity of sky light by day and of radiation
outward toward the sky by night. A full account of this instrument
has been published in pamphlet form.
The pyranoinoter may prove
of advantage in botanical im estigations in forests and greenhouses,
since it can measure radiation in deep shade as \^ell as in the full sun.
The Institution has made an allotment from the Hodgkins fund
for carrying on solar-constant work at some suit.ible place in South
America.
Thioughout the year, for several years,
it
is intended to
continue observations
at Mount Wilson
in
California and
at the
South American station with a view to determine the dependence of
the earth’s climatic conditions on the sun’s variation of radiation.
In
addition to his solar-constant work the director of the observatory
has given considerable attention
to expeiiments
at
IVIount Wilson
with solar cooking apparatus ^‘compiising o^ens heated by oil under
gravity circulation maintained by heat collected by a concave cylin-
dric mirror of about 100
scjuare
feet surface.”
These experiments
were not concluded at the close of the year.
INTEENATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC
LITEKATUEE.
The International Catalogue of
Scientific Literature, the United
States bureau of which
is administered by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, was organized in 1901, and since that date 17 volumes of refer-
ences to scientific literature, one for each of 17 branches of science,
have been published each year.
Dining the past year 24,1G0 classi-
fied references to American scientific literature were prepared by the
United States bureau, biinging the total number of references to the
literature of this country since the inception of the catalogue up to
369,509.
As stated in last year’s report, the war in Europe caused consid-
erable financial embarrassment to the publication of the catalogue
owing to the impossibility of collecting subscriptions from several of
the countries involved.
The generosity of the Eoyal Society of Lon-
don in making up this loss of income made possible the publication
of the thirteenth annual issue, and this year a request was made for
assistance from the United States.
Your secretary succeeded in in-
teresting the Carnegie Corporation, of New
York,
in
the
project
and through
the generous
assistance of that establishment
it was
made possible to publish the fourteenth annual issue.
The value to science of this catalogue is universally recognized, and
it is the opinion of scientists everywhere that any lapse in its publi-
caption would be a real calamity, as shown by the action of the Inter-
BEPOET OP THE SECRETARY,
33
national Council of the Catalogue in voting to extend the work to at
least 1920.
NECROLOGY.
James Burrill Angell, doctor of laws, died April 1, 1916.
He had
been a regent of the Institution for a quarter of a century, from Janu*
ary 19, 1887, to January
15, 1912, when he resigned on account of
age and inability longer to attend meetings of the board.
He was
born at Scitiiate, R.
I., January 7, 1829, and through
Ivis long life as
a journalist, an educator, and a diplomat he served his country faith-
fully in many positions of honor and trust.
He began his career as a professor of modern languages at Brown
University, was
a
journalist during the period of the
Civil War,
president of the University of Vermont
18()f)~1871, president of the
University of Michigan 1871-1909, United States minister to China
1880-1882, and minister to Turkey 1897-98, and served on
several
important
treaty
commissions.
In
accepting his
resignation
as
a
regent in 1912 the board recorded
its appreciation of his long and
faithful servi(‘e to the Smithsonian Institution.
Respectfully submitted.
Chakles D. Walcott, Secretary.
Appeistdix
1.
REPORT ON THP] UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year end-
ing June 30, 1916
INTRODUCTORY.
Seventy years ago Congress first definitely recognized the national
collections and
directed
their
segregatioi^ and
preservation under
the custody and supervision of the Smithsonian Institution in the
building
to be
erected
for that
establishment.
By
1850
arrange-
ments had been sufficiently perfected to justify the appointment of an
assistant in charge of museum matters and to begin the acquisition
of
natural -history
specimens, but
it was not
until
1858
that
the
extensive
collections
which
had
previously
accumulated
at
the
Patent
Office could be accepted.
With an influx of material
rela-
tively as phenomenal as in more recent years, the Museum rapidly
spread beyond the boundaries originally assigned to
it and by 1875
was practically in possession of all parts of the Smithsonian building
not required for the
offices of the parent institution.
But even
so,
there was
a
condition
of great congestion from which
relief was
only obtained
in
1881,
the year of the completion
of the second
building.
Though specially designed for displaying the many im-
portant donations in numerous branches of the industrial arts from
the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, the latter had also to serve for
the
overflow
in natural
history,
a combination which
fully taxed
its capacity in
less than three years.
Then followed nearly three
decades during which
about
as much
material was
assembled
in
outside storage as found lodgement within the two structures.
The problem as regards the departments of natural history was
solved when the new
large granite building was made ready
for
occupancy
in
1911, except that
it lacked accommodations
for the
division of plants, or National Herbarium.
As the depository for the
Department
of
Agriculture
and
other
establishments
conducting
extensive
botanical
explorations,
this branch
of the Museum has
about outgrown its provisional quarters in the Smithsonian building,
and its future requirements should not long go unheeded.
35
36
AKKUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WW.
The most serious phase of the situation now confronting the Mu-
seum, however, results from the wholly inadequate facilities for sys-
tematically developing the collections illustrative of the industrial
arts.
Comprehended under the fundamental act, partly organized in
1880, greatly enriched from the Philadelphia exhibition of 18Y6, and
with a steady growth through* all subsequent years, this important
department, whose principal aim
is popular education on technical
lines by means of exhibits visualizing conditions and processes as
well as products,
is filling to such an extent every foot of Available
space that the halls present rather the appearance of gross storage
than of orderly and
classified arrangement.
Public sentiment, ex-
pressed through many channels, demands better progress than here-
tofore
in
carrying
out
the purposes
of
this
department,
but
the
difficulties in the way are by no means confined to limitations of
space,
since
the more
immediate
embarrassments
arise from
an
insujficiency of funds for employing the necessary skilled assistants
required for Avorking up and preparing the exhibits, which includes
the construction of many models.
The department of the fine arts is even more poorly provided for
than any of the other Museum branches, as it is occupying borrowed
space which
is already so crowded
as seemingly to forbid further
contributions,
and
while
this
condition
lasts
there
can
be
little
hope
for advancement.
There
is, however, one bright
feature
to
mention in this connection—the decision to immediately begin the
erection
of
the
building
for
the
Charles
L.
Freer
collections
of
American and
oriental
art, the plans showing
a beautiful granite
structure, tlie completion of which will bring to the Institution rniicli
the largest donation
it has ever had, one of the most notable gifts
of its character in the Avorld’s history.
Put to no expense for either
building or collections, it is hoped that the example set by Mr. Freer
will lead to more liberal consideration on the part of the Govern-
ment of the needs of the National Gallery of Art, for which no ap-
propriations of any kind liave^ver yet been made.
During the past year many valuable additions were made to the
collections generally, new and instructive features were incorporated
in the exhibition halls, and a wider public interest was stimulated
through an exceptional number of meetings and of special exposi-
tions of
scientific and art objects held at frequent intervals in the
convenient quarters provided for such purposes.
COLLECTIONS.
The total number of specimens acquired during the year was ap*
jpl?0ximately 243,733.
Eeceived in 1,526 separate accessions, they were
classified and
assigned
as
follows:
Department
of
anthropology,
29,498; zoology, 120,303; botany, 40,631; geology and mineralogy^
EEPOKT OF THE 8ECBETAEY.
I,700; paleontology, 48,403;
textiles, woods, and other animal and
vegetable products, 2,304; mineral technology, 280; and the National
Gallery of Art, 619.
As loans for exhibition, 1,960 articles were also
obtained, mainly for the Gallery of Art and the divisions of history
and
ethnology.
Material
for examination and
report,
consisting
chiefly of
rocks,
ores,
fossils, and recent animals and
plants, was
received to the extent of 1,036 lots.
Anthropology ,—One of the most desirable ethnological additions
Avas a
series of costumes, Aveapons, and
utensils—excellent
illustra-
tions of the arts and industries of recently discovered tribes in the
interior
of
British
Guiana,
collected by Mr. John
Ogilvie.
The
aborigines of Celebes and Borneo were represented by many import-
ant objects assembled
bj’' Mr. II. C. Kaven and presented by Dr. W.
L. Abbott; and those
(^f the Philippine Islands by
extensive and
varied
contributions,
including
weapons,
musical
instruments,
baskets, costumes,
etc.,
receiA^ed from Mrs. Caroline E. Bates, Mr.
E.
II. Hammond, and
the
folloAving
officers of
the United
States
Army, namely, Maj. Edgar Russel, Maj. W. T. Johnston, and Capt.
J.
R.
Harris,
Baskets,
ornaments, and
other
articles
of
various
Indian tribes of North America, were also given by Mrs. Bates;
a
number of rare and valuable objects from the Osage Indians were
deposited by
the Bureau of American Ethnology;
interesting ex-
amples of art and ethnologica from various parts of the world Avere
presented by Miss Louise Salter Codwise; and costumes and imple-
ments from the Blackfeet Indians and the Greenland Eskimo were
likewise obtained.
An exten^i\e collection of archeological material from mounds and
ruin sites in Utah, resulting from explorations by Mr. Neil M. Judd
for the Bureau of Ethnology,
is of particular value
in aiding to
determine
the
distribution
of
Pueblo
culture
toAvard
the
north.
Other accessions from America consisted mainly of artifacts, includ-
ing many rare specimens, from several of the States, and of woven
fabrics and pottery from Peru. A gift of Old World
antiquities
from Miss CodAvise Avas composed principally of Egyptian scarabs,
necklaces, and figurines, and Palestinian amulets, Avhile a collection
of prehistoric stone implements from Great Britain contained some
choice specimens.
The division of physical anthropology received many skeletons and
skulls, in A^ery complete condition, from Mr. Clarence B. Moore, who
obtained them
at ^^The Indian Knoll,” on the Green River, Ky.;
and a similar collection from Mr. George G. Heye, secured during
an exploration
of old burial
sites in Georgia and Tennessee.
Es-
pecially noteworthy was an excellent series of sltulls and numerous
other bones belonging to the period before the advent of the whites,
procured in old burial caves in Hawaii by Mr, August Busck,
73889“—SM 1916-
4
AKKtJAL BEPOBT 8MITHSOHUK INSTITUTION,
1918,
The more notable accessions in mechanical technology bore upon
the subjects of the telephone and
firearms.
The American
Tele-
phone & Telegraph Co. contributed a set of instruments and of load-
ing coils, with examples of line wire and glass insulators, used at the
opening of the first telephone line between New York and San Fran-
cisco on January 25, 1915, and also a duplicate of the first instrument
through which speech was transmitted electrically in Boston in 1875
while Dr. Alexander Graham Bell deposited his diplomas, certificates
of award, and announcements of election to
scientific
societies, an
interesting series of documents indicative of the many honors which
have been conferred upon him. A gift from Mrs. Bates of much
historical value included old military guns of European and Ameri-
can manufacture, pistols and revolvers, a gun made in the Philip-
pine Islands, two very fine bronze swivel cannon, and several Toledo
blades and other swords.
Mr. Hugo Worch added three old American pianos to his munifi-
cent donation of the previous year, and made a provisional deposit of
four other instruments, three American and one of London make.
The permanent acquisitions in ceramics consisted mainly of examples
from some
of the prominent
potteries of the United
States,
but
among the loans were specimens of porcelains from abroad and also
of glassware, bronze, and
brass, which
are now exhibited
in
the
ceramic gallery.
Among the accessions in graphic arts were experimental apparatus
and pictures illustrating progress and the several steps in the elec-
trical transmission of photographs from one place
to
another,
as
also the development
of the engraving machine
called
the
akro-
graph; a Wells printing press; examples of the art of overlay
in
printing
; samples of poster stamps and lithographs ; and a number
of fourteenth and fifteenth century manuscripts.
The additions in
photography included daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, and tintypes; a
sepia print of a painting on carved wood by Rosselimo
; and a series
of prints of astronomical subjects from the Yerkes Observatory.
American history ,—The historical collections were increased to an
exceptional extent by both gifts and deposits.
Most prominent was
a loan by Mr. Walter G. Peter, a descendant of Martha Washington,
of many objects of artistic and domestic interest once the property
of General and Mrs. Washington at Mount Vernon, which richly
supplement
the
Lewis
collection
long
in
the
possession
of
the
Museum.
Mention can here be made of only a few of the articles,
among which were a china portrait plaque of Washington designed
by Richard Champion; a water-color portrait of him by William
Thornton; two gold
lockets containing locks of
his hair;
a gold
watch of Mrs. Washington, the cover engraved with the Washington
ooat of arms; a child’s French dressing table of exquisite workman-
EEPOBT OP THE SEOBETABY.
39
ship presented by Lafayette to the granddaughter of Mrs. Washing-
ton, Martha Custis, who became Mrs. Thomas Peter
; letters written
to Mrs. Washington on the death of her husband
; documents relat-
ing to the settlement of her estate; and a number of fine examples
of eighteenth century china and glassware.
It is pleasing to note that the valuable loan collection of memorials
of Gen. William Tccumseh Sherman, United
States Army,
with
some additions, was given into the permanent keeping of the Museum
during the year by his son, Hon. P. Tecumseh Sherman.
From the
widow and children of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Lawton, United States
Volunteers, there was acquired as a gift an extensive series of objects,
including a medal of honor from Congress, forming a
significant
reminder of the distinguished career of this oflicer in the Civil War,
several Indian wars, and the Philippines.
Important relics of Capt.
Edward Trenchard, United States Navy (1784—1824), and of his son,
Rear Admiral
Stephen Decatur Trenchard, United
States Navy,
including two presents awarded to the former by acts of Congress,
were
received on
deposit.
There were also many
other
gifts and
loans of notable personal and period relics, and the national societies
of the Colonial Dames of America and the Daughters of the Ameri-
can Revolution made interesting additions to their already extensive
loan collections.
By the death of Mr. David W. Cromwell, of New York, on Sep-
tember
11,
1915, the splendid
collection of nearly 20,000 domestic
and foreign postage stamps, which he placed on permanent deposit
in 1908, became the absolute property of the Museum.
Among other
additions in philately, including stamps, stamped envelopes, and post
cards, were 1,565 new foreign and 269 new domestic issues, received
from the Post Office Department.
The collection of historical costumes was enriched to the extent of
562
articles, nearly
all of which were loans.
To the series of cos-
tumed figures representing hostesses of the White House four were
added, namely, Mrs. James Monroe, Mrs. eTohn Quincy Adams, Mrs.
Abraham Lincoln, and Mrs. James R. McKee.
Biology .—In
the
accessions
of
vertebrate
animals
the
Asiatic
region was especially well represented, and many genera and species
new to the collection were obtained.
The name of Dr. W. L. Abbott
remains conspicuous in this connection through three contributions.
The first, composed of material gathered under his direction and at
his expense in Celebes and Borneo by Mr. H. C. Raven, consisted of
465 mammals, 869 birds, and a number of reptiles and batrachians.
The second, presented jointly with Mr. C. B. Kloss, contained 197
mammals and 133 birds, besides reptiles and batrachians from Siam;
while the third was a series of 183 mammals from Kashmir, British
India.
The Celebes and Siam specimens are especially important.
40
ANKtJAL MPpET SMITHSONIAK IKStlTXmOK, im.
both as coming from localities not hitherto represented in the Mu-
seum and as supplementing the existing large collections from the
related
faunal
regions
of
the Malay
Peninsula,
the
Philippine
Islands, and Borneo.
From northern China and Manchuria was re-
ceived a valuable series of mammals, birds, and reptiles, the results
of further field work by Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby.
Obtained by
Mr. Copley Amory, jr., during a collecting trip to the little-known
Kolyma River region of northeastern Siberia and presented by him,
were 3G5 mammals and 243 birds, besides a number of nests and eggs
of the latter.
Additional mammals were received fro'm Baluchistan through ex-
change with the McMahon Museum at Quetta and from East Africa
as a gift from Mr. Elton Clark.
The most important accessions of
reptiles, batrachians, and fishes consisted of the specimens obtained
in connection with the Smithsonian biological survey of the Canal
Zone by Mr. S. F. Hildebrand, Prof. S. E. Meek, and Mr. E. A. Gold-
man, the number of fishes amounting to about 18,000.
An extensive
collection of Peruvian fishes made by Dr. E. E. Coker in 1907 and
1908 was presented by the Government of Peru, and another from
South American localities was received from Indiana University in
exchange.
The Bureau of Fisheries deposited 1,242 specimens from
Albatross explorations in the Pacific Ocean.
The receipts by the division of marine invertebrates were excep-
tionally
extensive.
Twenty-seven
separate
collections were
trans-
ferred by the Bureau of Fisheries, a part of which had been worked
up and described.
They represented investigations by the steamer
Albatross
in
the
Pacific Ocean, by the steamers Fish Ilawh and
Bache and the schooner Grampus in the Atlantic Ocean and con-
tiguous waters, and certain other inquiries.
Of crustaceans there
were about 15,000 specimens, of annelids about 1,000 specimens, of
pteropod mollusks about 3,200 specimens, of
starfishes nearly 150
types, and of fresh-water mollusks about 1,000 specimens from the
Mississippi River, besides very many unassorted lots of crustaceans,
salpa, pyrosoma, and other groups.
A very large number of miscellaneous invertebrates from the Dan-
ish West Indies and about 5,000 specimens of land and marine mol-
lusks from the Florida Keys were deposited by the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington, while over 3,000 miscellaneous specimens from
dredgings off the coast of Florida and about 7,000 land and fresh-
water shells from Cuba were presented by Mr, John B. Henderson.
An accumulation of samples of ocean bottom,
filling nearly 11,000
battles, obtained by vessels of the Coast and Geodetic Survey dur-
ing hydrographic investigations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
the Gulf of Mexico, were transferred
to the custody
of
the
*Muaeuin.
KBSPOET OF THE SEOBETAET.
41
The principal accessions of insects consisted of Lepidoptera and
Diptera deposited by the Bureau of Entomology, of named species
of beetles and Hymenoptera from Australia, and of types of new
species presented by Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell.
The division of plants received several large and important col-
lections.
The Department of Agriculture transferred
over
6,600
specimens, of which a considerable proportion were grasses.
Some
8,000 specimens, representing the
field work of Dr.
J. N. Kose in
connection with his cactus investigations in Brazil and Argentina
during the summer of 1915, were deposited by the Carnegie Institution
of Washington; and about 2,000 specimens secured by the Peruvian
expedition of 1914-15 were presented by the National Ceographic So-
ciety and Yale University.
Among other important accessions were
specimens from the Philippines, Amboina, China, and Panama,
Geology
explorations in the Rocky Mountain region in
the summer of 1915, Dr. Charles D. Walcott procured for the Museum
in the Yellowstone National Park a large and well-selected series of
the siliceous and calcareous sinters, including some masses of excep-
tional size, native sulphur, silicified wood, sundry mineral specimens,
and an extensive representation of volcanic rocks, intended in part
for an exhibition of the geological features of that park.
Among
other important acquisitions were
illustrations of the geology and
mineral associations of the pegmatite deposits of southern California,
and of the emerald mines at Muzo, Colombia
; a number of scheelite
specimens of more than ordinary interest from Utah
; and an unusu-
ally fine large specimen of secondary copper sulphate from the Sil-
^ver Bow Mine, Mont.
The Geological Survey transferred examples
of the nitrate deposits in Idaho and Oregon, and of potash-bearing
salts and associated rocks from the vicinity of Tonopah, Nev.
; and
Dr. Joseph P. Iddings presented some fine specimens of the peculiar
problematic bodies known as obsidianites and Darwin
glass from
Borneo and Tasmania, and an important series of phosphate rocks
from Ocean and Makatea Islands.
By the will of Dr. Charles Upham Shepard, who died early in
July, 1915, the very important collection of meteorites belonging to
him, which has been on deposit for a number of years, was bequeathed
to the Museum ; while from several other sources material represent-
ing 32
distinct
falls of meteorites in many
different parts of the
world was also acquired.
The mineral collection received many additions, including excep-
tionally
fine specimens, examples of recent
finds and several rare
species, the largest accession, a deposit from the Geological Survey,
consisting of about 300 specimens mostly illustrative of a report by
Dn W. T. Schaller on the gem minerals of the pegmatites of Oali-
fonna.
From the same Survey was also transferred a large amount
m
ASnVAL BBPOBT SMITHSOKIAIST IKfiraTUTION,
1916.
of petrological material, mainly rocks illustrating the geology and
ore deposits of several
districts and localities, described in recent
papers.
Of fossil invertebrates the Geological Survey made extensive con-
tributions from the Tertiary of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plain,
the Cretaceous of New Mexico, and other formations and localities.
Other
important
accessions
were
several
thousand
specimens
of
bryozoa and ostracoda from various parts of the world, a collection
of Upper Cretaceous forms of special interest as containing types
described long ago by Prof. T. A. Conrad, insects from the Floris-
sant beds of Colorado, and types of new species of crabs.
Most prominent of the additions in vertebrate paleontology was a
nearly complete skeleton of a large mastodon found near Winamac,
Ind., which has already been mounted and placed
in the exhibition
hall.
From the Koren expedition to the Kolyma River region of
northeastern Siberia were received nearly 200 specimens, of which*
the most valuable is a fine skull of the Siberian mammoth, the only
one of this northern form now in any American museum.
Two col-
lections of fossil plants, recently described, including the type and
figured specimens, were transferred by the Geological Survey.
One
was from the San Juan Basin, N. Mex., the other from the Fox Hills
formation, Colo.
Textiles ,—In the division of textiles excellent progress was made
in the acquisition and installation of new
exhibits.
Probably the
most important was an extensive series of specimens, and of models,
sections, and photographs of machinery from the American Thread
Co., showing the manufacture of cotton thread
in
all
its
details.
Other noteworthy accessions were two additional Jacquard machines
for decorating
textiles;
further
illustrations of the operation and
work of the embroidery automats, of the manufacture of silk fabrics,
and of the designing, weaving, and printing of silk upholstery and
drapery materials; examples of Javanese batik work on cotton and
silk, and of various patterns of moire silks; a demonstration of the
successive
stages
in the
production
of
painted
cut
velvet,
called
“Yuzen Birodo” by the Japanese; and samples of silk skein-dyeing
and silk piece-dyeing and printing.
The Japanese Commission to the Panama-Pacific International
Exposition contributed 100 commercial fabrics, including many kinds
not produced in this country.
The representation of American up-
holstery and drapery fabrics and allied textiles of various materials
and character of decoration was greatly increased and improved, and
miMtinfacturers continued to keep the collection supplied with novel-
ties and new types and designs of dress fabrics as soon as they were
hl^onght out.
Numerous excellent examples of the handicraft work
in the schools of the Philippine Islands were also obtained.
BEPOET OP THE SEOKETAEY.
43
Wood
technology,—In
the
recently
organized
section
of wood
technology there were many accessions of samples of important com-
mercial woods and of
illustrations of wood
utilization, the public
installation of which was about to be taken up at the close of the
year.
While the wood specimens, mostly in the form of large boards,
were intended primarily for practical educational purposes, a large
proportion had been determined
botanically,
insuring for them
a
proper technical designation.
The principal
collection of wood samples, from the Philippine
Islands, consisted of 110 pieces, representing 85 species, the dupli-
cates showing different characteristics as to
gi'ain and
figure.
In
addition there were
IG
pieces and
15
species from Argentina; 32
specimens of various foreign woods highly prized for veneers and
for
cabinet and
furniture work,
including the
several important
varieties which are imported into this country under the trade name
of mahogany
; 38 specimens of redwood from the Pacific coast, repre-
senting a large range of patterns produced by the manufacturers and
some of their better grades of plain lumber; and also examples of
koa and ohia woods from Hawaii, Honduran mahogany, red. gum,
yellow poplar, white oak, and black cherry.
Material received as part of an exhibit of the turpentine industry
included three butt sections of longleaf pine from a commercial tur-
pentine orchard, illustrating the manner in which gum for the dis-
tillation of turpentine is obtained by the box, the cup and gutter, and
the Forest Service methods, clearly showing the progressive improve-
ment from the former wasteful to the modern economical processes.
These were accompanied by samples of the gum, scrape, turpentine,
and
resin, and examples of the tools used, and, in addition, there
was a model of a turpentine still of a pattern common to the long-
leaf pine belt, in a setting typical of the region, some of the trees
being boxed and others provided with cups and gutters.
The utiliza-
tion of wood was also
illustrated by samples of dyewoods in the
log, and a series of extracts from them, including logwood, Brazil
wood,
fustic, and
quebracho;
and by
several
series
of specimens
showing the materials and successive stages in the manufacture of a
number of
articles of common use, such as matches, tool handles,
brushes, and sporting goods.
Of subjects other than textiles and woods, while no special efforts
were made in their behalf, much desirable material was received, in^
eluding
agricultural
products
generally,
foods,
medicines,
resins,
models of fishing methods and boats, fishery products, etc.
Mineral technology.—A very realistic model of Trinidad Asphalt
Lake and its environs, a series of colored transparencies and photo^
graphic enlargements, and a complement of specimens typifying the
44
Al^KXTAL HEPORT SMITHSOKIAK INSmUTIOK,
1916.
different forms of asphalt occurrence as well as the useful products
prepared therefrom, constituted the most
striking addition
to the
exhibits in the division of mineral technology.
Next may be men-
tioned
a complete ore stope removed
bodily, ore
faces, timbering,
chute, manway, and
all
accessories, from the Copper Queen Mine
at Bisbee, Ariz.
Among other important
acquisitions were
a model
representing
the layout of a Portland cement plant and the sequence of operations
connected with the manufacture of cement; an industrial
series of
specimens covering the occurrence and uses of natural graphite, in-
cluding a remarkable block of pure graphite weighing 250 pounds;
a model reproducing the unique method of mining placer gravel for
gold in the frozen north by a system of underground drifting or
tunneling bedrock, with the ground thawed out in immediate advance
of the tunnel by means of steam
; and a model of a cyanide leaching
plant showing admirably
the method commonly employed
in the
extraction of gold from its ores where the metal does not lend itself
to simpler and more direct processes for its segregation.
NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART.
It is very gratifying to note that early in the year Mr. Charles L.
Freer waived the condition attending his munificent gift of American
and oriental art to the effect that the collection remain in his pos-
session during his
life, and expressed a desire that the erection of
the building be taken up at the earliest possible moment.
The sum
required for this purpose, $1,000,000, also a donation from Mr. Freer,
was turned over to the Institution in December, and the
site and
preliminary plans, both satisfactory to the benefactor, received later
the approval of the Board of Regents of the Institution, and of the
Federal Commission of Fine Arts.
The site is the southwestern part
of the Smithsonian
reservation,
at the corner of Twelfth and B
Streets, S. W., and approximately two years will be required for the
completion of the building, at the end of which time the transfer
of the many precious objects to Washington may be expected to take
place.
The fact that the planning and the execution of the work of
construction is in the hands of Mr. Charles A. Platt, pf New York,
insures their being carried out in an eminently satisfactory manner.
Since the last report Mr. Freer has increased the extent of his
collection to about 5,346 items by 535
additions, of which 23
are
paintings and sculptures by the American
artists Tryon, Thayer,
Metcalf, Murphy, and Saint-Gaudens ;
while the
oriental
objects,
^umbering 512,
consist mainly of paintings, pottery, bronzes, and
jades from China, Korea, and Japan.
Mr. Freer announces con-
iideirable headway
in the preparation
of the
final
catalogues, on
which a number of experts of wide repute are at work.
BEPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
46
The National Gallery of Art also received during the year from
the Department of State a most interesting collection of 82 draw-
ings in pencil, pen, charcoal, chalk, crayon, and water color, executed
by eminent contemporary French artists and presented to the people
of the United States^by the citizens of the French Eepublic as a token
of their appreciation of the sympathetic efforts of American citizens
toward relieving the distress occasioned by the European war.
There
should likewise be mentioned an oil portrait of Abraham Lincoln, by
George H. Story, presented by Mrs.
1^. IT. Ilarriman.
MEETINGS AND CONGRESSES.
The auditorium and committee rooms in the new building were
utilized
to
a much greater extent than
in any
previous year for
scientific and art meetings, lectures, and other functions.
Three of
the
local
societies made the Museum
their regular meeting
place,
among these being the Washington Society of the Fine Arts, which
presented its customary three courses of lectures.
Annual or special
meetings were held by the National Academy of Sciences, the Mining
and
Metallurgical
Society
of America,
the
Society
of American
Foresters, the American Oriental Society, and the American Surgical
Association.
Lectures, singly or in short
series, were given under
the auspices of 10 of the science and art societies, and 6 receptions
were held in connection with large gatherings of national and inter-
national bodies.
Among the special meetings there were several which merit
dis-
tinctive mention.
The most important of these was the Nineteenth
International Congress of Americanists which met from December
27 to 31, in affiliation with Section I of the Second Pan American
Scientific Congress, then also in session in Washington, the American
Anthropological Association, the American Folk-Lore
Society, the
American Historical Association, and the Archaeological
Institute
of America.
On the afternoon of February
9
a bronze
tablet
in
memory of Prof. S. F. Baird as the instigator of the Federal fishery
service, a contribution to the Bureau of Fisheries by 47 subscribers,
was dedicated in the auditorium with appropriate ceremonies in the
presence of a large assemblage.
During the week of the safety-first exhibition, February 21-28, the
auditorium was occupied on five days for lectures and discourses on
the subjects comprehended by
this notable
display,
nearly
all
of
them being profusely illustrated, both motion pictures and lantern
slides being used.
The speakers, besides the Secretary of Labor and
several assistant secretaries of departments, were all experts in the
several bureaus represented.
The exercises attending the centenary
celebration of the organization of the Coast and Geodetic Survey,
46
Al^NUAL
SMITHSOKIAK INSTItlTTlOK,
1916*
held in the auditorium on April 5 and
6, consisted of an exposition
of the work of this, the first scientific service of the Government, by
eminent authorities who had been invited to speak upon those phases
of the Survey’s activities with which they are best acquainted.
The American Association of Museums held its eleventh annual
meeting in Washington from May 15 to 18, and the American Federa-
tion of Arts its seventh annual convention from the 17th to the 19th
of the same month.
IVhile only one session of the former and none of
the latter was held in the Museum, a reception was tendered to both
on the evening of May 17, ^\hen an important loan exhibition of the
industrial arts was opened with a special view.
SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS.
The educational
effoi-ts of the Museum were most notably served
by several large and important special exhibitions.
Supplementing
the arrangements for the meetings of the Congress of Americanists
and
affiliated
societies
during
convocation
week,
an
interesting
installation was made of material relating to pertinent subjects.
During the w^eek of February 21-27 the foyer, with three of
its
communicating rooms, was occupied by one of the most remarkable
and interesting Government exhibitions that has ever been assembled.
Having as its theme the
safety-first ” idea, it was participated in by
20 bureaus, the American National Red Cross Society, and the Metro-
politan police department, the activities of all of which are primarily
for or comprehend in a marked degree the safeguarding of life and
property, as well as the prevention and care of disease.
Although the
available area was restricted the display proved most effective and
satisfactory, as it was also comprehensive, probably nothing in the
Government service relating to
safety
first ” having escaped some
representation.
Attention was widely called to the exhibition in ad-
vance.
The governors of
States were
notified
of the nation-wide
aspect of the exposition, one of the results of which was to bring
about a meeting of State mine inspectors in the Museum, and manu-
facturers and operators from all over the country were invited to be
present.
The
total
attendance
of
visitors
during
the week was
35,447.
The
exercises commemorating
the
centenary
of
the
Coast and
Geodetic Survey, held on April 5 and
6, were supplemented by an
exhibition in the foyer, the purpose of which was to illustrate the
appliances and methods used and the
results obtained
in both
its
marine and geodetic work during the 100 years of its existence.
The
material was admirably
selected and arranged, constituting 6ne of
the most complete and instructive special displays ever installed in
the Museum.
BEPOBT OF THE SEOEETAEY.
47
The models and drawings submitted in competition for the monu-
ment at Fort McHenry, Baltimore, in memory of Francis Scott Key,
author of the
‘‘ Star-Spangled Banner,” and the soldiers and sailors
who participated
in the battle of North Point and the attack on
Fort McHenry in the War of 1812, were arranged in the rotunda
of the new building, where, after having been passed upon by the
jury of awards, they were exhibited to the public from May 17 to
June
17.
The exhibition of American industrial art, held during the spring
and summer of 1915 under the auspices of the American Federation
of Arts, was repeated as a feature of the seventh convention of this
association, being opened on May
17, lOlG, and continuing for one
month.
The foyer and five of
its communicating rooms were occu-
pied.
The exposition was designed to bring together examples of
art on industrial lines, both hand and machine made, to show what is
being produced in this country, and though not exhaustive
in any
particular, some of the best-known art workers of the country par-
ticipated, and
it was
felt that
a
fairly high
standard had been
maintained.
Following the close of the Panama-Pacific International Exposi-
tion on December
4, and in accordance wuth an act of Congress, a
large part of the Museum’s ethnological exhibit was transferred from
San Francisco to the Panama-California International Exposition
at San Diego, to be shown there until the end of the calendar .year
1916.
The selection made for this purpose consisted of four large
family groups of Eskimo, Zulu-Kaffirs, Caribs, and Dyaks; miniature
dwelling groups of aboriginal peoples in many parts of the world;
four cases of artifacts; and a set of lithographs from Gatlin’s North
American Indian paintings.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Duplicate material to the extent of over 7,000 specimens, classified
and labeled for teaching purposes and arranged in 96 sets, was dis-
tributed to schools and colleges, the subjects principally represented
being rocks, minerals, ores, fossils, and recent mollusks.
For obtain-
ing additions to the
collections through the medium of exchange,
about
9,400
duplicates,
chiefly from
the
natural-history
divisions,
were utilized. A large number of specimens were sent for study to
collaborators of the Museum and other specialists.
They consisted
mainly of plants, recent animals, and fossils, and were contained in
114 lots.
The attendance of visitors at the new building aggregated 316,707
for week days and 64,521 for Sundays, being a daily average of 1,012
for the former and of 1,240 for the latter.
For the older Museum
building, which is only open on week days, the total was 146,956 and
wrWAt BBmT sMirasosiAJir
tUi-
ihk daily average 469.
The halls in the Smithsonian building, which
were closed for renovation during about five months, received 48,517
visitors.
The publications of the year comprised 2 volumes of Proceedings
and 4 Bulletins, besides the amiiial report and 52 separate papers
belonging to the series of Pi'ocecdings and Contributions from the
National Herbarium.
The total distribution of Museum publications
aggregated 73,798 copies.
Through the addition of 1,895 volumes, 72 parts of volumes, and
2,873 pamphlets, the numlier of volumes in the Museum library was
increased to 47,713, and of pamphlets and unbound papers to 79,241.
Eespectfully submitted,
Kichard Eathbun,
Assistant Se<retary in, Charge,
United States National Musevm,
Dr. Charles D. Walcott,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
October 30, 1916.
Appendix
2.
EEPOET ON THE BTJEEAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY*
Sir
: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the
fiscal year
ended June 30, 1916, conducted in accordance with the provision of
the act of Congress appro^cd March 3, 1015, making appropriations
for the sundry ci^ il expenses of the Go^ eminent, and with a plan of
operations submitted by the ethnologist in charge and approved by
the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
The provision of the
act authorizing the researches of the bureau is as follows:
American ethnology
For continuing ethnological researches among the Amer-
ican Indians and the n iti\es ot ITaw iii, including the e\ca^ation and preserva-
tion of arclueologic ronmins
und(i the direction of the Smithsonian Institution,
including necessai j ornplo>ees and the pin chase of necessai\ books and periodi-
cals, $42,000
Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist in charge, de\ oted most of his ener-
gies, as usual, to administiatne affaiis.
Ilowe^ei, in pursuance of a
plan for coopeiative aichcological reseaich by the Bureau of Amer-
ican Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian
(Heye
Foundation)
of New York, Mr. Hodge early
in July joined Mr*
George G. Heye, of the museum mentioned, in the excavation of the
Nacoochee mound in White Count}, northeastern Georgia, permis-
sion to
investigate which vas accoided by
the owner, Dr.
L.
G.
Hardman.
The Nacoochee mound
is an earthwork occupied by the Cherokee
Indians until early in the nineteenth century.
The name “ Nacoo-
chee,” howe\er, is not of Cherokee origin; at least, it is not identifi-
able by the Cherokee as belonging to their language, and by no means
does the word signify “ the evening star ” in any Indian tongue,
one writer has claimed.
The summit of the mound, which had been leveled for cultivation
about 80 years ago, measured 83 feet in maximum and about 67 feet
in minimum diameter; the height of the mound above the adjacent
field was 17 feet 8 inches, and the circumference of the base 410 feet#
These measurements are doubtless less than they were at the time
the mound was abandoned by the Cherokee, as
all the dimenaoni
AmvAt immt mitm<mu.n
wm*
have Been more or less reduced by cultivation, the slop© at the base
particularly having been plowed away for several feet.
The mound
was reared both for domicile and for cemetery purposes and was
composed of rich alluvial soil from the surrounding field.
Excava-
tion determined that the mound was not built at one time, but evi-
dently at different periods, as circumstances demanded.
This was
shown plainly by the stratification of the mound soil, the occurrence
of graves at different depths with undisturbed earth above them, the
presence of fire pits or of evidences of fires throughout the mound
at varying levels, and by the finding of a few objects derived from
the white man in the upper part and in the slopes of the mound, but
not in the lower levels.
From this last observation it is evident that
the occupancy of the mound extended well into the historical period,
a fact supported by the memory of the grandparents of present resi-
dents of the Nacoochee Valley, who recalled the mound when the
Cherokee Indians still occupied it and the surrounding area.
The fact that the mound was used for burial purposes is attested
by the finding of the remains of 75 individuals during the course of
the
excavations,
the
graves
occurring from
slightly
beneath the
summit to a dex)th of about 19
feet, or below the original base of
the mound.
These graves, with few exceptions, were unmarked, and
in most instances were not accompanied with objects of ceremony or
utility.
The exceptions were those remains with which were buried
stone implements, shells or shell ornaments, a smoking pipe, a pot-
tery vessel, or the like.
The skeletons were found usually with the
head pointed in an eastwardly direction, and were all so greatly de-
composed that it was imix)ssible to preserve any of them for measure-
ment and study, the bones in most cases consisting of only a pasty
mass.
As mentioned above, most of the burials were unmarked.
The
exceptions consisted of two graves incased and covered with slabs
of stone, both unearthed near the very base of the mound.
On© of
these stone graves contained
a skeleton
the bones of which were
largely of the consistency of com meal, owing to the ravages of
insects, but what was lacking in the remains themselves was more
than compensated by the finding near the skull of a beautiful effigy
vase of painted pottery, the only piece of painted ware, whole 6r
fra^gmentary, found in the entire mound.
The occurrence of this
|type of vessel and the presence of the stone graves at the bottom of
|h^ mound suggest the possible original occupancy
of the site by
other than the Cherokee.
|U|5ariiaps the most remarkable feature of the mound was the latge
of' smoking pipes of pottery, mostly broken, but in many
of varying degrees of workmanship.
Some of the pipe^
OXOellelft texture and
are highly ornamented with convem
bufoet of *mE sboeexaey-
R1
tionalized figures of birds, etc., or marked with incised designs.
Sm-
other feature of the mound was the presence of a great amount of
broken pottery, especially in the refuse at the base and covering the
slopes.
This pottery is chiefly of fine texture, although some of the
cooking
vessels
are
of
coarse
ware.
With
the
exception
of
the
painted vessel above noted, the only ornamentation applied by the
makers of the pottery consists of incised and impressed designs, the
latter made usually Avith a paddle of clay or wood, or worked out
in the moist ware before firing by means of a pointed tool, a spatula,
a piece of cane, or a shell.
In pursuance of another plan of cooperatiA^e a rrheological research,
Mr. Hodge, in October, visited Zuni, N. Mex., Avnth Mr. Heye, for the
purpose of examining the ruins of the histone pueblo of Hawikuh,
in the Zufii Valley southwest of Zuhi pueblo, and of making the nec-
essary arrangements Avith the Indians for its excavation.
This site is
of great archeological and historical interest, as the pueblo was in-
habited AAhen first seen by Fray Marcos de Niza in 1539, and when
visited and stormed by Coronado in the folloAving year.
It became
the site of an important Franciscan mission in 1629, and Avas finally
abandoned
in 1670 on account of depredations bv hostile Indians.
By reason of the fact that Hawikuh Avas inhabited continuously from
prehistoric times until 130 years after the opening of the historical
period,
it
is expected that a thorough study of
its rums
aauII shed
important information on the effect of the eailiest Spanish contact
with the Zuni people and will supplement archeological A\ork con-
ducted in other a illage sites of that tribe.
Oaa mg to unforeseen cir-
cumstances, actiAe work was not commenced before the close of the
fiscal year, but it is hoped that its initiation will not be long delayed.
A permit therefor has been granted by the Secretar}^ of the Interior.
^ By provisional agreement with the School
of American Archae-
ology
at Santa
Fe, N.
Mex., and the Koyal
Ontario Museum of
Archaeology
at Toronto, plans were perfected whereby the Smith-
sonian Institution, in conjunction with those establishments, was to
conduct
archeological
researches
of an
intensive character
in
the
Chaco Canyon of northern New Mexico, one of the most important
culture areas noith of Mexico.
Although every effort was made to
obtain from Congress the necessary appropriation for meeting the
Institution’s share of the expense (a permit for the excavations hav-
ing been issued by the Secretary of the Interior), the project was
presented too late for action, hence the work, so far as the Smith-
sonian Institution is concerned, has been necessarily postponed.
As opportunity offered, the preparation of the bibliography of the
I^Ueblo Indians was continued by Mr, Hodge, who also represented
the Smithsonian Institution as a member of the United Stat^
graphic Board, and the Bureau of American Ethnolo^ at the meet*
62
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1910.
ings of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publi-
cation.
Dr.
J. Walter Fewkos, ethnologist, having been
detailed to con-
tinue the excavation
and repair
of
prehistoric
ruins
in the Mesa
Verde National Park, Colo., under the joint auspices of this Bureau
and the Department <jf the Interioi*, left Washington for that locality
in August,
lf)ir>, and remained
in
tlie park continuously
until
the
close of October.
Dr. Fewkes devoted his atiention mainly to a large
mound of stones and earth situated near the point of a promontory
opposite CJKF Pahnay across Clilf Canyon,
tlie excavation of which
revealed
a
type of stiucture liitherto niiknovni
in the Mesa Verde
National Ikirk, and architecturally ditrerent from any tliat had been
previously excavated
in the Sontliwest.
Tlie rooms of this building,
whicli
l)i‘. Fewkes
designates
as
KSun
Temple,” were thoroughly
cleared out, the debris removed, and the walls were repaired in such
manner that they will not be likely to deteriorate for many years.
A
report on
tlie work of excavation and on the structural features of
this interesting building forms the subject of an illustrated ])ami>hlet
published by the De[)artnieut of tlie Interior in rlune,
191(), under the
title
Excavation and
repaii* of Sun Tenijde. Mesa
\'ei-dc National
Park.”
Sti'ueturally the Sun
T(uni)le consists of two ])arts—an
original
building, to which an annex
is so united
as
to give the two
a
D-
shaj)e ground
])laii, tlie sontliern or straight wall of
wliicli extends
almost exactly
east-wi-st.
This
wall measures l‘U
feet
7
Indies
in
length; the highest wall of the siruduro is 11 feet 7 indies, the lowest
5
feet.
The
walls
:ne
massivia varying
in
thickness from 2
to
5
feet, and
arc composed
of
a
(‘ore
of rubble
faced on
both
sides,
the exposed
stones ha\ing Dhui
carefully
fashioned by hand and
accurately
fitted, allhongh,
as
in
the case of
])ueb]o masonry gen-
erally,
the
stones
are
usually
neitiier
‘^liroken”
at
the
joints
nor
bonded at the corners.
Nevertheless
tlie walls of the Sun Temple
display
excellent
structural
(jualities that
will compare
favorably
wdth any of its class north of JNhcxico.
Ardiitectually the annex re-
sembles certain toverdike structuiTS
in the ancient pueblo
region,
and in plan tlie whole ruin bears resemblance also to Pueblo Bonito
in Chaco Oanyon, N. Mex.
The
building
contains
three
circular
rooms
resembling
kivas,
or ceremonial chambei s,
still used by some of the Pueblo Indians,
and many other rooms of unusual sliape and doubtful significance.
There was no
indication
that the Sun Temple had been
roofed;
indeed, there is sti'ong evidence that the construction of the buildings
was never finished.
Dr. Fewkes was not able to determine the age
of the Sun Temple, but he is of the opinion that
it was built later
EEPOET OP THE SECEETAEY.
63
than
Cliff
Palace.
One
evidence
of
its
antiquity,
however, was
observed, namely, a cedar tree growing from the top of the highest
walls was found to have BGO annual rings of growth, indicating that
it sprouted a few years after Coronado led his expedition into the
Southwest in 1540.
The builders of the Sun Temple are supposed by Dr. Fewkes to
have been
the
former
clilF
dwellers
of
the
neighboring
canyons.
As to its purpose, he is of the opinion tliat the building was used pri-
marily
for worship, but that
like other tcm])les among primitive
l^eoples
it was intended secondarily as a place of refuge in case of
attack, and for the storage of provisions.
The iTn])ression of a fossil
palm leaf on tlie corner stone at the southwestern angle is believed to
mark a shrine where rites to the sky or sun god were ])erformed long
before the
tcjiiple was
built.
It
is this supposed
shrine that sug-
gested the name for the edifice.
On the completion of the excavation and repair of the Sun Temple,
Dr. Fewkes similarly treated Oak-tree House, a
cliff dwelling in the
precipice of Fewkes Canyon above which stands the Sun Temple.
A collection of artifacts found in this dwelling was gathered in the
course of the excavation and later deposited in the National Museum.
Ell route to Washington, Dr. I\*wkes visited the so-called
‘‘ Buried
City of the Panhandle,-' on Wolf Creek in Ochiltree County, Tex.,
which had been reported to the bureau l)y residents of the neighbor-
hood and had become
locally
celebrated.
The
remaijis examined
hai’dly justify the name giA^en to the site, which in
foi’iner days was
used as an encainpmeiit by wandering Indians ratlier than by sed-
entary peo])le.
Dr. Fewkes’s attention was drawn also to a supposed
artificial
Avail which gave name
to Pockwall, not
far from
Dallas,
Tex., but on examination this was found
to be
a natural sandstone
formation.
Dr. Fewkes returned
to Washington
in November and
immedi-
ately prepared a report on his summer's work
in
the Mesa Verde
National Park for the use of the Department of the
Interior, an
advance summary of Avhich, issued by the department,
Avas Avidely
published
in
the
ncAA^spapers.
An
account
of the
excavation and
repair of Oak-tree House and Painted House, the largest cliff ruins
in Fewkes Canyon, was also piTpared for publication.
On the com-
pletion of these tasks Dr. FeAvkes devoted the remainder of his lim-
ited time to the preparation of the extended memoir on The Abo-
rigines of the West Indies for publication in a report of the bureau.
In June he again departed for the field with the vieAV of initiating,
before the close of the fiscal year, an inquiry into the archseological
evidences bearing on Hopi legends that ancestors of the clans of the
ancient pueblo of Sikyatki lived at Tebungki, or Beshbito,#an oval
ruin 15 miles cast of Kearns Canyon, Ariz.
Dr. Fewkes visited and
1910
0
64
AITNUAL UEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITXr:^ON,
1916 .
surveyed
the ruin and made photographs and
notes
tliereof.
He
likewise investigated
certain largo ruins east of Tehungki, on the
ancient trail of migration from Chaco Canyon, and traced for some
distance the prehistoric trail running from San Juan Valley south-
ward
past the
great
ruins,
as yet undescribed, near
Crownpoint,
N. Mex.
During the months of July to December, 1915, Mr. James Mooney,
ethnologist, continued to devote most of his attention to the prepar-
ation
for publication of the Cherokee Sacred Formulas, including
transliteration, translation, and explanation of each formula, with
complete glossary and botanic index.
These formulas, collected by
Mr. Mooney on the East Cherokee Reservation in North Carolina,
are written
in
the Cherokee language and
alphabet and held
for
their own secret use by priests of the tribe, most of them long since
dead.
They
consist
of
prayers,
songs, and
prescriptions,
dealing
with medicine, love, hunting, fishing, agriculture, war, the ball play,
self-protection, etc.
They number in
all between 500 and 560, con-
tained in several manuscripts, as follows;
1 . Qadiywanasti
("Bolt,” died 1888).—186 in a large blank book of foolscap
size, aiul
1)4 others on separate slieets of the same size, closely written; 280 In
all.
Obtained from Ids son.
2.
A'yufiini
(“ ^riWiuimer," died 1899).—Written in an unpaged blank book of
242 pages, 3i by 12 inches, only partially filled
; 137 in
all.
Obtained from him»
self and transliterated and translated with
full explanation from his distution
in 1888.
3. A'waniia (“Young Deer/' died about 1892).—24 written on separate sheets
and obtained from iiim in 1888,
Tiainscribed later into No 4.
4. Tslskwa
(“ Dird,” died 1889).—22, dictated from deathbcMl and with other
formulas written
out
in
regular
fashion,
witli
ind(‘x,
in
a
]>lank book
of
2tK)
pages, 8 by
1,0 inches, by Iiis nephew, W. W. Long
( Will west!), in
1889.
5. DaywafiJti
(“Catawba
Killer,”
died about
181K).
Written
out from
his
dictation by W. W. Long, in No. 4, in 1889
; 11 in
all.
G. Gahuni
(died 18G6).—30
in
all, together with a Cherokee-English vocabu-
lary
in
Cherokee
characters and
other
miscellany,
contained
in
an
unpaged
blank book, G by 14 inches.
Obtained in 1889 from his widow, Ayflsta, mother
of W. W. X.ong.
7. Other
formulas
originally
written by
Inkli
(“Black
Fox,”
died
about
1880),
YanOgftlegi
(“Climbing
Bear,”
died
1904,
Ddninaii
(“Tracker,”
still
living), Ayksta
(“Spoiler,”
died
1916), Aganstata
(“Groundhog Meat,”
still
living), and others; mostly transcribed into No. 4.
8. A large number of dance songs, ceremonial
addresses,
Civil War
letters
from
Cherokee
in
the Confederate
service,
council
records,
etc.,
all
in
the
Cherokee language and
characters, contained
in various
original
blank book
manuscripts and letter sheets.
Some of these have been transcribed into No.
4,
and many of them might properly appear with the Sacred Formulas.
Of
all
this
material, about
150
formulas,
including
the
entire
Swimiper book,
No.
2, were
transliterated,
translated, and
anno-
tated and glossarized, with Swimmer’s assistance, in 1888-89.
Of
BEPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
55
these,
28
specimen
formulas
were
published
in
1891
in
Sacred
Formulas of the Cherokees,” in the Seventh Annual Report of the
bureau.
The manuscript glossary for the whole 150 formulas num-
bers about 2,000 words.
All the other formulas, together with the more important miscel-
lany noted under No. 8, were transliterated and translated with inter-
linear translation
in
tlie summers of 1911-14, together with such
additional explanation as might be furnished by surviving experts.
Also some 500 or GOO plants noted in the medical
|)rescriptions have
been collected in
field, with their Cherokee names and
uses, and
the botanic identilication made hy assistance
(>f tlie botanists of the
National Museum.
This entire body, exclusive of No. 2 completed, is
now in process of final transcription and elaboration, with explana-
tion, botanic appendix, and glossary.
Most of the work at present is
being devoted to the Gadigwanasti manuscript, but the interdepend-
ence
of
the
formulas
necessitates
fi*eqiient
shifting
from
one
to
another.
The glossary proceeds incidentally with the final transla-
tion, but more slowlv^ as the
full import of tlie words becomes mani-
fest,
Many of the words and expressions are technical, symbolic, and
in arcliaic and unusual dialectic forms, with corresponding difliculty
of interpndution.
The conijilete glossary will probably comprise at
least 4,000 words.
The botanic section will consist of a
list of all the plants used in
the formulas,
as
stated, and of some others
of special importance,
with
their Indian names and meanings, botanic
identification, and
Cherokee uses as deduced from the vai-ious formulas and from direct
information.
An explanation of the method and
significance of the ceremony,
the preparation of the medicine and the manner of
its application
will accompany each formula, but this work
is deferred to the end,
to insure symmetrical treatment without unnecessary repetition.
It
is planned to have one or more introductory chapters explana-
tory of the Cherokee mythology, beliefs relating to the spiritual and
occult world, ceremonial observances, initiation of hunters, and other
matters
illustrative
of
the
formulas, together with
parallels from
other tribal systems, and also a chapter explanatory of the peculiar
linguistic forms.
More than 200 formulas have received
final form.
The finished
work will
fill at least one large report volume and I'equire a year for
completion.
In July and August, 1915, Mr. Mooney gave considerable time to
furnishing information and suggestions for the proposed Sequoya
statue intended to constitute Oklahoma’s contribution to the Capitol
gallery.
The usual number of letter requests for miscellaneous in-
formation also received attention.
AKKUAL REPORT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
On May 27 Mr. Mooney proceeded to western North Carolina for
the purpose of continuing his Cherokee studies, and at the close of
the fiscal year was still in the field.
Dr. Jolin R. Swanton, ethnologist, devoted the greater j^art of the
year to his memoirs pertaining to the Creek and associated tribes, to
which
reference
ivas made
in the
last reporL
The
first
of
these,
dealing with the habitat and classification of the former Southeastern
Indians, their history and population, is nearly completed;
it consists
of u])waid of 750 typewritten pages, e\^'lusi\e of the ])i])liography,
all of vhich
lias been put in order and annotated.
Some new" manu-
script sources of information ha\e
recenth
becui discovered
whicli
will make
further additions necessarv,
I)ut
with
this exception the
text is now^ complete.
Six maps are to
lie used in illustration;
tw'o
of these, wdiich are entirety newy are now being made, and the others
are to be reproductions.
The second paper, to co\ er the social oi'gani-
nation and
social
customs of the Cieeks and
tlieir neighbors, has
likewise been arranged and annotated, but
it
is being hehl
in order
to incorporate tlu^ results of further field research.
From the end
of September until
the
latter
paid of Noveunber,
1915, Dr. Swanton was in Oklahoma, wher(‘ he collected
1
])ages of
Natchez
text from one of the three sur^i^iIIg sjiealcers of the lan-
guage;
lie
also spent about three weeks among the
Crc'clc
Indians,
where about 80 pages of myths in English wxnv })ioeured.
Further
ethnological mateiial was also obtained from the Cieelvs and
fi*om
the Chickasaw, to whom
a ])relimijiary
\)sit was made.
While w’ith
the former jieople Dr. Swanton perfe(‘te<l arrangements w i(b a }ouiig
man
to
fnrni'-h texts
in
the nati\e language, which
he
is
able
to
W’rite fluently, and
in this way
173 ])ages lia\e been submitted, not
including
translation.
From Judge
(1.
AV.
(Iraysou,
(»f
Eufaula,
Okla., to whom the
luircau
has
biMui
core taiitly imkhied
in jnauy
ways, wuis obtained
in Creek and English, and aEo in the foim of a
dictaphone ipcorj,
a
speech
of the kind
forrnei’ly
delivered
at
tlie
annual poslcifa^ or busk, ceremony of tlie Creeks.
From an Alibamn
correspondent, referred to in pre\ious reports, some additions to the
Alibamu vocabulary and a fiwv pages of Alibamu text w^cre procured.
At the beginning of the ii^cal year Mr. J. N. B. IIcAviti, ethnolo-
gist, transcribed and
edited
the Seneca text
Dooa’dane'goy’ and
Hotkwisdadege'''’a; making
15 pages,
to w"hich he added
a
literal
interlinear translation that i^equired more than twice as many Eng-
lish words as Indian, the whole being equivalent to about 130 pages.
This text
is
a part of the Seneca material now
in
press
for the
Thirty-second Annual Report of the bureau.
Mr. Ilewdtt aho read
for correction, emendation, and expansion, the galley proofs of Cur-
tin’s Seneca material, and prepared more than 50 pages of notes and
additions for the introduction and also for the text; he also has r(?ady
REPORT OP THE SEORETAEt.
67
notes and corrections for the proofs
still to come.
From unedited
text Mr. Hewitt completed a free translation of 32 pages of the Onon^
(Inga version of the
reqnickening address” of the Eitiial of Con-
dolence of the League of the Iroquois, being a part of the material
for his projected memoir on the Iroquois League.
After the material
of the Seneca legends had been submitted for
printing, Mr. Curtin’s held records and notes, made while recording
this material, cnme into possession of the bureau.
Mr. Hewitt de-
voted much time to reading and examining tliis undigested material,
some
1,000 pages, for the pur})ose of ascertaining whether part of it
should be utilized for printing or for illustrative purposes in wdiat
wuis already in type.
This examination yielded some good material
for notes and
interpi'ctations, but only small
retui-n
as to new ma-
terial for printing.
In the early autumn Mr. Hewitt made special ])reparations for the
prosecution of held w ork on his ])roj(‘cted memoir on the League of
the
li‘0 (iu()ls,
by
tentative
editing and
co])yIng
of
a number
of
Mohawdv and Onondaga
texts
recoi-ded
liastily
in
tlie
field in pre-
vious years,
'Fhe following paiLs of the Ritual
(vf the Condolence
Council were thus typewritten: The fore
])art of the Ceremony of
Condolence,
called
Leside-The- Forest,”
or
'CI)eside-The-Thicket,”
in IMolnnvk;
tlie so-calhal
'' Re(juickening Address,” in the Onondaga
version, and
also the explanatoiy ‘Ontrodudion ” and
the ^Ocply”
in Onondaga
to the
^MJeside-The-Forest ”
address
already
noted;
and the installation address in Onondaga, made by Dekanawida to
the last tw o Seneca leaders to join the
ricague,
wais likewise edited
and
typewritten.
Mi*.
Hewitt
also devoted much
study
to
other
parts of the League material, for tlie purpose of being aide to dis-
cuss it intelligently and crilically with native informants.
Some of
the most striking
results of this year's
field
wTirk
are due
to
this
preparatory study of the matei’ial already in hand.
Mr. Hewhtt spent
many days in the
ollice
in searching out and
{)re])aring data
for
replies to con;es])ondeTds of the buicau.
On April 17,
Mr. Hewitt left IVasliington for the Six Nations
reserve
neai* Lrantford, Ontario, for the ])urpose of resuming
field
w^ork, having
in view primarily the putting into
final form of the
Onondaga and Molunvk texts pertaining to the League of the Iro-
quois, jccorded
in former ye^ii's.
These texts cover a wvidc rapge of
subjects and
repi'csent the
first serious attempt
to
record
in these
languages very technical and highly figurative language from per-
sons unaccustomed to dictate connected texts for recording.
These
text embody laws, decisions, rituals, ceremonies, and constitutional
principles; hence
it
is essential that correct verbal and grammatic
forms bo given.
58
BVTOM &M1THSOSIAN INSTITUTIOK, WIO.
One of the most important results of Mr. Hewitt’s held studies is
the demonstration that, contrary to all available
various printed
accounts,
there were never mo e than
id
h-deral
civil chiMs of the League of the Iroquois, and that the nunjer aO,
due to misconception of the meaning of ordinary terms by Thoma.
Webster of the New York Onondaga, who died about SO years ago,
is modern and nnhistorical.
This false leaching has gamed credence
because
it arose only
after the dissolution
of the integrity of
t
o
League of
tlie
Iroquois in
the years
following
its wars with the
United States, when most of the tribes became dividei
, some remov-
ing to Canada and some, remaining in New York State, a condition
which naturally fostered new interpretations and newer versions ot
older legends and traditions.
Mr. Hewitt also recorded a Cayuga version of the so-called Dekan-
awida tradition, comprising
h‘]0 pages of
text,
dictated- by
Chief
John H. Gibson, which purports to relate the events that led to the
founding of the League or Confederation of the
1^ ive Iroi^uois tiibes
and the part taken therein by the
prlnc/ipal
actors.
Tu this
inter-
esting
version
Dekanawida
is known
only
by
the
epiihet
^‘The
Fatlierless,’- or literally “He AVho
is Fathei’less,” wliich empliasizes
the prophecy that he would he born of a
\’irgin.
In
this
\eisioil
“The
Fatherless'’
is
reiiresented
as
(establishing
among
the
Cayuga
tribesmen
the
exnet
loi’m
ol
g()\'(*rimient
that
later
he
foun(le<l among the Five Tr(K|iiois ti*ibes.
It is said Unit tlie Cayuga
selfishly limited the sco]>e of that form of goveimnieiit, and
t herefore
its benefits, to the Cayuga, people alone, for the Cayuga statesmen did
not conceive of its apj)licahility to tlie athiirs and welfare of all men.
And so, this tradition alllrms,
it became needful that “
llie bather-
less” return to the neighboi* tribi!S of the Cayuga to estublisli among
them the League of the Five Tribes of the Iroquois, which was de-
signed to be shared by
all
the tribes of
riKui.
This event
is men-
tioned in the other Dekanawida
vei^sions.
This C'ayuga version
also purports to ox])lain
the origin
of the
dualism lying at tlie foundation of all public institutions of Iroquois
peoples, by attributing the first such organization among the Cayuga
to two persons who were related to each other as “ I ather and Son,”
or “Mother and Daughter,”
and who
agreed
to
conduct
public
affairs jointly.
This statement of course
is somewhat wide of the
mark," because it does not explain the existence of similar dualisms
among other tribes such dualisms resting commonly,
in the
social
organization, on the dramatization of the relation of the male and
female principles in nature.
Mr. Hewitt was also able to confirm another radical exegesis of a
part of the
installation ceremony
of the League of the
Iroquois
as first proposed by himself.
This deals with the significance and
KEPOllT OF THE SECKETAKY.
59
the correct translation of the words of the famous “Six Songs” of
this ceremony.
All other interpreters who have attempted to trans-
late these words have assumed that these songs are “ songs of greeting
and welcome,” but Mr*. Hewitt, solely on grammatic grounds and the
position of these songs,* regards them rather as “ songs of parting,”
or “ songs of farewell,” whicli are dramatically sung by an imperson-
ator for tlie dead chief or chiefs.
Mr. Hewitt also recorded, in the Onondaga dialect, a sliort legend
descriptive of tire tJiree Air or Wind Beings or (iods, the so-called
IIo]1du'’i, the patrons of the Wooden-mask or “False- face” Society,
whose chief function
is the exorcism of disease; out of the community
and out of the bodies of
ill persons; another on the Medicine Flute;
another on
the Husk-mask
Society; and another on the moccasin
game used at the wake for a dead chief: in all moi'e than 100 pages of
text not related to the material dealing witli the lro(|uois Ixargiie.
While in the field Mr. Ibiwitt purcliased a number of fine specimens
illustrating Iroquois
culture, exhibiting art of
a
bigli order:
these
consist of
a wooden mask, colored
blruik;
a
husk-mask; two small
drums; a “ medicine
tiute; a moccasin game used at a chiefs wake;
a
pair
of
deer-hoof
j*atlles;
a
horn
rattle*;
and
a
sejuash
rattle.
During the time lie was in the lield, until the close of the fiscal year,
Mr. Hewitt read, studied, corrected, and annotated about 8,000 lines
of text other than that mentioned above, and also made a number of
photographs of Indians.
Mr.
1^^ rancis La Idesclie,ellinologist, was engaged in assembling his
notes on the rites of the Osage tribe.
V\> to the mouth of February,
280 pages of the ritual of the Fasting degree of the war rites were
finished, completing that degree,
wliicli comprises
4.02
pages.
The
(^kithadse, or Rush-mat degree, was next taken up and completed;
this degree covers
104:
pages.
The Child-naming
ritual was then
coimncnced, and 21 })ages ha ve been finished.
In September, while on leave of absence, Mr. La Flesche was visited
on the Omaha reservation by Xutha Wato'd" of the Tsizhu Wano”
gens, who gave a description of the Washabe Athi"^, or war ceremony,
as he remembered
it.
With this description he ga\e o wigie and 14
songs.
The
wigie
and
the
words
of
the
songs
liave
been
tran-
scribed from
the dictaphone but
are not yet typewritten, and the
music
of
the
songs
has not
yet
l>ceu
transcribed.
A number
of
stories also were obtained from Xutlui
Wato'd”, among them that
of the Osage traditional story of the separation of the Omaha and
Osage tribes.
Xiithii Wato^i*^ died soon after his return home,
liis
death being regarded by many as confirming the old-time belief that
anyone who recites informally the rituals associahHl with these cere-
monies will inevitably suffer dire punishment.
The death of this old
60
annual BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
man shortly after giving the rituals has therefore added to the diffi-
culties attending the task of recording these ancient rites.
iSFotwithstanding these obstacles, Mr. La Hesche succeeded, during
his
visit to the Osage Eeservation in April and May, in securing
from old Slio"'genio''i" the version of the Fasting ritual belonging to
the Tsizhu Peace gens, of
v;^hich he
is a member.
The wigic and
the words of the songs have been transcribed from the dictaphone,
but are not yet typewritten, and the music of the songs is also to be
transcribed.
Sho”'gemo"i”
likewise gave
the
Child-naming
ritual
belonging to his gens, in which there are two wigie, one containing
227
lines and
the
other
94.
In
addition
to
these
rituals,
Sho'"'-
gemo^i",
after
considerable
hesitancy,
recounted
the
“ Seven
and
Six”
(13)
coups
he
is
always
called
on
to
recount when
any
No'^'hC'zhi^ga
of
the
Ilo'''ga
division
])erforms
the ceremonies
of
some
of the war
rites.
For
this
service he
is
paid
a
horse and
goods amounting in value fj*om $125 to $150.
Mr. La Flesche also se(‘iired from IVhixthizhi information concem-
ing the duties of the two hereditary chiefs of the Osage
tribe, the
geiites from which
they
were
chosen, and how
their
orders were
enforced.
lie also obtained from Watsemo“i’^ two wigie, one recited
by him
at the ceremonies of the war
rites, and
the
other by the
N()''ho"zhi"ga of the H6"ga Ahiuto" gens.
In
these
studies
Mr.
La
Flesche
was
materially
assisted
by
Washoshe and
liis wife, who have both overc^ome their aversion to
telling
of
the
rites.
Washoshe
resigned
from
the
]SF(V‘ho"zhi"ga
order because of the injustice of its members toward a woman whom
he selected to weave ceT’emonially the rush-mat shrine for a waxobe
when he
w^as taking the (^athadse degree.
This man presented to
Mr. La Flesche a mnemonic stick owned by
liis father and gave the
titles of the groups
of
lines marked on
the
stick,
each
of which
represents a group of songs.
This mnemonic stick will be placed in
the National Museum with the Osage collection.
Mr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist, spent the entire fiscal year in
making an exhaustive study of the Indians of the Chumashan
lin-
guistic
stock
of
southern
California.
Three
different
bases have
been
established
for* working with informants and elaborating the
notes.
The period from July
to October,
inclusive, was spent
at
San Diego, Cal, where every facility for the work was granted by
the
courtesy
of the Panama-California
Exposition; November
to
March, inclusive, at the Southwest Museum, Los Angeles; and April
to June, inclusive, at Santa Ynez.
The month of January, 1916, was
spent at Berkeley,
Cal., where, through the courtesy
of
the Ban-
croft Library
of the University
of
California,
various
linguistic
manuscripts and
historical
archives pertaining to the Chumashan
stock were studies and copied.
During the period named more thsm
BEPOET OP THE SECEETAET.
61
300,000
words
of
manuscript
material
were
obtained
and
elab-
orated.
In addition to the grammatical and ethnological material
an exhaustive dictionary of the Ventureho is well under way, which
comprises some 8,000 cards.
This is to be followed by similar dic-
tionaries for the other
dialects.
The most
satisfactory
feature of
the work was
tlie
colle(*tion
of material on the supposedly extinct
dialects of San Luis Obispo and La Purisima.
The
Purisimefio
material consists mainly of words and corrected vocabularies, wliile
on the Obispeho important grammatical material was also obtained.
A large part of the material which
still remains to be obtained de-
pends on the life of two \'ery old informants, consexpieiitly
it
is most
important that Mr. Harrington continue his work in this immediate
field until the opportunities are exhausted.
The beginning of the fiscal year found Dr. Truman Michelson, eth-
nologist, at Tama, Iowa, (uigaged in continuing his researches among
the Fox Indians, which
consisted mainly of recording sociological
data and ritualistic origin myths.
In August, Dr. Michelson pro-
ceeded
to Oklahoma
for the puri)ose of investigating the sociology
and phonetics of the Sauk Indians, as well
as of obtaining transla-
tions of Fox texts |>ertaining especially to ritualistic origin myths.
After successfully concluding this work, Dr. Michelson returned to
Washington
in October, when he commenced the translation of the
textual material gathered in the
field.
Advantage Avas taken of the
presence in Washington of a deputation of Piegan in obtaining a de-
tailed
knoAvledge
of
Piegan
terms
of
relationship.
From
these
studies Dr. Michelson deimmined that the lists of relationship terms
recorded
Lewis II. Morgan, as well as by other investigators, re-
quire revision.
He also commenced to arrange the material gathered
by the
late Dr. William Jones i)ertaining
to the ethnology of the
Ojibwa Tribe, with
a view
of
its puhlicalion
as
a
bulletin of the
bureau.
Toward
the close of the year Dr. JMichelson undertook to
restore phonetically the text of the White Buffalo dance of the Fox
Indians, which likewise
is intended
for bulletin
publication.
It
is
believed that the results of this task
will be ready for the printer
before the (‘lose of the calendar year.
Dr. Leo J. Fraehtenberg, spe(‘ial ethnologist, di\dde(l his time, as
in previous years, bdween field research and office Avork.
On July 8
he left his Avinter heachjuarters at the TTnited States training schcK)l
at ChemaA\ a, Oreg., and proceeded to the Yakima Reservation, Wash.,
where
he
revised,
Avith
the
aid
of
the
last
Atfalati
Indian, the
Kalapuya manuscript material collected in 1877 by the late Dr. A. S.
Gatsebet of the bureau.
This material, comprising 421 manuscript
pages,
consists of
vocables, stems, grammatical
forms, and ethno-
logical and historical narratives, and its revision marked the comple-
6^
AHKUAL llEPOKT SMITHSOKIAK INSTTXUTIOK,
1016.
tion of the work on the Kalapnya linguistic family commenced two
summers ago.
This work lasted until the latter part of July.
In
conjunction with this particular phase of field work, Dr. Frachten-
berg corrected the second revision of the galley proofs of his Siuslaw
grammatical sketch to appear in the second part of Bulletin 40.
On returning to Chcmawa, Dr. Frachteiiberg took up the editing
and typewriting of his grammatical sketch of the Alsea language,
the compilation of which was completed during the previous winter;
this was finished in the early part of October, and the complete sketch,
consisting of 158 sections and 421 typewnfitten pages, was submitted
for publication
in
the second part of the Handbook of American
Indian Languages (Bulletin 40).
Dr. Fi’achtenberg interrupted this
work on August 22 and took a short trip to the Siletz Reservation,
wdiere he collected 52 Athapascan and
Sliastan songs, which were
transmitted to the bureau for future, analysis.
On October 7 he proceeded to the Quileute Reservation, where he
enlisted the services of a Quileute informant, with whom he returned
to Chemawui and brought to a successful coni])letion the stmly of the
grammar and mythology of the Quileute Tribe.
This investigation
extended from October until th(‘ lattei* ])art of March.
The material
collected
by
Dr.
Fi*a(*htenl)erg
diu'ing
this
period
(‘onsists
of
30
native myths and traditions fully
li auslated, a large body of notes to
these texts, voluminous grammatical forms, and vocables.
In Janu-
ary Dr. Fi’aclitenbeig left (diemawa
foi*
a short
trij) to
tlie Grand
Ronde
Reservation,
Oreg., where he
recorded
ID Kalapuya
songs
on the dictapliono.
As Dr. Frachtenberg’s allotment for fudd work among the Quileute
was then exhausteih be was obliged to remain at Cliemawui until the
close of the fiscal year.
He thei'efore undertook the correction of the
page
proofs
of
bis grammatical
sketch
of
the
Siuslaw
language
(pp. 431--G2D), and on its completion engaged in translating, editing,
and typewriting the Alsea texts collected
in
1910.
The editing of
these texts involved much labor,
since
it was deemed advisable to
present in the introduction a complete discussion of Alsea mythology,
and a concordance beween the folklore of this tribe and the myths of
the other tribes of the Pticific coast.
For that purpose
all the pub-
lished works on the folklore of the tribes of the northwestern area
were consulted, including that of the Maidu, Shasta, Yana, Klamath,
Takelma,
Coos, Lower Umpqua,
Tillamook,
Chinook,
Kathlamet,
Wishram, Quinault, Chilcotiii, Shuswap, Thompson River, Lillooet,
Haida, Tlingit, Kwakiut],Tsimshian,Bellae(>ola, and the Athapascan
Tribes of the north.
This work was practically completed by the
close of the fiscal year.
The collection consists of 8 creation myths,
13
miscellaneous
tales,
3
ethnological and
historical
narratives, 4
statements as to religious beliefs, and 3 tales collected in English (31
EEPOET OP THE SECEETAEY.
65
traditions in all).
It comprises, in addition to the introdution, 392
typewritten pages, and will be submitted for publication as a bulletin
of the bureau.
SPECIAL TIESEAHCHKS.
Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist, continued liis researches con-
nected with the preparation of tbe remainder of pait 2 of tlie Hand-
book of Arnei’ican Indian Languages, assisted by Dr. Hermann K.
ITaeberlin, Miss H. A. Andrews, and Miss Mildred Downs, and also
devoted
attention
to the completion
of
the
report on Tsimshian
mythology.
The bulletin on
Kutenai Tales,” forwhi(di galleys were received in
July, 1915, has been revised twice and
is nearing completion.
The
page
proof
is being
extracted
preparatory
to
the
accompanying
grammatical sketch and vocabulary.
Through the liberality of
IMr. Homer F. Sargent, of Chicago,
it
has been possible to do much work on the pre\)aratl(m of an extended
paper on the
Salish
dialects, now comprising about 500 pages of
manuscript.
The
mat(‘rial has been
collecded since
1880, partly by
Dr. Boas himself and
partly by Mr. James Teit,
tlie considerable
oxpejise of the
field work of Mr. Teit liaving been generously met
by Mr, Sargent.
In the course of the last 30 years
it has l)een pos-
.sible
to
collect
vocabularies of
all
the Salish
dialects,
sufiicient to
afford a clear insight into the fundamental I’clations of these dialects,
a preliminary work mn‘essai*y to a moi'e
thoi’oiigiii study of the lan-
guage.
At the same time
l\Ir, Teit gathered ethnological notes which
are to be included in this work.
The preparation of tlie vocabularies
and
of the
detailed
coni]>arison
that had
been begun
in
previous
years by Dr. Boas has been continued by Dr. Haebcrlin, the basis of
this study being their manuseri|)t material and the published sources.
Also through the liberality of ilr. Sargent and
in cooperation with
Cohiinbia
ITiiiversit}^ in the citv of 2^ew York, Dr. Haeberlin will
be able to supplement his material by an investigation of one of the
tribes of Puget Sound.
The interest of Mr. Sai'gent has also made possible a detailed study
of the Salish basketry of the interior [ilatean and the preparation of
the illustrations for a memoir on this subject.
For the latter purpose
there have been utilized the collections of tlie United States National
Museum, the American Museum of Natural HisHx)ry, the University
Museum of Philadelphia, the Museum of the American Indian (Heyo
Foundation), and the private collections of Mr. Sargent and otheTs.
The preparation of a manuscript on the Ethnology of the Kwakiutl
Indians has been well advanced.
The material for the first volume,
which
is to
contain, data collected by Mr. George Hunt, has been
completed, excluding a iiumber of translations which remain to be
64
AlsTKlTAL KEl^OET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1910-
elaborated.
According to the plan, the work
is to consist of two
parts, the first a collection of data furnished by Mr, Hunt in ansAver
to specific questions asked by Dr. Boas; the second a discussion of
them, and other data collected on previous journeys to Bintish Colum-
bia.
This volume is to consist of an account of the material culture,
social
organization,
religion, and
kindred
subjects.
Most
of
tlie
illustrations for this volume have been completed, and about 1,000
pages of manuscript
been
pre[>ared.
Miss Downs has made
detailed extracts from Kwakiutl myths recpiired for a discussion of
this subject.
Miss Downs has also compared the proofs of Dr.
hh'achtenberg’s
Siuslaw grammar with
j)ul dished
texts, aud these
])r()ofs
havi*. been
compared and passed on by Dr. Fiau'litenborg.
This W(»rk completes
the revision of the Hinslaw grammar, the juddicatiou of wliieh
lias
been delayed OAving to various reasons.
No progress has been made toward
the
final
puhlicaition
of the
Chukchee grammar, as
it has been inqiossible
to comnninicjite with
the anther, Mr. W. Bogoras, who
is in Bussia,
Some progress has been made with the contributions to Mexican
archeology and ethnology,
to be edited by
I^rof. Alfred M. Tozzer,
of Harvard
ITniATrsity,
Avitli
a
vicAv
of
tlieir
pulilication by
the
bureau as a bulletin.
Dr. Paul Badiii has furnished a manuscript on
HuaA^e; Dr.
Ilaeberlin has nearly completed
the study
of modern
Mexican
tales, collected by Dix
r>oas and by Miss
Isabel Iiamirez
Castaneda; and
Di*. Boas has
Ix'cn engaged
in
the preparation
of
material on certain types of Mexican pottciy and on an account of a
journey to Teul, Zacatecas.
Prof. W. II. Holmes, of the National Museum, eomjileted
for the
bureau the preparation
of
part
1
of
the
Ilaiuliiook
of Ameudean
Antiquities (Bulletin GO), and at^the close of (lie yetir galley proofs
of the entire Avork had been received and Avere in ]>rocess of revision.
On account of the pressure of more urgent work in connection with
his official duties, cmly limited jirogiuss Avas made in the [ireparation.
of part
2.
On
April
21
Mr. Holmes made
a
brief
visit
to
tlie
museums of Philadelphia and Ncav York for the purpose of conduct-
ing studies required in the preparation of this handbook.
Miss Frances Densmore’s field trip dm^ing tin' summer of 1915 for
the purpose of continuing her studios of Tiulian
music, comprised
visits to three reservations and occiqded (wo and one-half months.
Most of the time was spent among (he Mandan and ITidatsa, at Fort
Berthold, N. Dak., and during part of
liei* sojourn Miss Densmore
camped near what
is
recognized
as
the
last Mandan
settlement,
where she was enabled to record many interesting data that could
not have been obtained in any other
Avay.
The Indians felt more
fi^ee to sing there than at the agency, and Miss Densmore also had an
EEPOBT OP THE SECEETARY.
65
opportunity to observe and photograph native customs, notably those
of tanning a hide and preparing corn.
The study of music on the
Fort Berthold Keservation included that pertaining to the ccFemony
connected
Avitli eagle catcliing.
An old eagle trap was visited and
photogra plied, and the songs of the leader in the eagle camp were
recorded by the only illandan who liad the hereditary riglit to sing
them.
The songs of the (lOOse Women Society and the Creek AVomen
Society were
also sung
b}'
those who inherited them and were
re-
corded phonographically.
Among these
are
the
ceremonial songs
sung by the “corn
priest’’
in the spring to fructify the seed corn.
Songs of war and of the various men’s societies were also recorded.
The
total number
of songs from
this reservation now transcribed
exceeds IbO.
A new phase of
tlie work was that of ascertaining the pitch
dis-
crimination of
tlu‘ Indians by means of tuning forks.
This was be-
gun
at
Fort
Fertliold
and
continued
for compai*ative purposes
at
the Standing liock and AVhite Earth lieservatioiis.
Data from four
tribes are now availa])le on this subject of research.
Miss Densunu’e road
all
the galley and
part of the page proofs
of the
bulletin on Tidon
Sioux
Miisica
important
additions were
made
to this
])oo]v
in
tlie form of
gra[)]ilc representations, original
plots of 210 songs and
18 diagrams having been made to
exhibit
the
results
obtained
thiougb
mathematical
analyses.
Of
these
graphic reprt^senlations
iVo will apipear in the bulletin.
One hundred
and
fifty
{lagcs
of manuscript were submitled during the year, in
addition to the descriptive analyses of the songs.
In the preparation of
tiie Handbook of Aboriginal Eemains East
of the iMississippi, Air.
1).
1. Bushiiell, jr., added much new material.
Many letters ^\inv sent to county oflicials in New England requesting
information regarding
tlic
location of
ajiclent
village
sites,
burial
places, and other traces of aboriginal occupancy
in
their respective
areas.
Many of the replies contained valuable and interesting infor-
mation.
lA'tters
of
like nature were
addressed
to
officials
in
the
Southern
Stat(‘s, and the replies were equally satisfactory.
Numer-
ous photograi)hs have been received from various sources, which will
serve as illustrations for the handbook, but
it
is desired to increase
the number if possible.
The manuscript of the handbook will prob-
ably be completed during the next fiscal year.
Dr. AValter Hough, of
tlu^ National Museum, was detailed to the
bureau
in June for the purpose of conducting archeological investi-
gations in western
central New Mexico,
[h’oceeding to Luna, So-
corro County. Dr. Hough commenced the excavation of a niin pre-
viously located by him,
as described
in Bulletin 35 of the bureau
(p. 69).
This site was thought to contain evidence of pit dwellings
exclusively, but excavations showed that an area of about 40 acres
66
ANXITAL report SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
contained circular, semisubterranean houses in which no stone was
used for construction.
Seven of the pits were cleared, and
it was
ascertained
tliat many more existed beneath the surface, dug in the
sandy
substratum
of
the
region.
Burnt
sections
of
roofing
clay
showed that these houses were roofed with beams, poles, brush, and
mud,
as
in
present pueblo construction.
The roof was supported
by wooden
posts, charred remains of which
were found.
Nothing
was ascertained respecting the construction of tlie sides of the dwell-
ings or in regard to the Iieight of
tlie roofs.
On the floor of each
of the pits uncovered were a rude metate, grinding stones, slabs of
stone, and the outline of an otherwise undefiruHl firejdace not quite
in the center of the chamber.
A bench about a foot high and a few
feet in length was cut in the wall of some of the pits, and in one of
the
pits, against the wall, was a
fire])lace with raised sides of clay.
Another type of structures adjoined the
pits;
these were rectan-
gular, open-air houses with mud roofs, in which mealing and culinary
work was carried on.
Here were numerous metates, manos, rubbing
stones, pottery, etc.; some of the metates were
sc‘t up on three round
stones.
Near the
pit was a cemetery in which infants were buried,
the burials being associated with clay hearths and much charcoal, and
near the bodies were placed small ])ottery vessels.
Scrapers of flint
and bones of deer were also found among the burials.
So far as as-
certained, flic people who used the circular semisubterranean houses
had a limited
range.
Traces of their culture have not been found
below an elevation of 7,000 feet in the mountain valley, and it appears
probable that their culture was associated with an envirfronient of
lakes which once existed in these valleys.
It is evident in some cases
that the pit dwellings were displaced by houses of stone.
In most
instances artifacts arc different from those of the stone-house Ijuild-
ers, and the hitter have more points of resemblance to, than of differ-
ence from, the ancient inhabitants of Blue River.
It is })robable that
the range of the pit-house people would be found to be more exten-
sive b}^ excavation Jiroimd the sides of stone houses in other locali-
ties, the remains of pit structures being easily obliterated by natural
filling.
At this time the pit-dweller culture can be
affiliated only
with uncertainty with that of the ancient Pueblos.
At the present
stage of the investigation the lack of skeletal material is severely felt,
but further work may overcome this difficulty.
In continuation of his preliminary examination of archeological
remains in western Utah, summarized
in the last annual report of
the bureau (pp. 51-53), Mr. Neil M. Judd, of the National Museum,
returned
to Utah
in June,
1916, and
excavated one
of the
large
mounds near Paragonah,
in
Iron
County.
Limited
in time and
handicapped by unfavorable weather, the results obtained were less
than those anticipated ; nevertheless they show the similarity existing
BEPOKT OF THE SECEETARY.
67
between the
ancient Paragonah
dwellings and
those near Beaver
City and neighboring settlements, and warrant the
belief that the
builders of these structures were more closely related to the house-
building peoples of Arizona and New Mexico than has been suspected.
In the report following his reconnoissance of last year, Mr. Judd
drew attention to the fact that the mounds still existing near Para-
gonah comprise a mere remnant of tlie large group formerly at that
place and predicted the early razing of those remaining.
The hurried
investigation of this year was undertaken for the purpose of gaining
information regarding these ruins before their destruction.
One of the largest and, at the same time, one of the least disturbed
mounds was selected as a type for excavation.
Its dimensions were
approximately 100 by 300 feet; its average height was
Id
feet.
Two
great gashes had been made through the o|)posite ends of the mound
by
diggings
of many
years
ago,
each
cut
partially
exposing
the
walls of a single long room.
Including these two dwellings, which
were
rcexcavated only with
considerable
difiiculty, Mr. Judd
suc-
cessfully revealed and measured the walls of 14 rectangular houses,
11 of which are entirely cleared of fallen diT)ris and earth accumula-
tion.
The walls of these ancient
habitations,
like those previouslj"
examined near Beaver City, had been constructed entirely of adobe
mud;
in their present condition they exhibited no e\idence
of the
use of angular bricks or blocks similar to those employed in Pueblo
structures subsequent
to
the
Si)anish
conquest.
On
the
contrary,
close examination showed that the \valls were invariably formed by
the union of innumerable masses of
[)lastic clay, forcial togetlier by
the hands of the builders and surfaced
inside and out during the
process of construction.
Careful inspection of the ruins showed that
the dwellings w^re originally roofed
in the manner typical of
cliff
houses and of modern Pueblo stj-uctures througliout the Southwest.
No certain evidence could be found that doors or other wall openings
were utilized by the primitive artisans—eacli house invariably con-
sisted of a single room that apparently had been entered from the
roof.
One
of
the
most
important
discoveries made
during
the
course of the Paragonah excavations was that of
a
circular, semi-
subterranean room
which, with similar
wuill
fragments previously
discovered in the Beaver City mounds, tends to establish the use of
the
kiva,
or
ceremonial
chamber,
by
the
ancient
house-building
peoples of w^estern Utah.
On the conclusion of his studies at Paragonah, Mr. Judd proceeded
to Fillmore, Willard County, for the purpose of investigating cer-
tain mounds reported in that neighborhood.
These and similar ele-
vations near the villages of Meadow, Deseret, and Hinckley, 'were all
superficially identified as of the same type and representing the same
68
akkital report Smithsonian institution,
1016.
degree of culture is those above described.
In
all a
collection of
more than 500 objects was gathered during the course of the season’s
work*
A pleasing coincidence resulting from Mr. fTiiclcVs Fillmore investi-
.gation was tlie fact that the guide he engaged had been employed in
the same
capacitj^ by
Dr. Edward
Palmer,
one
of
the
National
Museum’s most indefatigable
collectors, during the
latter’s expedi-
tion of 1872.
The archeological data collected by Mr. Judd during his two brief
expeditions to western XTali
are sullicicnt to
Avarraiit
tlie extension
of the northern limits of the area known to lun e been occupied by
the ancient Pueblo peoples.
Further work, however, is urgent, since
that already accomplished has not only contributed certain valuable
facts to Southwestern arclicology, but
it has shown also the j)roba“
bility of finding, in the iinkjiown desert regions of tliat section, a solu-
tion of some of the vital questions with which American anthropology
has labored for many years.
By reason of the
fact that Mr. James 11. IMuric has been engaged
by the American Museum
of Natural
Ilislory, New York City,
in
connection with
its ethnologic
researches
pertaining
to
the Plains
Indians, his work of recording (he rites and ceremonies of the Pawnee
Tril>e came to
a
close, and tentative aiTangements lane been made
whereby the American Museum will complete the investigation and
the results published by the hiireaii.
Dr. Clark Wissler, curator of
anthropology of the Arnei'ican Mnsenm, has iindeilakcn this task.
Dr A. L. Kroeber, of the ITniversity of California, continued the
preparation of the Handbook of the Indians of California
for pub-
lication by the
bui’cau, and
at
this writing
it
is
believed
that the
manuscript, with the accompanying maps and
illustrations, will be
submitted for publication before tlie close of the calendar year.
MANUSCRIPTS.
The large
collection
of
maniisci'ipts
in
|)()ssession
of the bureau
was augmented by the following principal
items, which do not
in-
clude
manuscripts
in
process
of
preparation by members
of
the
bureairs staff for publication:
Miami-French dictionary;
photostat copy of the
original
in the
John Carter Brown Library at Providence, R.
I.
A number of notebooks from Dr. A. L. Kroeber, on Gros Venti'e
and Cheyenne-Arapaho linguistics and texts,
These consist of:
(a)
Gros Ventre, 41-47, 49;
(?;) Arapaho and Cheyenne,
1-14,
21-22,
24-28, and also a catalogue of this material recorded on 3,500 cards;
(o)
110 pages of manuscript on the same subjects.
First draft of Gatschet’s Klamath Dictionary, 177 pages,
BEPORT OF THE SECRETARY,
69
Copies of the following manuscripts, made by photostat in the
bureau by the courtesy of Rev. George Worpenberg, S.
J., librarian
of St. Mary’s College, St. Marys, Ivans.
Catechism dans la lan^ne Potowjitdmi, A. D. 1847.
Petit Catecliism on
Taui^,aio Potewiitemi, A. D. ISIS.
Evangel ia
Dorn, and Evangelia
in
Festis, and portions of the Gospels read
on Sundays and certain Festivals of the Saints.
PITRLICATIONS.
The task of editing the publications of the bureau has continued
in charge of JMr.
»!. G. Gurley, editor, assisted from time to time b}^
Mrs, FrancevS S. Nichols.
Following is a summary for the year:
1* T J B I.K
’ A r loN S
I S S IT KI).
Twenty-ninth Annual
Report
(l.dU7-0.S). Accompanying paper:
Tlie
Ethno-
geography of the Town Indians, hy .John Poahody Harrington.
Tlurtieth Annual
Kev>ort
(19()S-()0). Acconu>anyiug ptipors
: Ethnohotany of the
Ziiui Indians
tSloviMisou)
; An
Iiapiiry
into the Auiinisui and Folk-lore of the
Guiana Indians
(Uolh).
Bulletin
57. An
Introduction
to
the Study
of
the Maya
Hieroglyphs
(Mor-
U>y).
BulU'tiii
02.
Physicid Anthropology
(»f
(In'
LenaiH' or DeJawares, and
of the
Eastern Indians
in
(h'lieral
(Ilrdlicka).
VCliLlCATIONS JN PKKSS OH
t.N
PUHl’ AHATION
Thirty-tirst
Annual
Report
(19()9--I0). Ar(‘oinpanying
]>aper: Tsiinshian
Mythology
(Boas).
Thirty-second Annual Report (1910-11). Accompanying paper
: Seneca Fiction,
Legends, and Myths
(collected by Jeremiah Giirtin and J. N. B. Hewitt; edited
by J. H. B. Hewitt).
Thirty-third Annual Report (1911-12). Accompanying papers
: Designs on Pre-
historic Hopi Pottery
(Ftnvkes)
; Preliminary Aceount of the Antiquities of the
Region between
the
Maiieos and La
Plata
Rivers
in
Soutliwestern
Colorado
(Morris)
;
T^ses of Plants hy the Indians of the Nebraska
Ttegion
(Cilinoro)
;
Mound Excavation
in
the
Eastern Maya Area, with
an
Introduction
dealing
with the General
Ouitiire of
tlie Natives
(Gann).
Bulletin 40. Handbook of American Indian Laiiguagtvs
(Bo,as).
Part
2.
Bulletin 55. Etlinobotany of
tlie UVwa Indians
(Robbins, Harrington, Freire-
Marreco).
Bulletin
59. Kntenai Tales
(Boas).
Bulletin
C)0. Handbook
of Aboriginal American
Antiquities,
Part
1.
Intro-
ductory.
Tlie Litldc Industries: Mining, (Quarrying, Manufacture (Holmes).
Bulletin Cl. Teton Sioux
Music
( Densinorc
)
The distribution of the publications of the bureau has continued
in immediate
chtirge
of Miss Helen Munroe,
of
the
Smithsonian
Institution, and at times by Mr. E. L. Springer, assisted from the
beginning of the fiscal year until his resignation on April 15 by Mr.
W. A. Humphrey, and subsetpiently by Miss Lana V. Schelski.
Not-
withstanding conditions in Europe and
tlie impossibility of sending
publications abroad except to a very limited extent, 2,235 more pub-
73839”—SM 1910
*6
w
AWNTJAL RiiPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
lications were distributed than during the previous fiscal year.
This
distribution may be classified as follows:
Series.
Copies.
Annual rt^iorts and separates
2, 036
'Bulletins and
Kseiiaratos
9,990
Oontrilnitions to Nortli Anieriean
Klhnoloji^y—volume.s and separates
18
Introductions
9
Miscellaneous publications
3(57
12, 420
ILLUSTUATTONS.
Mr. DeLancey
Gill,
illustrator, has continued
in charge of the
preparation oi the illustrations for the publications of the bureau and
of photographing
the
meunbers
of
visiting Indian
deputations
to
Wash in gt on, in which work he has lieen assisted by Mr. Albert E,
Sweeney.
The results accomplished in this direction are as follows:
Number.
Photographic prints for disiribiition and oflice nse
1,137
Negativi's
of
etlinologic imd
arcbeologi<* subjects
126
Nogativi'
lilins
devcloyied from
field
ex]K)snres___
188
Photostat prints from liooks and manuscrijits
.
..
1,125
IMoiiuls
used
.
-
.
-
78
Proofs examined
251
Phetographs
retouclKMl
.
..
43
Drawings made
187
Portrait:
m'gatives
of
visiting
delegations
(Pawnee,
Sauk
ami
Fox,
Winnebago, P>lackfoot, (.dieyenne, Cbippmva)
25
The (‘.omplete editions of three colored
plait's, aggregating 20,000
prints, were examined at the Government Printing Oflice.
Illustra-
tive material for three bulletins was completed for reproduction, and
progress wms made on
similar work
for
tlie
Thirty-third Annual
Report.
LIBRARY.
The library of the bureau continued in charge of Miss Ella Leary,
librarian, assisted by Charles B. Newman, messenger boy.
During
the year
1,078
^()lumes were
accessioned;
of
these 214 were pur-
chased, 135 were acquired by
gift and exchange, and 729 are
vol-
umes of serials which were entered after having been bound for the
first time.
The library also procured 272 pamphlets, chiefly by gift.
The periodicals currently
i-eceived number about
750, of which 12
are
acquired by
subscription
and
738 by
exchange.
Among
the
more noteworthy accessions of books are 20 volumes of Bibles, Testa-
ments, and portions of the
Bible
in American Indian languages.
The library now contains about 21,315 volumes,
13,460 pamphlets,
and several thousand unbound periodicals.
There were sent to the
Government Printing Office for binding, 1,338 books, pamphlets, and
REPORT OP THE SECRETARY.
71
serial publications, and of these all but 20 bad been returned to the
bureau before the close of the year.
In addition to the cataloguing of current accessions the efforts of
the librarian were devoted to making a subject, author, and analyti-
cal catalogue of the books represented
in the old
catalogue by an
imperfect author catalogue alone.
In this connection special atten-
tion was given
to linguistic works.
From time to time Mrs. F.
S.
Nichols has assisted in this work, and satisfactory i)rogress has been
made.
Although maintained primarily foi- the use of the staff, the library
is consulted more and more by students not members of the bureau,
as well as by officials of the Library of Congress and of the Govern-
ment departments.
(COLLECTIONS.
The following collections were acquired l)y the lauream by members
of its staff, or l)y those detailed in connection with its researches, and
have been transferi'cd to the National Museum:
704
archeological
objects gathered
in Utah
and Wyoming by
IMr.
Neil
I\I.
Judd.
(HSToT.)
Colhiction of potsherds showing types of ornamentation, from the Naeooehoe
Mound, White (Nmnty,
Ceorgia,
being
a
part
of
the
ot)je(*ts gathered by
the
Joint
exi)odition
of
the
1‘urean
of
AnK'riean
Lihnology and Museum
of
the
American
Jndiaii (Heye
l^'(Uindation).
irKSSlU.)
170 arclie(»logical
s]>eciineris coll<‘cl(‘d by Mr. Cerard Lowin' at
tlu' Hint (piarry
shop
site’s at th'escent,
St. Lonis (’ounty, Missouri.
(otKUr).)
Collection of nonhuinan bones from tho Nacoochee Mound, Ceorgia.
(.71)017.)
A small
colI(‘(‘tion
of
praye'r-sticks fnmi a Tuehlo shrine on
the summit of
lanigley
Teak,
west
of
the
Tlio Crande and
south
of
the
Kio Chama, New
Mexk'O, presented by
I\Ir. Robert
11. ('hapman.
(50112.)
5J Indian potsherds and arrow
i)oint.s pia'sented by
]Mr.
Artliur
Ti. Norman,
Troup, T('xas.
(50252.)
Stone “collar” fi-om Porto Uico, received by ])urchase from Mr. K. A. Beline,
San Cerinaii, Porto
Rico.
(50280.
A point and taeLU'
of
a salmon spear;
a
halibut
hook, and
live small
fish-
hooks, the gift of Mr. Robert
IT. (Uiaiiman.
(50288.
Set of car perforators formerly owned by WAthuxage of the Tsfzlm Wash-
tage gens of the Osage, presented through Mr. Pramus La Plesc'he by Mrs. Fri'd
Lookout.
(59782.)
Sacred hawk
bundle,
or
waxohe,
of the
RiilTahoface
Ih'oiilo
of
the Osage
tribe, collected by Mr. Francis La Flesche.
(50702.)
Osage war shield, collected by Mr. Frainas La Flesche.
(50034.)
PROPERTY.
In regard to the property of the bureau
tliere
is nothing to add
to the statements presented in recent reports.
The cost of necessary
furnitTiro,
typewriters, and
photographic and other
ap})aratiis
ac-
quired during the fiscal year was $288.54.
72
AKISriJAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Quarters ,—One of the rooms in the north tower occupied by the
bureau
force was repaired and painted, a new
electric
fixture
in-
stalled, and the wooden casing under the exi)osed stairway removed
and fireproofing substituted.
Personnel ,—The only change in the personnel of
tlie bureau was
the
resignation
of Mr. William
A.
rium])lirey, stenographer and
typewriter, on A]:)ril 15, 191(), and tlie appointment of Miss Lana V.
Schelski on May 15 to
fill the vacancy.
The correspondence and other cleiacal work of the oifice, in addition
to that above mentioned, has been condiKied by Miss Florence M.
Poast, clerk to the ethnologist in charge; Miss May
S. Clark, who
particularly aided Mr.
Bushnell
in
corres[)ondence
cf)nnected
with
the preparation of the Handbook of Aboriginal Kemains; and Mrs.
F. S. Nichols, who has aided the editor.
Kespectfully submitted.
F. AV.
Iloix.K,
Kfhnolofjist
i)i
( '/umje.
Dr. Chaklus D.
AA^atuott,
tieci^etary of the fSinithsonian InsIttutJon,,
Washington,^ D,
C,
Appendix
3.
REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
Sir: I have the lionor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the International Exchange Service during the
fiscal year
ending June
^10, 191 G.
The
congressional
a])propriation
for
the support
of
the
service
during the year, including the allotment for printing and binding,
was $32,200
(the same amount as appro])riated
for the past eight
years), and the repayments from dejmrtmental and other establish-
ments aggregated $3,078.25, making the total available resources for
carrying on
tlie system of exchanges $35,878.25.
During the year 1910 the total number of packages handled was
301,025, an increase of 25,809, as compared with the preceding year.
The weight of these packages was 399,095 pounds, an increase of
31,811 pounds.
Although these figures show an increase
in the amount of work
carried on by the service over that for last year, both the number and
wxnght of the packages handled are lower than
for the year
1914.
This reduction, however, is accounted for by the suspension of ship-
ments to a number of countries, owing to the European war, as ex-
plained in the last report.
The number and weight of the packages of
dilferent
classes are
indicated in the following table
United States parllamoiitary documonts sent abroad
Publications rocoi\"od in rotum for parliamontary documonts.
.
United States departmental documents sent abroad
Publications received in return for departmental documents . ,
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad .
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from
abroad for distribution in the United States
Total......
Qrand total
Packages.
Weight.
Sent.
Received.
Sent.
Received.
1 <11,265
Pounds.
93,458
Pounds.
8,073
16,9;i8
72, 706
142,415
4,352
8,911
‘!2, 862
84,196
17,307
63,777
270,893
1
24, 732
320,069
79,626
301,625
399,696
73
74
ANKXJAL BEPOET SMITHBONIAN INSTITUTIOK, 1^16.
In connection witii the above statistics, attention should be called
to the
fact
that many returns for publications sent abroad
reach
their
destinations
direct by mail and
not through
the Exchange
Service.
Of
tlie
1,758
boxes
used
in
forwarding
exclianges
to
foreign
agencies
for
distribution, 319 contained
full
sets of United
States
official documents for authorized
depositoi'ies, and 1,439 were
filled
with departmental and other publications for depositories of partial
sets and
for
miscellaneous
correspondents.
The
total number
of
boxes sent abroad during 1916 was 105 more than the preceding year.
As referred to last year, the interruption to transportation
facili-
ties caused by the European war made
it necessary for the Inter-
national Exchange Service in August, 1911, to suspend the shipment
of consignments to Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary,
Montenegro, Ivoumania, Russia, Serbia, and Turkey.
With the ex-
ception of Germany, exchange relations with tliese countries ai’e still
suspended.
It has been possible to arrange for the sending of several
consignments
to Germany through the American consul general
at
Rotterdam, but the Institution has not yet undertaken the regular
transmission of boxes to that country.
One shipment has been
re-
ceived from GJermany, and the Institution, through the Department
of State, has arranged with the British Government for the sending
of consignments from
(iermany
to
this country
at bimonthly
in-
tervals.
In May, 1915, as mentioned in the last report, the Institution en-
deavored to arrange with the Commission of International Exchanges
at Petrograd for the resumption of shipments to Russia by way of
Archangel, but the commission then expressed a desire to postpone
the
renewal
of
operations
until
after the
close
of
the
war.
The
commission now
writes
tluit
it has been found
possible
to resume
the forwarding of consignments either by way of Vladivostok, Rus-
sia, or Bergen, Norway.
The Institution has signified its preference
for the
latter route, at the same time asking
if shipments can be
forwarded to Russia through the same port.
Through the burning at sea of the steamship Mount Kagle^ box
125, containing publications from
various governmental and
scien-
tific establishments
in
this country for
distribution
in Korea, was
destroyed.
Owing to
a similar accident to the steamship Athenai^
box 231, for Greece, was lost.
In almost every instance the Insti-
tution was able to procure from the senders duplicate copies of the
lost publications, which were duly forwarded
to their destinations.
In
this connection
it should be stated that the destruction of the
above-mentioned vessels was not due to the war.
Thus far only two
exchange packages—each containing 12 publications—have been lost
EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY.
75
through the sinking of steamers by war vessels, reference to which
was made in the last report.
In continuation of a policy of international helpfulness, the Insti-
tution has
rendered
aid
to
govci’iimental and
scientific
establish-
ments, both
in this and
foreign
countries,
in procuring
especially
desired publications.
One instance in particular in which the Insti-
tution extended aid during the year
in pi’ocuring publications may
be referred to
in
this connection.
The Pan American
Division
of
the American
Association
for
International
Conciliation
in New
York City, which Avas assembling a library to consist of some seven
or eight thousand volumes of Avorks of North American origin for
presentation to the Museo Social Argcntino at Buenos Aires, applied,
through the Department of State, for a selection of publications of
the United States Government and of certain
scientific institutions
in
this country.
The matter
Avas brought
to the
allention
of the
proper
establishments, and
several hundred
])ublications
Avere
re-
ceived
for
the
})roposed
library.
The
Department
of
State,
in
bringing this matter to
tlie attention of the Institution, stated that
the department attaclied considerable imi)ortance to the request as a
potent means of furtliering the best ideals of Pan Americanism.
It may be stated in this connection
that
it
is the custom of the
GoA’crnment of India
to refer any requests fi*om establishments in
this country for Indian
official documents to the Excliange Service
for indorsement before acting thereon.
In such instances statistics
and other information relative to the society or establisliment making
the request
is furnished, and
a proper recommendation
is made in
regard to the application.
The number of boxes sent to each foreign country and the dates
of transmission are shown in the folloAving table:
of
i'jTChaiKjrs
for
foreign
i‘oinitrics.
Country.
Number
of boxes.
Diito of transmission.
Argentina
51
July 21, Aug.
li», Sept. 30, Oct. 21. Nov. 20, 1915; Jail. 17, Feb. 18,
Apr. 25, May 20, 1910.
Bolivia
i
G
July 10, Oct. 2, Nov, 12, Dec.
1’1, 1915; Fob. 3, A{>r. 6, 1916.
Brazii
37
July 21, Aug. 19, Sept. 30. Oct. 21, Nov. 26, 1915; Jan.
17, Fob.
18, Mar. 25, May 26, 1916.
British Colonies
23
July 3, 10, 17, 24, 31, Aug. 7, 11, 21. 28, Sept. 1, 11, 18, 25, Oct. 9,
16, 23, 30, Nov. 0, 13, 20. 30, Dec.
4, 11, 18, 1915; Jan. 28, Feb.
8, 16, 25, Mar. 8, 20, Apr. 1, 10, 18, May 2, Juno 5, 10, 1916.
British Guiana
7
July 20, Aug. 20, Nov. 19, 1915; Feb. 5, Mar. 24, 1916.
Canada
21
Aug. 10, Oct. 23, Dec. 10. 1915; Feb. 25, Mar. 28, June 2, 1916.
Chile
23
July 21, Aug. 20, Oct. 4, Nov.
1, Deo. 3, 1915; Feb. 1, Mar. 2, Apr,
4, May 4, 1916.
China
53
July 14, Aug. 12, Sept. 24, Oct. 19, Nov. 27, Dec. 15, 1915; Jaii. 8,
31, Fob. 23, Mar. 8, 24, Apr. 4, 7, 13, May 6, 1916.
76
ANNUAL REI’OBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Consiffnmentu
of exchanges
for
foreign
countries—Continued.
Country.
Date of transmis.'iion.
Colombia
COHTA
Rh;.\
Cuba
'
Denmark
'
Ecuador
j
Egypt
I
i
France
Germanv
-
Great liiiiTviN and Ireland.
Greece
!
Guatemala
!
IIaiti
I
Honduras
i
India
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Korea
Liberia
Lourenuo Marquez
Mexico
Nethkrlani»s
Kew South AVales
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Norway
rARAOUAV
Peru
Portugal
Queensland
Salvador
Siam
South Austr.vi.ia
11
July U), Get.
1, Nov, 12, Dee. 13, 1915.
12
July 16, Get. 2, Nov. 12, Dee. 13, 1915; 1 eb. 2, Mar. 3, Apr. 5, 1916.
6
Auj;;. 10, Get. 23, Doe. 10, 1915; Feb. 25, Mar. 2S, Juno 2,;9ir,.
33
July 2, Auk. 3, Sept. 9. Get. 9. 2S, Nov.
li;, 30, 1915; Jan. 16, Mar
17, .luui
10, 1916.
«
: July 16, Aug. 17, Get. 2, Nov. 12, Dot'. M, 1915; Mur.
A, Aiir. 7
1916.
10
July
28, Aug. 24. Get. 6, Nov. 9, Dee.
8.
1915; Feb.
5, May 26
1916.
151
I July 14, 29, Aug.
16, 25, Sept. 25, Get. 14, Nov. 2, 19, Dee. 4, 1915
;
J;m. 28, I'eb. 12. Mur. 11, Apr. 11, May 25. 1916.
137
I Aug. It, 1915; .Ian.
19, June 9, 1916.
392
1 July 3,
10. 17, 21, 31, Aug. 7, 11, 21, 28, Sept. 4, U, 18, 25,
( )et.
<’
I
16, 23, No\
. 6, 13, 20, 30, Dee. 4,11, IS, I'il.V, Jau. 20, 28, Feb. 8
16, 25, Mar. 8. 20, Apr. 1, 10, 17, May 2, June 5, 1916.
9
July 28, Aug. 28. Get. 6, Nov. 12, Dee. 11,
191.5; Jan. 25, 1916.
6
July 20, Get. 6, Nov. UI, Doc. 11, 1915; Mar. 4, Apr. 6, 1016.
6
Aug. 10, Get. 23, Dee. 10, 1915;
Feb. 25, Mar. 28, June 2, 1910.
4
Jul\ 20, Gel. 6, 1915;
Feb. 3, Aj<r.
i), 1916.
54
July 10,
17. 21, 31, Aug. 7,
11, 21, 28, Sept. 4, 11. 25, Ort. 9,
16, 23
30, Nov. 6, 13. 20, .30, Dee. 1,11,18, 1915; Jan. 28,
I'eb. 8. 16. 25
Mar. K, 20, Apr.
J, 10, 17, May 2, June 6, 16. 1916.
94
July 13. Aug. 25. Sopt.
2.5, Get. 13, Nov. 2,
IH, Gee. 6, 1915; Jau
21, Fob. 12, Mar. 14, A])r. 12, May 25, 1916.
6
July 29, Soj)t. 28, Nov. 5,
1 'ee. 15, 1915;
J ob.
4, Apr. 7, 1916.
5u
July 5, Aug.
3, Sept. 11, Oct.
9, Nov.
9, Dee.
9, 1915; Jan.
2t'
Fob. 29. Mar. 29, Apr. 29, 1916.
3
July 28, Sept. 2s, Get. 2.3, 1915.
3
July 29, Sei»t.
2<s, Doe.
1.5, 3915.
I
July
2.S, 1915.
6
Aug. 10, Gel. 2;F Goe. 10. 1915;
Fol).
2,5, Mar. 28, Juno 2, 1916.
4*;
July 15. 27, Aug. 14. 17, 25, Sept. 28. Get. 13, Nov. 3. Gee. 2. 191,’'
Jau. 21, Feb. 21, Apr. 1, May
2. 1916.
34
Julj 8, ,Yug. 10, Sopl. 23, Get. 20, Nov. Zi, 1915;
.Ian. 14, Feb. F'
Mar. 15, Apr. 20. 1916.
28
July 13, Aug. 12, Sopt. 21, Get. 20. Nov. 23, 1915; Jan. 15, Feb. F.
Mar. 15, Ajir. 21, 1916.
4
July 20, Get. 6, Nov. 16. 1915; Apr. 6, 1916.
26
July
2, Aug.
3, Sopt. 9, Get.
9, Nov.
9, Goe.
8, 1915; Jan.
21
Mar.
7, Apr. 17, 1916.
7
July 29, Get. 2, Nov. 16, Dee. 14, 1915;
I'eb. 3, A])r.
7, 1916.
30
July 21, Aug. 20, Get.
4,
Goe.
3, 1915; Fob.
1, Mar.
2, Apr.
'
May 4, 1916.
20
July 2, Aug. 3, Sopt. 9, Get. 9, Nov. 9, 1 'ee. 8, 1915;
.lari. 25, Mar.
‘
Apr. 11, Jiuio 16, 1916.
16
July 2, Aug. 12, Sopt. 24. Get. 20, Nov. 23, 1915; Jan. 15, Feb. F
Mar. 15, Apr. 21, 1916.
6
July 20. Get. 6, Nov. 16, Gee. 14, 1915; Mar. 4, Apr. 6, 1916.
5
July 28, Sept. 28, Dee. 7, 1915; Apr. 7, Fob. 4, 1910.
24
July 8, Aug. 10, Sept. 23, Get. 20, Nov. 23, 1915; Jan. 14, Feb. 1-
Mar. 15, Ajir. 20, 1916.
40
July 7,Aug. 10, Sept. 22, Oct. 19, Dee. 2, 1915;
Jan. 21,
Fob.
2
Mar. 29, Apr, 28, June 10, 1916.
Spain
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
77
Comignmcmts
of exchcmyes
for
foreign
countries—Continued.
Country.
Number
of boxes.
Date of transmission.
Sweden
49
July 27, Aug. 21, Sept. 15, Oct. 18, Nov. 24, 1915; Jan. 15, Feb. 17,
!
Mar. 17, Apr. 22, 1910.
Switzerland
50
Sept. 21, Oct. 13, Nov. 3, Dec. 3, 1915; Jan. 15, Feb. 18, Mar. 24,
Apr. 24, June 8, 1910.
Tasmania
20
July 3,
1(1, 17, 24, 31, Aug. 7, 14, 21, 2S, Sept. 4, 11, 18, 25, Oct. 9,
Ki, 30, Nov.
(•>,
13. 20, 30, Dec. 4. 11,18
1915; Jan. 28, Fob. 8, 10,
2.5, Mar. 8, 20, Apr. 1, lo, IS, May 2, June 5, 10, 1910.
Trinidad
3
July 29, Sept. 28, Dec. 15, 1915.
Union of South ArnirA
34
July 27, Aug. 2.5, Nov. 5, Dec. 0, 1915; Feb. 5, Mar. 8, Apr.
1 1 , 1910,
Uruguav
17
1
July 21,
,\ug. 20, Oct. 4. Nov.
12, Doc. 13. 1915; Feb.
2, Mar. 3.
A pi. 5, 1910.
Vknezukia
13
July n-. Oct. 2. Nov. 12, D(H'. 13. 1935; Feb. 2. Mar. 8, Apr. 5, 1910.
Victoria
1
3.7
July
S, Aug.
10,
19,
Se].t.
Z!, Oct.
2o, Nov,
2.3,
1915; Jan.
14,
Fol). 11, Mar.
15, Api. 20, 1910.
W KHTE RN A USTli A l.I \
20
July 3, 10.
1 r. 21, 31, Aug. 7, M, 21, 28, So])t. 4, 11, 18,
2.5, Oct. 9,
10, '23, 30. Xov. 0. 13, 20. 30, Dec. 4,11,18, 1915;
Jaii. 28, Feb. 8,
10, 25, M
ir. S, 20, Aj>r.
1, 10, 18, May
2, June 5, 10, 1910.
Windward
avd
J.eewauu
Islands.
July 29. Sci.t. 28, 1915,
FOKKIG.N LdCPOsri'oUlFS
• ):
‘^NiTKD STATES
(;(
) VEIEWMENTAL DOCU-
ME.vrs.
Hie number of sets of
iiie United States ollicial publications regu-
larly forwarded to
foi-eign counti'ies in :iecordance with treaty stipu-
lations and under the authority of the congressional resolutions of
March Lb 1S(>7, and IMandi
L, 1001, has been reduced from 92 to 91
the
sei'ies sent to the
(Jovei-iiinent of llombay having been
discon-
tinued at
tlie hitter's recjuest.
In asking that these shipments be dis-
continue(h the secretary to the (kivernmenl
of Bombay stated that
it would
ill
no way
affect
the
transmission
of the
reports
of
his
Government for dejiosit in the Library of Uongress.
The recipients of the oo full and 3G j)artial sets are as follows:
DEPOSJTOKIKS OF FULL
SKI’S.
Augk^itiis'A
:
Miiiislerio
<](‘
nc'laeioiies
E.xteriores,
liiiouo.s
Aires.
Australia:
Library of
liie rU)imiionwt*altb Parlianieni, Melbourne.
Austria:
K. K. Statislisebe Zenlral-Keiumissitiu, Vieuna.
Baden:
UniversiUlts-Bibliothek,
Freiburg.
(Depository
of
the Grand Duchy
of Baden.)
Bavaria:
Kbiiigliebe Hof- uud Staats-lUbliothek, IMunidi.
Belgium: lUbliolbeaue Koyaie. Brussels.
Brazil:
BU^liotlieca
Nacioiial, Uio de Janeiro.
Buenos Aires:
Biblioteca de
la Universidail Nadonal de La
Plata.
(Deposi-
tory of the Province of Buenos Aiia^s.)
Canada: Library of Parliament, Ottawa.
78
ANNUAL BEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Chile: Blblioteca del Oongreso Nadonal, Santiago.
China; American-Chincse Publication Exchange Departiiuuit, Shanghai Bureau
of Foreign Affairs, Shangliai.
Colombia: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota.
Costa Kica:
Oficina de Dep6sito y Canje Internacional do I’ublicnclones, San
Jos6.
Cuba:
Seoretaria
de
Estado
(Asuntos
Genoralos
y
Canje
Internacional),
ITabana.
Denmabk; Kongelige Bi])liollieke(, CojKaihagen.
Engla^id:
British IMuseum, I.ondon.
Fbance: Bibliothdiuo Nalionalo,
Paris.
Geemany: Deutsche Beichstags-ltibliothok,
Berlin.
Glasgow: City Librarian,
Mitclu'll
Tiihrary, Glasgow.
Greece: Biblioth^que Rationale, Athens.
Haiti:
Secr^daire d’Ktat des Relations Exterieures, Port an Prince.
Hungary
: Ilnngarian House of Delegat(‘s, Budapest.
India: Department
of
Education
(Books),
Government
of
India,
Calcutta.
Ireland: National Library of Indaml, Dublin.
Italy: Biblioteca Nazioiiale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome.
Japan: Imperial Library of .Tapan, Tokyo.
London: London
School
of Economics and
Political
Science.
(Dei)ository
of
the London (bounty Coumal.)
Manitoba:
ProviiK'ial
Library,
\Vlnnip(‘g.
Mexico:
Institute Bil)iiogra(ico,
Bjl)li()leca Nacional,
IVIexic'o.
Netherlands:
la’brary of the States General, Tlie Hague.
New South Wales:
Public Lilu'ury of New South Wales, Sydney.
New Zealand: Gem'ral Assonildy Lil)rary, Wellington.
Norway:
Storthiiigets Bihliothek,
Ohri.stiaiiia.
Ontario:
Legislative Library, Toronto.
Paris: PrfTecture de la
Sein(}.
Peru:
Biblioteca Nacional, Lima.
Portugal:
Bibliotheca
NL(*ional, Lisbon.
Prussia
: Kbnigliche Blldiotliek, Berlin.
Quebec^
: Library of the Legislatun* of th(‘ Province of Quebec, Quebec.
Queensland: Parliamentary Ial>rary, Brisbane.
Russia: Imperial Public Library, Petrograd.
Saxony; Kbnigliche Oeffentliche Bibliothek, Dresden.
Serbia:
Section Administrative du Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Belgrade.
South Australia: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide.
Spain:
Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Ciierpo Facultative
de Archlveros, Bibliotecarios y Arqueblogos, Madrid.
Sweden
: Kungliga
Blblioteket, Stockholm.
Switzerland: Blbliothdiue FdRa’ale, Berne.
Tasmania: Parliamentary Library, Hobart.
Turkey
: Department of Public Instruction, Constantinople.
Union of South Africa
:
State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal.
Uruguay:
Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo.
Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.
Victoria: Public Library, Melbourne.
Western Austratja: Public Tnbrary of AVestern Australia, Perth.
WteTTEMBERG: Kbnigliche Landesblbliothek, Stuttgart.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
79
DEPOSITORIEH OF PARTIAL SETS.
Alberta
: Provincial Library, Edmonton.
Alsace-Lorraine: K. Ministerium
fiir Elsnss-Lothriu^^im,
Strassbiirg.
Bolivia: Ministerio cle Colonizacion y Agriculturu, La Paz.
P>REMEN
: Senatskommission fiir Rciclis- iind Auswllrti.cio An^^olcj^cnheiten.
British Columbia:
Loi^islativc Library, Victoria.
British Guiana: Goviaannent Secretary’s
Otlice, Geoi*^;etown, Deinerara.
Bulgaria: Minister of Fon'if^n Affairs,
Sofia.
(Uoylon: Colonial
Secretary’s
C>trH*e
(Record Department of
tlie Library),
(Jo-
lombo.
Ecuador: Biblioteca Nacional,
Quito.
EGYFr: BibliotluViue ]vIUHlivial<\ Cairo.
F'inland:
C^Uiancery of Governor,
Ilelsinj^fors.
Guatemala: Secretary
of
t.h(^ Gov('rninent, CUiatcmala.
Hamburg: Senatskonnnission ftir die lieichs- und Auswilrtigen Ainrelcj^eiilieiten.
Hesse: Grosslierzoglidie Hof-l»ibliotbck, Darmstadt.
Honduras
: Secretary
of the Government, TcKoei^alpa.
Jamaica: Colonial
S('cret{iry, Kingston.
Liberia: Department
of State, Monrovia.
L0UREN90 Marquez: Governm(*nt Library,
Loiirejjco Marquez.
Lubeck: Presid(‘nt of the Senate.
Madras, Province of:
Chief Secretary
t(<
the
(hA'eiaimeiit
of Madras,
Public
Department,
Madras.
Malta:
Lieutenant Governor,
Valet ta.
Montenegro: Alinistcre des Affaires
Etran^Caa's,
(k'linje.
New Brunswick
:
liehoslative
Lil)rary,
Fredericton.
Newfoundland: Colonial
Si'crctary,
St. Johns.
Nicaragua: Superlntoiahaite do Arcluvos Nacionales,
IManaf^nia.
Northwest Territories: Government Library,
Ue,t:ina.
Nova
Scotia:
Provincial
Secretary
of Nova
Scotia,
Halifax.
Panama: Secretaria de Uelaciones Exteriores, Panama.
Paraguay: Gticina (jcneral de Inmigracion, Asuncion.
Prince Edward Island: Legislative Library, Charlottetown.
Roumania: Academia Romana, Bucharest.
Salvador: Minksterio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvadt>r.
Siam: Department of Foreign Affairs, Ihingkok.
Straits Settlejuents
:
Colonial
Secretary,
Singapore.
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh
: Under Secretary
to Government,
Alla-
habad.
Vienna: P>Urgermeister der Haiipt- und Residenz-Stadt.
INTERPARLl AIM ENTRY EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL JOURNALS.
The GoverniHents of Bolivia, Peru, and Venezuela were added to
those countries Avith which the iiiiinediate exchange of official parlia-
mentary journals
is carried on.
Following is a coinplete list of the
Governments to which the Congressional Kecord is now sent:
Argentine Republic.
Australia.
Austria.
Baden.
Belgium.
Bolivia.
Brazil.
Buenos Aires, P:
Canada.
Costa Rica.
•ovlnce of.
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1910.
80
Cuba.
Denmark.
Prance.
Great Britain.
Greece.
Guatemala.
Ilonduras.
Hungary.
Italy.
Liberia.
New South Wales.
New Zealand.
Peru.
It
will
therefore
be
seen that
which this exchange
is conducted
copies of the Congressional Kecor
one
to the Lower House
of Par
mitted being
11.
Portugal.
Prussia.
Queensland.
Bouinania.
lUi.ssia.
Serbia.
S])ain.
Switzerland.
Transvaal.
Uiiidn of South Africa.
Ihaiguay.
VenoziK'hi,
Western Australia.
tliere
are now
»>(>
countries with
To some of
11u‘S(‘ countries two
(1 are sent—one to the Upper and
liainent—the
total
numljer
trans-
LIST OP BUREAUS OR ACEXCll^S TIIROT (OJ WllKUl EXCHANGES ARE
TRANSMITTED.
The following
is a
list
<»r the huri-aiis or agonrit's through which exchanges
are transmitted
:
Algeria, via I'rance.
Angola,
r/u Portugal.
Argentina:
Comisiori
Protectora
de
Biblioteras
Poj)u]ares,
Santa
Fe
880,
Buenos Aires.
Austria
:
K. K.
Statistisclie Zeiitral-Kommission, Vitama.
Azores, via I'urtugal.
Belgium:
Service Beige des Ediaiiges luternathaiaux,
Ru(‘ des LongsAlhariots
4G, Brussels.
Bolivia:
Olicina Nacional de Estadistica, Ua
Ihiz.
Brazil:
Servigu
dc* IhTaiiulames Intcrnacionaos,
lUbiiothcca Nadonal, Rio de
Janeiro.
British Colonies: (3rown Agents for
tin* (Colonies, London.
Briti.sii Guiana
: Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, Georgetown.
British Honduras
:
Cf)lonial Secretary,
Belize.
Bulgaria:
Institutions Scientitiques de S. M. le Roi de Bulgarie, Soda.
Canary Islands, via Spain.
Chide:
Servicio de Canjes Internacionaic.s, Biblioleca Nacional, Santiago.
China:
American-Chines<'. l*ublication Exchange iHqiartnient, Sh.anghai Bureau
of Foreign Affairs, Shanghai.
Colombia:
Oficina de Canjes Internacionales y
Reparto,
Biblioteea Nacional,
Bogottl.
Costa Rica:
Oficina de Depbsito y Canje Internacional de Publlcaciones, San
Jos^.
Denmark: Kongelige Dariske Yidenskabernos Selskab, Copenhagen.
Dutch Guiana: Siirinaamsche Koloniale Bihliotheek, Paramaribo.
Ecuador: Mlnlsterio do Relaciones Exterlores, Quito.
Egypt: Government Publications Otiice, Printing Department, Cairo.
France: Service Prancais des Echanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Qrenelle,
Paris.
BEPOET OF THE SECEETAEY,
81
Germany: Araerika-Tnstitut, Berlin, N. W.
7.
Great Britain and Ireland: Messrs. Wllliruii Wesley & Son, 28 Essex
Street,
Strand, London.
Greece: BihliothOquo Nn1ionnl(\ Athens.
Greenland, via Dennis rlc.
Guadeloupe, via France.
Guatemala: Instiiiito Nacionnl de Yarones, Guatemala.
Guinea, via Portii.aal,
Haiti:
Secrel.air(‘ d'totat des Ih'lalions hAirnaenrc's, Fort an Prince,
Honduras:
Bibliot('ca Na^aonal,
Tei^iiciii’alpa.
Hungary:
Dr. Jnlins Pikler, Municipal
()frK‘<^ of Statistics, Yaci-ntca 80, Buda-
pest.
Iceland, via Ixannark.
India: India Store Department, India
Oflice. London.
Italy: Uflicio dcLdi Scainbi
liiterna/Jonali, Pdblioteca Nazionah^ Vittorio Eman-
uel e, Rorao.
Jamaica:
Tnslitiite of Jamaica, Kinudon.
Japan:
Iinpoidal
Lilirary <d Jajum, Tokyo.
Java, via Netheiiands.
Korea: Government
General,
Kiajo,
Lireiua
:
Biirt'an of ExciiaiiLces,
I )ei)artment, of State, Monrovia.
Lourenco Maiop’ez:
(tovta-irnKmi
Library,
Loureiico
IM.aiaiiiez.
LuxEAiiruRG, via Germany.
Madagascar,
via
FramH'.
Madeira,
via Pialiumk
Montenegro:
Ministert'
d(‘s Affain's
L'tran^ert's,
Getin.jo.
Mozamhique,
vl(f
Poidupd.
Netuehi.ands
: Buri'au
Sciimtitiqiie Centra!
Ntk'rlandiiis,
Bibliotlieipie de PUni-
versitd,
I^eyden.
Nj[-:w Guinea, via Nidlierlands.
New South Wales: Public Library of New Sontli AVah\s, Sydney.
New Zeai^and: Dominion IMusenm, Wellington.
Nicaragua:
I\liiiisterio de Relaciones Exteriores. IMampuia.
Norwax'
: Konymli^e Norskii
I^nMha’iks
l^niversltti
Bibrnttliekot,
Cbristiania.
Panama:
Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama.
Paraguax"
:
S(‘rvicio de Canje lnt(‘rnacional de Pu)>licaciones, Seecion Consular
y
(le Coniercio, IMinisterio de IL'laeiones Exteriores, Asuncion.
Persia: Board
t)f Foi'eign IMissitms of ilir Presbyterian Cburch, N('w York City.
Peru:
Ofieirm
de
Rej)arto,
Deposito
y Canje
lidta nacional
de
Publioaciones,
Mlnisterio de Foment o, Lima.
Portugal: Servico de Penrnitaebes Iiiternacion.aes,
Inspec(;.ao Geral das Biblio-
thecas e Archives Pnhlieos,
Lisbon.
Queensland: Bureau
of Ex<*hanges
of
International
Pii])lications,
Chief
Sec-
retary’s
Otlice, Brisbane.
Roumania
: Academia Romana, Bucharest.
Russia:
Commission
Russe
des
Echanges
Internationaux,
BiblioUit'que
Iim
periale Publiqne, Petrograd.
Salvador:
Mlnisterio de Relaciones Exteriores, San
Salvador.
Serbia: Section Administrative du MinistOre des Affaires Etrangeres, Belgrade.
Siam
: Department of Foreign Adairs, Bangkok.
South Australia:
Public
liibrary
of South
Australia,
Adelaide.
Spain:
Servicio del Cambio Intcrnacioiial de Publicaciones, Ciierpo Facultative
de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y ArqueOlogos, Madrid.
82
AKKITAL REPOJiT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
SxjMATEA, via Netherlands.
Sweden
: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm.
Switzerland:
Service
dos
l^chaivaes
Interna tionaux,
Bibiioth^que
FM6rale
Centrale, Berne.
Syria
: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Chnrch, New York.
Tasmania
: Secretary to
llio Premier, Hobart.
Trinidad
: Royal Victoria Institute of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain.
Tunis, via Prance.
Turkey: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
^lissions, Boston.
Union of South Africa: Government Printing Works, Pretoria, Transvaal.
Uruguay: Oficina de Canje Internacional, IMontiordeo.
Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.
Victoria: Public Library of Victoria,
i^leli)Oiirnc.
Western Australia: Public Library of We^lqrn Australia, Perth.
Windward and Leeward Islands: Imperial Department of Agriculture, Bridge-
town, Barbados.
Respectfully submitted.
C. W. Shoemaker,
Chief Clerh^ International Exchange Service.
Dr, Chariji:s D. Walcott,
Secrefary of the Smithsonian Institution.
August 23 , 1916 .
Appendix
4.
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
Sir: I have the honor to present below a report concerning the
operations of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ending
June 30, lOK).
There Avas allowed by Congress the sum of $100,000 for
all pur-
poses, except printing, for Avhich $200 additional was granted.
The European Avar has had a marked eft’oet upon tlie cost of living
animals.
Not only are the prices higher, but transportation is more
difficult and therefore more expensive.
Many of the regular dealers
have been obliged to AvithdraAv from the business.
XotAvithstanding
these difficulties the National Zoological Park has maintained its col-
lection fairly
Avell, and remains at about the same level in numbers
as last year.
There are, indeed, some 15 species in the })ark not pre-
viously exhibited here.
A careful estimate of the value of the ani-
mals in the collection shoAvs that
it must be at least $90,000, at the
prevailing market prices.
The value of the buildings
is estimated
at $210,000.
A(^riOSSlONS.
Births^ 101 in number, included 5 American bison, deer of 11 species,
a yak, a South American tapir, a
Pactrian camel, 2 monkeys, some
other mammals, and a feAv birds.
Gifts.—The most important of these
Avas four
elands and four
Kashmir deer received from the Duke of Ledford at Woburn Abbey,
England.
Three favAuis were born from the deer during their transit.
The complete list of the donors and gifts
is as follows:
Mr. Edward Anderson,
jr., Tucson, Ariz., n desert lynx.
Miss Maude Anderson, Washin^tton,
I). 0„ a common canary.
Miss Marian Ashby, AVashlngton, D. O., a barred owl.
Mr. O. E. Baynard, Clearwater, Fla., two barred owls.
The Duke of Bedford, AVoburn Abbey, Enjtland, four elands and four Kash-
mir deer.
Bureau of Biolo^^dcal Survey, an American marten.
Mr. Robert Burrows, AVashirn^ton, D. C., two alligatorvS.
Miss Argine Carusi, AVashlngton, D. C., an alligator.
Mr. Austin M. Cooper, AA^asbington, I). C., a tarantula.
Mr. E.
.1. Court, Washington, D. C., a great horned owl.
Mr. Blaine Elkins, AAUishington, D.
C., two raccoons.
Mr. W. 0. Emery, Washington, D. C., a copperhead snake.
83
84
ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Mr. Victor J. Evans, Washington, D. G., three marmosettes.
Mr. George Field, Washington, D. C., a Texan armadillo.
Mr. Marcus A. Hanna, Washington, D. C., a copperhead snake.
Mr. G. M. Haynes, Washington, D. 0., an alligator.
Mr. Boss Hazeltine, United States Consular Service, an ocelot.
Mrs. Mary
F.
Henderson,
Washington,
D.
C., two
grass parrakeets and a
canary.
Mrs. Robert Hitt, Washington, D. C., a bare-eyed cockatoo.
Mr. G. C. Hogan, Coinorn, Ta., a gray fox.
Mr. George Howell, Washington, D. C., two alligators.
Mr. R. C. Huey, Hot Springs, Ark., a dusky wolf.
Miss Juergens, Washington,
1). C., an alligator.
Miss Annie Lee Knight, Washington, D. C., a gray fox.
Mr,
J. C. Lamon, Knoxville, Tenn., a black snake.
Mr. T. P. Levering, Washington, D.
C., a king snake.
Mr. S. Lyons, Washington, IX C., two alligators.
Mr. Vinson Mi'Lean, Washington,
I).
(\, a gra.v
jairrot,
a macaw, and a great
red-crested
cockatoo.
Mr. Lee
S. Page, Washington,
I).
G., an alligator.
Hon. Frank Park, M.
(X,
S>lvester,
Ga..
at
recpii'M
of
hit(‘ Senator Bacon,
three fox squirrels.
Mr. Robert Portner, Wasbinglon, LX C., an alligator.
Mr. C,
S. Rockvvood, Washington, D. 0., an alligator.
Mr. Baynard
Schintlel, Washington, D. CX, an
alligator.
Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, Washington, D. C., a black snake.
Mr.
J. H. Stoig, Wasbington, ix C., a black snake.
Dr.
J. R. Stewart, Washington, D.
C., a woodchuck.
Mrs. F. H. Talkes, Washington, D. C., a parrot.
Mrs. R. B. Tingsloy, Washington
D. G., an alligator.
Mr. C. V, U. Townsend, Muni sing,
Mich., a coyote
Hon. Woodrow Wilson, Wasiiington, D
G.,
tw'o bald eagles.
Unknown donor, an alligator.
Unknown donor, two cardinals, one (‘oinnion mocking bird, one brown thrasher.
Exchanges ,—Tlie
iiossession of a considerable luiniber of surplus
animals made
it possible for the park
to
profit by
187
exchanfjes.
Among the important acquisitions were a pair of young lions from
the Department of Parks, New York City, a male guanaco from the
Philadelphia Zoological Garden, a chimpanzee, a fine pair of Siberian
tigers, a nilgai, a pair of mule deer, a pair of Columbian black-tailed
deer, a great red kangaroo, several monkeys and other mammals, a
secretary vulture, and a considerable number of other birds.
The chimpanzee was new to the collection and is a very intelligent
and interesting male about 4^ years old, from the forests of French
Congo.
He is an object of great interest to the public and attracts
much attention every day, especially when at his meals, as he has
been taught to
sit in a chair at a table, eat with a fork and drink
out of a glass.
As there was no conveniently available cage for him
in the monkey house, special quarters have been provided in the lion
house,
in
a corner where he
is shielded from
drafts
of
air.
In
KEPOBT OF THE SECRETARY.
85
order to prevent feeding by visitors a glass screen was erected be-
tween this cage and the public space.
Pure air is provided by a duct
leading from the outside of the building suitably warmed by a heat-
ing coil.
He has made himself entirely at home there, appears happy,
contented, and quite healthy. A larger, more spacious cage will be
constructed for occupation during hot weather, where he can be more
satisfactorily seen.
From Yellowstone National Parle,—Two black timber wolves, in-
teresting from their rarity, were transferred from the Yellowstone
Park.
Captured,—A raccoon, possibly a wild one, but more probably one
that had escaped, was caught in a trap.
Loaned.—3 mink and 7 martens were temporarily loaned, also
1
monkey and a parrot.
LOSSES.
Among
the most important
losvses was
that
of
the young male
African
elephant. Jumbo
II.
a
beautiful,
active animal that was
bought from the Government Zoological Garden at Giza, Egypt, in
1913.
lie was then about 4 years old.
The death of this valuable
animal was
entirely
unexpected,
as he had
always seemed
in
ex-
cellent health.
A post-mortem examination, made by veterinarians
fi’om
the Bureau
of Animal Industry,
revealed
a
rupture
of the
stomach,
a
tear
7
inches
in
length
occurring
along
the
great
curvature.
Escape
of
the stomach
contents had
caused
an
acute
peritonitis.
The cause of this rupture is quite obscure.
The diet of
the animal had not been changed either in quantity or quality, and
the stomach had not been overdistended by
food.
Nor did an ex-
amination
of
the
discharged
material
reveal
any
substances that
might have occasioned an active fermentation with considerable evolu-
tion of gas.
The other viscera showed no gross pathologic changes.
Other losses were
a male lion, from softening of the brain, a fur
seal, a male California sea lion, a black leopard, from old age, a male
American bison, from pneumonia, a male and female nilgai, from
generalized tuberculosis; 38 animals were lost from attacks by cage
mates, by dogs
(directly or indirectly), or through other accidents.
Amebic dysentery attacked some spider monkeys, recently received,
and caused the death of six of these animals.
Post-mortem examina-
tions were made, as usual, by the Pathological Division of the Bureau
of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture.^
^ The causes of death were reported to be as follows
:
Enteritis, 24
; ga8troenter|t|«, 4
amebic dysentery, 6
;
fermentation
colic,
1
;
Intestinal
coccldiosis,
1
;
cercomonlasiSi
1
pneumonia, 15
;
tuberculosis, 14
;
congestion of
lungs,
3
; pulmonary edema,
1
;
a^thrn^,
1
;
aspergillosis,
4
; pyemia,
3
;
septicemia,
1
; toxemia,
1
;
pericarditis,
1
:
hepa^tJs, 3
fatty degeneration of kidneys,
1
: gangrene of cecum,
1
; necrosis of rectum,
1
; softening
of brain,
i
; hematoma of liver, 1
; tumor, 1
; anemia, 2
; rupture of stomach* 1
; no suHI-
dent cause found, 17
;
not
fit for examination,
8.
73839“—SM 1916
7
86
ANNUAL KEPOEI SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916,
ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1916.
MAMMALS.
Clilmpanzoc
{Pan troolodytes)
1
Mona
inonkoy
(CfTcapithecus mnna)^
8
Patas
inonkoy
(CercopifhertHi
patati)^
2
3?>lana monkey
{CcrcopithvcuH
fh’ana)_
1
Bonnet monkey
{Aldcacus
.^iiiicus)
1
Macaque
monkey
{Mararvs
cijnnmol-
Pig-tailed
monkey
(Marnctifi
ncmes-
trinufi)
8
Rhesus monkey
{Afnrdrus rhesus)
20
Brown maomiue
(Afacanni
an^loidrfi) ^
2
Japanese Tnonk<*y
(Mocacu'^ fvxcntn.s)^
8
Moor
riiaejupie
(Maracii.'t induni.:)
j
Chacma
(Pdpio
itorcarhin)
1
Guim^a baboon
{Pdpio papio)
4
Yellow
baboon
{Papin
rynnff’piialuH) ^
t
Ilamadryas
bal)oon
{l*di‘in
l.ama-
drya.^)
2
Mandrill
{Papin
f;phinir)
1
White-throated
capuchin
(Tebjos*
hp-
polrucus)
2
Brown capuchin
{(U'hus faturilas)
1
Gray
spider-monkey
(AtelcH
ipof-
frnyi)
r>
Marmosette
{Hapolo
2.
Mongoose
lemur
{Lemur
inmii/cei)
t
Black
lemur
{Lemur
maearn)
1
Polar
bear
{Thalarcfos warifinni'n—
2
European brown
bear
{('rsu^
orr/o.s)_
2
Kadiak
bear
(t/r.s-w.s
iniddendorfji)
1
Yakutat
bear
{Urt^ufi
dalli)
—
1
Alaskan
brown
bear
(/'r.s'w.v
ppas)
2
Kidder’s
liear
(f/r-sas
Iridde}-})
,
_
2
Hybrid
bear
{Ursu<i
kidderi-arctoff)
2
Himalayan
boar
{IJr'^us
fin'hrtanui<}^^
1
Japanese bear
{TJrsuu japouieuH)
1
Grizzly
bear
ilJrKus'
horrihUis)
8
Black bear
{TJrsus
nm^eriennu^^)
!>
Cinnamon
bear
(C/r.^t/.s
ameriranus)
^
2
Rloth
bear
(AL'JurfiUs
un<tiui/y)
1
Klnkajoii
{Ccrrnlepte,^ enudirfd npuf;) „
1
Cacomlstle
{ liassarifieus
a.<ditld)
1
Gray coatlmundi
{\<iy.u.a nariea)
4
Raccoon
{Prnrynn
lotor)..^
18
American
badger
{TaJ-idca
taxiifi)
2
European badger
{Mrlcfi
ta;cu.'<)
2
Common skunk
{Meplnlin putidn)
2
Ta y ra
(
al w tis
h ar bnra)
1
American
marten
(Musicla
amni-
cana)
0
Flaher
{Muf^tela
pcnvantil)
1
Mink
{Putorivs
vison)
8
Common
ferret
{Putnriuf^
pufnriu><')
,
1
North
American
otter
ilAitra
co-m/-
denm-ft)
5
Eskimo dog
(Conis famiHariK)
4
Dingo
{Cnnift
dirif/n).,^.
1
Gray
wolf
{Canis
orcidrufalis)
(>
Dusky wolf
{Pani^
nuhihis)
1
Coyote {Caniu Inttnuf!)
8
Woodhonse’s
coyote
(Cf/in'.s'
frt/.sfror) _
2
Red
fox
{Vulpe>^
penusylvaniruft)
4
Swift
fox
{Vulncft
velnx)
1
Arctic
fox
{Vudpes
lagopity).
1
Gray fox
(TJrneyon riiuTCO-arpentruy) ^
5
Spotted
hyena
{Hyama crocutn)
1
African
civet
{Vivrrra
civ^lld.)
1
Common
genet
{OeMettn
nenrtta)
1
Cheetah
(OynaPuru^
juhaLif^)
2
Sudan
lion
{Felin
len)
5
Bengal tiger
{Felis iiprls)
2
Siberian tiger
{Felis
tiffrifi lonyipilla)
2
Puma
{Fells oregonenMs hippolostes) -
4
Jaguar
{Fells
onoa)
1
Leopard
{Fells pardus)
8
Ocelot
{Fells pardaUs)
1
Canada lynx (Lynw oanadmsis)
3
Bay lynx
(LynoB rufus)
7
Spotted lynx
(Lyn(s rufus tewensis)^-
2
C^ifornla lynx (Lynw rufus
oaliforfiA-
eus)
1
Florida lynx {Lynx rufus floridanus)^
1
Steller’s
sea
lion
{Eumelopias
stel-
Icrt)
1
California
sea
lion
{Zalophus
caUfor-
nianus)
1
Harbor
seal
{Phora
vilulinu)
1
Fox
squirrel
{^ciiirus
uitjer)
0
W(‘sterii
f(»x
squirrel
{i<ciifrus
ludn-
ririuntiH)
11
tJrny
squirrel
{Sfduriiy
rai olinerisis) ^ ^
40
Blaek
squirrel
{S(diu tis
( <n'iilin<'UH}s) ^
20
Albino
s(jiiirrel
{l!<riuni.y rdrolitieuuis) „
1
Tiiirl«M'n liiu'd
sixM iiiopbile
(.Sy>cr-
mnp/iihis
trideeitnliueafus)
2
Prairh' dog
{Pyotujn^ iudovieianus)
0
IVoodeliuck
{Maiiuofd
'Uiouax)
1
American
iu'aver
{('uKlnr nniademis) ^
2
Coypu
(Myoinyior
rnypus)
2
Guroj)ean ponuipine {IIy.^trix emstaia)
3
Imlian
poreupine
{flj/yfrix
Irucurd)^
.
1
Viscnclia {Ld<jostomu-‘i
i rich addd pins)
^
1
Mf'xieaii
agouti
(Ddsyprncla
'tnrxP
Cdtld)
1
Azara’s agouti
{Dasi/pme/a
dzanv)
1
‘.'rested
agouti
{ Ddsypracia
rriyiata)
..
2
llairy-nimped
agouti
{J)dsjiprij(‘ta
prymudlnphd)
.
.
!
4
Faca
{Ccrloyriiyu
pava)
2
Guinea
pig
{('arid
cuilni)
13
Patagonian
cuvy
(Dolichol'tS
}>at(i-
(/(tnica)
__
2
Cottontail
rai>bit
{Lrpus
ejfirdticie-!)
...
2
Domestic
rabbit
{hrpus
euuU'uluy)
15
Afrb’jiu
eb>i)hMnt
(Llcplidy
n.riinii.s)
.
.
1
iTidinu
c1(])hnnt
(Flephds
uidxnnu-'^)
. -
1
Brazilian tapir
{Tapirus amrrieanuM) ^
4
Mongolian
horse
{Fquus
przriOdJ'Skii)
1
c.revy’.s
zebra
{Lipni.s
t/reryi)
2
Z('bra bor.se
hybrid
l Kquus
yrevyi-
cdhalhis)
1
Zf-branlonkey
hylii-id
{Lqine-i
yreryi-
Oisdnus)
1
Grant’s zebra
{ Fqrnis bureh<dli 'h tinli)
1
Golinrod }>eceary {Dieofyfes auquiatus)
..
2
M’ild
i'MUir
C'/fs'
sernfa)
1
Northern wart hog
{ J*harnch(rrus
afri-
rauuy)
_
2
Hippopotamus
{Hippopotamus
om-
pliihiu-'<)
2
tJuauaco
{Ldinn
Jiufiuaelius)
8
Llama
{Lama glam a)
8
A 1 pa ea
( La ma
pneoy
2
Vicugna
{Tjdmn
rit'Ufnid)
1
1 1 n e t rl a n
eam e I
( Cn
u
haetn anu s) -
3
Arahian camel {Pamelus dromrdarius)
.
4
Sainbar
de(*r
(Ccrew.s
u7iirolor)
2
I'liillppine deer
{(Uu'viis
philippitms) -
1
Hog
deer
{Cervus
porciuus)
.....
9
Baraslng'ha
deer
(('err us
duvaiivf'dU)
.
18
Axis deer
{(Cervus
axis)
8
Japanese
deer
{Cervus
sika)
6
Ka.shmir doer
{Cervus eashmitdanus) _
7
Red
deer
( CcrrM.9 elaphus)
10
American
elk
{CfTvus
canadensis)
8
Fallow
deer
{Cervus
damn)
7
Virginia d(‘er {Odocoiletts virpinlanus)
..
13
Mule deer
{Odocoilcus
hemin^jus)
4
Columbian
hlack-tnilod
deer
{Odocol-
leus columliinnus)
5
Cuban
deer
{Odoeoilms
sp.)
1
Blessbok
{Dainaliseus
alhlfrons)
1
White-tailed
gnu
{Oonnorhwtes
gnu)...
1
Defassa water buck {Cohus defassa.) —
1
Indian antelope (Antilope cervlcapra) ~
4
Arabian
gazelle
{OnmeUa
nrahica )—
2
Sable antelope
{Tlippotragus
niger)..^
1
Nilgai
(Boselaphus
tragornmelus)
2
Congo harnessed antelope {TragelaphuS
gratus)
i
2
Eland
{Tcuufrotragus
oryx
Ueing-^
stonU)
4
EEPORT OF THE SECRETARY,
87
Talir
(Ilcmitragua jemlaicus)
3
Great gray kangaroo (Macropua
Circassian
goat
{Capra
hircun)
4
Uma)
1
Barbary
sheep
{Oris
tragclaphus)
12
WalUiroo
{Alui^ropua
robuatua)
2
Barbados
sheep
{Ovla
arlea-tragcla-
Red kangaroo
(Afacropus rnfua)
3
phua)
8
Bennett’s wallaby
(Alaaropus rnfioollia
Anoa
(A^ioa
dcprcsaicornis)
1
Ijonirtfi)
1
Zebu
(liibos
indicua)
2
Fhalanger
{TrUdioHuma
rulp<^cula)
2
Yak
(Pocpliagas
priimiiv.na)
4
Virginia
opossum
(DidcipJips
maraii-
American
bison
{liiaon amn'icanua)
17
pialia)
1
Hairy
armadillo
{Daaypus
villosua)
,3
I\rocking
bird
(Mimua
polyplottoa)
Catbird
{Dumctclln.
cai'olinensis)
Brown
thrasher
{Toxoatoma rufum)^
Japanese
robin
{Lioihrix
lutrua)
laiughing
1 brush
{(Jarriilax
Icuctt-
lopliua)
Aiislrallan
gray
jumper
{t^truthidva
clnrrca)
I
Bishop
linch
{Tanagra,
cpincopua)
(hit-lhroat
lineh {Amadhui
faaeinta) —
Zebra hneh
(Amadina caattnadia)
Black-headed
tincli
{Munia
atrica-
pilla.)
Three-colored
finch
{Mimia malarra)^
White-liead(‘d
tineh
{MuuUt
vioju)
Nutmeg
linch
{Muiiia
punctularid} . ^
Java
sparrow
(Muvia-
oiv/;:(eorn.)
White
Java
sparrow
(Mania
in u
zivora)
Black-faced
Gouklian
fin'!h
(po^puihi
ffouldi(P)
R('(l-farefl
Gouldiaii
iiiicli
{Pv<nhihL
mirahilla)
Sharp-tailed
grass
linch
{Po-'plula
umticauda)
Cliestnut-l)reast«'d
limdi
{bomuola
casiancofJiorax)
Nnpolean weaver
(Pyranu'tana n/ru)
Madagascar weaver
(Foudia
m<ul<i.ga't-
carirnaU)
Red-billed
weaver
{Queh'a
qurlcn)
I
radise wea v('r
( Vidua paradisra
) _ _
Red-crested
cardinal
{Paroaria
cuad-
Jata)
*
Common
cardinal
(Cardinalis
cardi-
nalia)
SalTron
linch
(Syralia
flavvola)
Yellow hammer
{Fmberiza citrinclla) ^
Common
canary
(Ferinua
cimarlus)^.
Cowbird
(Molothrus
atcr)
Glossy
starling
(Laniprotot'nia
cuiida-
tus)
European
raven
{('orvua
cornx)
Australian crow
(Corrtia
cor<nioidca)
Whltc-throated
jay
{(J art ulus
Ui^vo-
tis)
Blue
jay
{Cyanocitta
crisiata)
American
magpie
(Pica
pica
hud-
aonica)
Reel-billed
magpie
(Urocissa
ocripi
tails)
Yellow
tyrant
(Pitangus
sulphiiratus
ruflpcnnia)
Giant kingfisher
{Dacclo gigas)
Concave-casqued
horubill
(Dichoerroa
biGortds)
Reddish
motmot
{Momoiua
aubrufes-
ems)
Yellow-brecsted
lory
!
Blue
Mountain
lory
(Trichoglnsaua
novccdiollarulice)
Scaly-breasted
lorikeet
{Psitteutelcs
chlorolcpidotua)
Sulphur-crested
cockatoo
{Cacatua
galcrita)
White
cockatoo
(Cacatua alba)
Great
red-crested
cockatoo
{Cacatua
moluocmsia)
Leadbeater’s
cockatoo
(Oaoatua
lead^
beat&ri)
Bare-eyed
cockatoo
(Cacatua
gywr
nopid)
BIBDS.
1
Ros<‘ate
cockatoo
(Cacatua
rvsekut-
1
pilla)
1,
Yellow and
blue macaw
(Ara ararau-
5
na)
R('(l and yellow and
i)Iue macaw
(Ara
2
iiiacao)
Rod
and
blue
macaw
(Ara
chlorop-
2
tcra)
4
Gray-breasted
jjarrakca't
(Myopaiila-
2
cua monachua)
4
Cul-an parrot (Amarjonalcivoccphuhi) „
Festive amazon
(Amazona
fcatira)^
4
Borto
Rican
amazon
[Arnazona
vit-
G
t(da)
b
Yellow-shouhb'red
aina/on
(Aniazuna^
G
orhroptcra
)
.
12
Yellow
- fronted
amazon
(Arnazona
oahrocrphala)
14
Yellov.'-napiMl amazon
(Ainazoiia,
aiui-
palliaia)
2
Yeliow headed
amazon
(Arnazona.
Ic-
raiUanli)
2
r.lue-rroiited
amazon
(Aynazona
aa-
iira
1
(
ra
y
parrot
(J '.s* i 1 1 a cu a
ci i.'tUacna)
Bt'sser vasa
parrot
'ornf'cpaia nigra)
^
G
Baioled
iKUTakeet
{P(d'i'ornia
fuaci-
4
(da)
..
...
Love
bird
•
i
.
fiitd'iria)
-1
Sited
p
! rr.i
:
•
,!
Iiipsittacua
uu-
8
didalus)
8
Grt'al
horned owl
(Pubn
l irgiulanua)
..
Arctic
horned
ow!
(llubo
virgiidanus
2
aubarct icu.s)
r>a rred
owl
(S'/rtiP
rnrin)
1
S|>arro\v
liawk
(Fnlco
s/o'rrrrb/s)
Id
Bald
eagle
( Ilalia'ctua h ucorrphalua) ..
1
Ala^dia^
bald
eagle
(naUa'ciua
hmeo-
1
cciihalus
alo.ai'an us)
\
Golden
eagle
(.^(luda
chrysacioa)
Australian
eagle
1
Harpy
<‘agle
(Thraaactus
harpyia)
1
Crowned
hawk-eagJe
(Spizai'tua
coro-
1
natua)
Cooper’s
luiwk
(Accipitcr
cooperi)
1
Venezuelan
hawk
1
Oarncara
(l*<flyborua
chcriway)
BammergeytM’
( Cypactua
barbatu.a) __
3
Secretary
vultui(‘
(Cypogcninvs
sccrc-
lariua)
1
Smith
American
condor
(Farcorhayn-
p till a
gryphua)
1
California
condor
(Cymnogypa
vali-
2
farnianua)
Griffon
vulture
(Cypa
fulrua)
1
Cinereous vuKure (Vultur monacJi ua)
..
Egyptian
vulture
(.Vcop/iroa
pcicnop-
1
tcrua)
1
Turkey
vnUurt'
(raTbartca
aura)..
Black
vulture
(Calhnriaia
uruhi)...
8
King
vulture
((rgpagua
papa)
Snow
pigeon
(Columba
lcv*'onot(i)
7
Red-billed
pigeon
(Colundai
flaviros-
iria)
3
Whlte-crowmed pigeon
((*olumba U.uco-
3
oopha-la)
Band-tailed pigeon (Columba faaciata)^
1
Mourning (love (Zenaidura macroura) ^
Peaceful dove
(Ccop&lia
trnnquilla)
1
Zebra dove (Ompdia striata)
Gollared turtle-dove (Turtur riaoriMs) ..
3
Cape mabketl dove
(QJJna oapdnsis)^^^
12
2
7
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
C
It
1
4
2
15
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
8
1
1
1
3
2
2
1
4
2
2
2
88
ANNUAL REPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916 ,
Australian
crested
pigeon
{Ocyphaps
lophotcs)
16
Wonga-wonga
pigeon
(Lcucosarcia
picata)
12
Blue-headed
quail-dove
{Stiimcenm
ryanoccphala)
4
Ked-bllled
curassow
{Craw
caruncu-
lata)
1
Mexican
curassow
{Craw yloMcera ) —
2
Pauben ton’s
curassow
{Crax
dauhcrir
toni)
2
Wild
turkey
{Mclcayria
yallopavo
ailvestris)
17
Peafowl
iPavn
cristata)
69
Peacock
pheaHaut
{Polylcvtron
chin-
quis)
1
Silver
pheasant
{Euplocarnus
nycthe-
mcrufi)
1
Bobwhite
{ColinuH
riryinia^ua)
1
Curasao
crested
quail
{Eupaychortyx
crUitatus)
3
Scaled quail
{Callipepla aquainma )—
1
Valley
quail
{Lophortyx
caliiarnica
vallicola)
2
Gambel’s quail
{Lophortyx pamhcli)
1
Massena quail {Cyrtunyx montezumw)
1
American
coot
(Fulica
amcricana)
6
Great
bustard
(Otis
tarda)
1
Common cariama
{Cariama
cristata)^
1
Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides tirgo)^
7
Crowned
crane
{Balearica paronina)-
2
Whooping
crane
{Grm
amcricana)
1
Sand-hill
crane
(urus
mcxicana)
4
Australian crane {Crua nustralaaiana)
1
European
crane
{Grua
cincrca)
1
LUford’s
crane
{Grus
lilfordi)
4
Indian
white
crane
{Grus
leuco-
gcranus)
2
White-necked crane {Grus leucauchen) -
1
Ruff
{Machetes
pugnax)
1
Black-crowned night heron {Myctiroraw
nyrticoraw
na'rius)
12
Snowy
egret
{Egrctia
candid issima)^
3
Great blue heron
{Ardea^ hcrodias)
1
Great
black-crowned
heron
{Ardea
cocoi)
1
Boatbill
(Caftcroma
cochlearia)
2
Black
stork
{Ciconia nigra)
1
Marabou
stork
{Leptoptilus duhius)
1
Wood
ibis
{Mycteria amcricana)
1
Sacred
ibis
{Ihis
wthiopica)
3
White
Ibis
{Guara alba)
12
Roseate
spoonbill
{Ajaja
ajaja)
2
European
flamingo
{Phmntcopterus
roseus)
2
Black
- necked
screamer
( Cha/una
chavaria)
3
Horned
screamer
(Pahmedca
cor-
nuta)
1
Whistling swan
{dor
columhianus)
4
Trumpeter swan
(Olor buccinator)
2
Mute
swan
{Cygnus
gibbus)
5
Black swan
(Chenopis
at rata)
3
Spur-winged
goose
{Platroptcrus
gambmsis)
1
White
muscovy
duck
(Cairina
mas-
chata)
1
REPTILES.
Alligator
{Alligator misslssippiensis) ^
27
Painted box tortoise (Cistudo ornata)-
2
Duncan
Island
tortoise
{Testudo
ephippium)
2
Albemarle
Island
tortoise
(Testudo
vicina)
1
Gila monster {Hclodcrma suspcctum)
3
Regal python
(Python reticulatus)
8
Common
boa
(Boa
constrictor)
4
Anaconda {Emeotes murinus)
1
Wood
duck
(Aix sponsa)
6
Mandarin
duck
(Dendronessa
galeric-
ulata)
27
Cape
Barren
goose
(Coreopsis
novm
hollandia)
2
Lesser
snow
goose
(Chen
hyper-
borcus)
3
Greater
snow
goose
(Chen
hyper-
boj'cus
nivalis)
1
Blue
goose
(Chen
arrulescens)
2
Ross’s
goose
(Chen
romi)
1
American
white-fronted
goose
(Anscr
albifron^i
gambeli)
Barred-head
goose
(Anscr indicus)
Chinese goose
(Anscr cygnoidcs)
Canada goose
(Urania canadmsis)
Hutchins’s
goose
(Urania
canadensis
hutch insii)
Cackling
goose
(Urunta
canadensis
minima)
Berniele goose
(Uranta
Icucopsis)
Upland
goose
(Chlocphaga
magcl-
lanica)
White-faced
tree
duck
(J)cndrocygna
riduata)
Fulvous
tree
duck
(Dendrocygna
bi-
eolor)
Wandering
tree
duck
(Dendrocygna
arcuata)
Ruddy sheldrake
{ Casarra fcrruginca) _
Mallard
(Anas
platyrhynchos)
East Indian
black duck
(Anas
sp.)
Black
duck
(Anas
ruhripcs)
European widgeon (Mareca penelope)
Pintail
(Dafila
acuta)
Blue-winged
teal
(Qucrqucdtila
dis-
cors)
Rosy-billed
pochard
(Metopiana^
pc-
posaca)
Red headed duck
(Marila americana)
American
white
pelican
(Pelecmus
crythrorhynchos)
European
white
pelican
(Pelevanus
on ocro talus)
Roseate pelican
(Pclccanus roseus)
Brown
pelican
(Pdveanus
occiden-
talis)
Australian
pelican
(Pclccanus
con-
spicillatus)
Florida cormorant
(Phalacrocoraw au-
ritus
floridanus)
Water turkey
(Anhinga- anhinga)
Great
black-hacked
gull
(Larus ma
rinus)
American
herring
gull
(Larus
argen-
talus
smith soninnus)
Laughing
gull
(Larus
atricilla)
South
African
ostrich
(i^truthio
aus-
tralis)
Somali
ostrich
(Htruthio
malybdo-
phoncs)
Common
cassowary
((.'asuarius
galea^
tus)
Common
rhea
(Rhea amcricana)
Emu
(Dronueus
novae hollandia )
Black
snake
(Zamcnis
constrictor)
Coach-whip
snake
(Zamenis
flageL
turn)
Water snake
(Natt'ix sipedon)
Common
garter
snake
(Eutwnia
sir-
tails)
Texas water snake (E utaenia proximo) -
King
snake
(Ophibolus
getulus)
Copperhead
(Anoietrodon
contortriw)^
CO
fcOtOH*
rfk
tOM
)-*
to
CX
lOtO
®
M
to
CO
J-*
tOfcO
0>
•-JtOlOW
hepobt of me seceetaey.
89
STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION.
ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR.
Presented
60
Purchased
105
Born and hatched in the National Zoolo;,dcal Park
101
Received
in exchan^^e
187
Received from Yellowstone National Park
2
Captured in National Zoological Park
1
Deposited in National Zoological Park
12
Total
474
8XIMMAKV.
Animals on hand July
1, 1015
1,397
Accesssions during
tlie year___
474
1, 871
Deduct loss (by exchange, death, return of animals, etc.)
488
On hand
.lime
30,
1010
1,383
(’lass.
Species.
Indi-
viduals.
Mammals
Ie5
',74 <
Birds
18'J
751
Replik'S
l(i
58
Total
;(G0
i,:i83
VISITORS.
The number of visitors to the park during tlie year, as determined
by count and estimate, was 1,157,110, a daily average of 3,102.
This
was the largest
year'’s attendance
in the history of the park.
The
greatest number in any one month was 218,080, in April, 1910, an
average per day of 8,209.
The attendance by months was as follows:
Ri/J.—July,
71,000;
August,
79,100;
September,
100,200;
October,
121,000;
November, 90,300
; December, 34,050.
lOKL—Jjinuary,
.55,200;
February,
58,380;
March,
95,800;
April,
248,080;
iMay, 128,200; June, 74,300.
One hundred and sixty-one schools, classes,
etc., visited the park,
with a total of
8,(‘)79 individuals.
LMPRDVEMENTS.
The hospital and laboratory building which was mentioned in last
year’s report has been nearly completed, lacking only the
interior
fittings and the necessary outside yards.
It
is a pleasing structure,
built, after the designs of the municipal architect, of blue gneiss of
this neighborhood, warmly colored by infiltration of iron oxide.
A
retaining wall was built and some grading done to provide sufficient
90
AlSrKTJAL M?OllT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
area near the building for quarantine quarters for such animals as
do not require artificial heat.
Many of the chestnut trees surround-
ing the building became blasted by the “chestnut blight” and had to
be cut down.
A roadway of tar-bound macadam was constructed
about the building connecting with the nearest main driveway.
Con-
nection with the nearest sewer
(in Klingle Koad) has been effected.
Preparation should now be made to i)ut the laboratoi’y into effective
operation.
A modest sup]3ly of
tlie necessary apparatus should be
furnished in order that suitable
facilities may be available for post
mortem examination by the (h)vernment bureaus cooperating with
the Z(X)logical Park.
Attention has previously been called to the fact that the topog-
raphy of the park is so irregular that it
is difficult to find building
sites wuth attached yards in convenient situations without extensive
grading.
A case in point (K*curs at the site of the barn which has
been used for bison and other hoofed animals.
The building here,
made of logs with bark oiu has become unsightly by decay and re-
quires extensive repairs.
It is situated on
a
hill of small elevation,
but
the
slopes
of which
are
sufficiently
steep
to
cause
continual
erosion when
it
is worn by the hoofs of the animals.
It was there-
•fore thought best to grade down this hill and
fill up the adjoining
gullies, much enlarging the area of the yards.
In order to do this
effectively, it was necessary to borrow earth from the prominent ridge
that extends from the zebu house northwesterly to the camel
^uirds.
About 25,000 square feet will be added to the level ground previously
available.
Only a portion of this work will be defrayed from the
current ai)propriati()n, the remainder from next year’s appropriation.
The wmrk was
let out by
contract, very favorable terms being
se-
cured.
The additional paddocks thus obtained will be used, in part,
for the exhibition of the beautiful ruminants presented
to the park
by the Duke of Bedford.
New sheds were built in the pro]>erty yard for temporarily housing
these animals and
others displaced during the
alteration
of
their
regular quarters.
A needed convenience was provided at
th(‘ elephant's quarters by
installing, at small cost, hydraulic lifts to raise the heavy doors which
give access to the outside yards.
The inclosure for ducks near tlie flight cage was reconstructed to
make it safe from raccoons, etc.
A concrete driveway was constructed in the rear of the bear yards
to
provide
for
convenient
transfer
of
animals
and
care
of
the
quarters.
A motor truck was purchased during the year to haul food sup-
plies, for which a trip is made every day except Sunday to the market
BEPOKT OF THE SECRETARY.
91
and the fish wharf. A shelter house for the truck was built near the
food house.
Preparations were begun near the close of the year for building an
additional toilet room for women, to be located in the valley a little
below the large flight cage.
ALTEUA'riON OF WESTERN BOUNDARY.
It appears desirable to recapitulate for future reference the various
stages through which this matter has passed.
The following appro])riation was made by the act approved June
23, 1013
Readjustment
of boundaries: For
acquiring,
t>y
condoinnation,
all
the
lots,
pieces,
<u‘
parcels
of
land,
otlier than
the
one
hcj'cinafler
excepled,
that
lie
between
the present
western boundary
of
the
Xatioiial
Z()olo.i:ical
Park and
Coiinectjcut Avenue from Cathedral Avmnie to KliiiKie Road, 1^107,200, or such
])ortion
tlK'reof
as may be necessary,
said laud
wlaai
acquired,
to;:;ethor
Avith
tlie incJudetl highways,
to be add(al to and become a part of the National Zoologi-
cal
Park'.
Tlie ])roeeedings
for tbe condemnation
of
said
laud
shall be
insti-
tuted by tbe Secretary of the Treasury under and
in accordance with the terms
and
provisions
of
subchapter
1
of chapter
15
of the Code
of Law
for
the
District of Columbia.
As the act requires that the proceedings be instituted by the Sec-
retary of the Treasury, the attention
of that
ofllcial
was called to
the matter in a letter from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, dated June 2S, 1913.
A
sjiecial survey and plat of
tlie land
re(piired was
necessary,
but
this
])lat was not forwarded
to
the
De])artment of
elustice
until November
5,
1913.
Other delays en-
sued; the
title of the various owners of the land had to be investi-
gated, and
it was not until March
11, 1911, that the
District court
ordered
a jury to be summoned.
A hearing was
set for April
10,
1914, and a final hearing of the case was heard by
tlie jury on July
2 followfiug.
The verdict of the jury was not filed
until December
11,
1911.
The hearing of objections to
tlie
verdict much
delayed
a
final
conclusion,
especially
as the time
of the court
ivas almost
wholly occupied by a contest in an important will
case.
It was not
until June 28, 1915, over two years from the passage of the appro-
priation
act,
that
the
court confirmed
the
verdict
as
regards the
awards for damages for the land to be taken.
Tlie benefits assessed
against the neigliboring [iroperty were
set aside by this and by a
subsequent decision of January 28, 1916.
The decree of the court
fixed the amount required for the purchase of the land at $194,438.08.
The cost of the proceedings for condemnation was $2,203.35.
The great delay caused by these legal proceedings occasioned an-
other complication.
The appropriation made by the act of June 23,
1913, was not a continuing one, but lapsed at the end of one year.
92
ANKXJAL BKPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Consequently
after June
30,
1915, there was nothing
available to
defray the purchase of the land.
An item for an additional appropriation and for
a reappropria-
tion of the original sum appropriated by the act of June 23, 1913,
was submitted to Congress, but was not favorably considered by the
House of Eepresentatives.
It was introduced
in the Henate
as an
amendment to the sundry civil
bill, but was dropped by the confer-
ence committee.
A similar item was offered in the Senate as an amendment to the
District of Columbia appropriation bill, was accej)ted in Committee
of the Whole, but thrown out
finally
in consequence of an appeal
for retrenchment.
It is greatly to be regretted that this appropriat!t>n failed, as
it is
exceedingly desirable that the anomalous and inconvenient situation
of the park should be remedied as soon as possible.
It now fronts
on no principal thoroughfare and attains none of the dignity which
an institution controlled by the Government should have.
LMPOHTANT NEEDS.
A inary huildtng ,—Attention has been called to the need
for this
building
iji almost e^’ery annual report since 1908.
The following is
an extract from that document:
The temporary
bird
house
is
crowded
during
the
wintcu’
fnr
beyond
its
proper capacity, and
it
Is impossible to care for
birds satisfactori1>'.
When
it was built, {ind also at the tinu' that additions w(‘iv inad(\ the funds available
for the purpose were so small
that
it was necessary
to build
in
the
clieapost
manner
possible,
so
that
the
lionse has already
retpiirc'd
considerable
repair
and will very soon have to be largely rebuilt.
Tlu' park has a
j^ood
collection
of
birds,
including
a
number
id‘
rare,
interesting,
and
valuable
spe<*iinens,
sufficient
to
fill
at once a large aviary and make one of the most important
and attractive features of the park.
In the report for 1909 will be found the following:
The need for a structure of this character
is evident to any intelligent visitor
to the park.
Only a part of the collection can now be exhibited
to the public,
because of lack of room.
A number of outdoor shelters and cages should also
be provided for the exhibition of hardy birds.
Again, in the repoi-t for 1912 will be found
In spite of all efforts the fine collection of birds in the park is very far from
being adequately housed.
The woodeu
building
in which
the larger number
are kept
is too small,
too low,
Insanitary, and really unworthy of a national
Institution.
It was built
in the cheapest manner to
m(^et an emergency, and,
although considerable sums have been spent on
it
for
repairs,
it
is far from
satisfactory.
It is desired to build a suitable aviary in the western part of the
park and to group about this the cages for the eagles, vultures, condors, and
owls, now
scattered somewhat
irregularly
about
the grounds.
It
is believed
that a suitable structure can be built for about $80,000.
EEPORT OP THE SECRETAEY.
93
It was again urged in 1914 as follows
Attention lian been called for several years past to the importance of erecting
a suitable house for the care and preservation of the birds
of the
collection,
most of which are now housed
in a low wooden temporary structure which
is
by no means
suitable
for
the purpose and has
to be
constantly renewed by
repairs.
The matter has been repeatedly urged upon Congress and an appro-
priatien of $80,000 asked for a new structure.
This
is by no means an extrava-
gant sum, as the aviaries of most zoological collections cost considerably more
than
tills.
Also, in 1915
Progressive
deterioration
of the temporary
bird house again made
repairs
necessary there.
Th(‘ wooden
tloor, which had already been rebuilt twice, was
replaced with concrete, as was also a part of the wood(m foundation.
The cost
of this work was $700.
This building
is an example of the ultimate costliness
of cheap temporary construction.
An aviary building is
still a most urgent need, and rc^peated efforts have been
made to secure an appropia’ation for
tliis purpose.
It has been with great
difficulty that the collection of birds has
been kept in
a fairly presentable condition.
The building in which
they
are housed
is
a
\'ery common frame
structui*e that has been
repaired several times.
The birds are crowded and not exhibited to
advantage.
In view of the fact that line aviaries have been built at
New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Chicago,
it st^eins most unfor-
tunate that the national collection should have to be housed in this
manner.
It has been uiost unfavorably criticised by visitors.
The urgent needs
oL‘ the park will be by no means satisfied by the
construction of an aviary only.
There are other buildings urgently
needed for the pro])cr housing and exhibition of the animals and the
comfort of the ])ul)lic.
Among these are the following mentioned in
the report of last year
A huUding for elephants^ hippopotami^ and similar animals .—The
park has
at
present
several
interesting animals belonging
to
this
group,
including two
sj)ccies
of
elephants, two
fine hippopotami,
four tapirs, and other specimens.
Someof these animals are large and
powerful, and it
is dilliciilt to keep them safely in the insecure quar-
ters to which it has been necessary to assign them.
It is also reason-
ably certain that other similar animals wdll be added to the collection
within
a short time. A house for this groiij) should be substantially
constructed and occupy a space of at least 170 by 88 feet, wdtli cages
on both sides, 80 feet deep on one side and 60 feet on the other.
A
public
comfort
building and
restaurant .—This
should
be
a
building about 80 feet by 60 feet, including porches and a rest room
for ladies.
It is urgently needed, as the park
is a considerable dis-
94
AKKXJAL REt'OET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
tance from town and
is annually visited by over 1,000,000 people,
including many young cliildren.
The present restaurant
is so only
in name, it being a makeshift affair, open on all sides, established on
a temporary phitform and affording no shelter during the driving
and violent rainstorms tliat are so common here in summer.
It fre-
quentl}^ occurs that large numbers of people are drenched with rain
before the}^ can traverse the considerable distance between
tlie deep
valley in which the park
is situated and
a place of
shelter.
Most
zoological parks aie provided with spacious and commodious quar-
ters of this kind.
Gatehouses .—Suitable gatehouses should be erected at the principal
entrances to the park, viz
: Those near Connecticut Avenue, at Quarry
Hoad (Harvard Street), and at Adams Mill Road.
It
is sometimes
necessary to close the entrances ])rompt]y, as in the case of the escape
of an animal or for arrest of some offender.
Besides this, the present
entrance gates are far from dignified or suitable for a Government
institution.
They are properly merely temporary, awaiting the time
when the boundaries of the park arc definitely
fixed.
Each
gate-
house should have not onlj^ quarters for the watchman but also toilet
facilities.
Boundary fence .—In connection with this tliC inclosing boundary
fence of the park should be considered.
The present fence
is of the
type known as the “Page woven-wire fence.*’
It is believed that it would be more economical and efficient to con-
struct a practically permanent iron fen(‘e than to replace the present
nearly worn-out structure by anotlier of similar character.
It is sug-
gested that the matter be i-eferred to several iron-fence liuilders with
a request for designs and prices.
Mdiile the first cost of sucdi a fence
would undoubtedly be much greater,
it would many times outlast the
present structure and could be absolutely de])ended on to stop animals
and men.
Certain animals and game birds could be allowed to run
at large within the park were it entirely certain that the fence would
prevent their escape. We already have at large peacocks, wild tur-
keys, and squirrels, and it would be easy to considerably increase this
list.
It should be remembered that on several rare occasions caged
animals have become
loo.se within the park, and
it
is by no means
certain that such accidents will not again occur.
A few years ago
the superintendent of the park was sued for damages alleged to be
due to the escape of a wolf.
The park is well wooded and a sudden
heavy gale may throw tree trunks across the paddock fences, break-
ing them dowui and thus leading to the escape of the animals.
Should
this occur during the darkness of a stormy night it would be practi-
cally impossible for the keepers and watchmen to confine the animals
again until daylight.
JlEPOBt OP PHP SECBETAUY.
95
These improvements were urged in the last year’s report.
There
are others perhaps equally important which are needed to bring the
establishment up to the modern standard of what a zoological park
ought to be.
Most of these have been mentioned fi'om time to time
in other reports
or* have been urged upon the appropriation com-
mittees of Congress.
They are brielly as follo'ws:
Administration hnilding.—The present ollice of the park is in an old
dwelling house situated
i*ather remotely from the buildings for the
animals and inconveniently for the prompt and constant supervision
of the operations of the park, as is the general practice in the foreign
zoological gardens.
A modest office building should now be erected
in a central location.
This Avould gi‘eatly ex])edite the general work
of the park and improve
tlie discipline of the working force.
It
is
estimated that
a- building 50 by
3()
feet, to contain
office rooms, a
drafting room, and a room for specimens would be sufficient.
Stahle and forage ham ,—There
should
be
a
stable and
gjirage
where the work horses and automobiles of the park could be stored.
These should be on the ground floor, a storage loft for forage above.
The dimensions should be at least 100 by 40 feet.
Shop ,—The
present shop
is
not
large enough
to
accommodate
conveniently the carpenters employed at the
]>arlc.
The woodwork-
ing plant is now dangerously near the blacksmith shop and the cen-
tral heating plant.
A separate building 100 by 4G
feet should be
erected.
Ape
house .—Special
(juarters should bo
i)rovided
for the
large
anthropoid apes.
Tliese arc
]>i*ol)ably the most interesting animals
that can be exhibited and
reciuire special treatment and care.
The
group comi)rises the gorilla, the orang, several species of cliimpanzee
and of gibbon.
They are so nearly related to man that observation
and study of them is of the highest impoj'tance.
The park has now
only a chimpanzee, and it has been necessaiy to provide special (piar-
ters for him.
It would be quite proper to place in the same building
some of the larger species of baboons, as they re(iuire neaily the same
treatment.
A house for these animals should have a main building
150 by 60
feet, cages on
l)oth
sides, and a Aving 90 by 60
feet
also,
with similar cages.
Outside cages should be erected along the 150
feet of the main building 18 feet deep, along the sides and end of
wing 16 feet deep.
Lion house ,—The house now occupied by the
(‘at tribe
is (piite too
small for the purpose, and it has ahvays been intended to increase its
capacity
both by
replacing
the
wooden
extension by
a
masonr}^
structure and by building an addition 120 feet long across the north
end of the present building.
This, of course, would be fitted with
cages both within and without.
96
AKKIJAL EEK)ET SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION,
1910.
Reptile home ,—^No
properly
appointed
house
for
reptiles now
exists here, and the few specimens we have are inconveniently and
unsuitably exhibited in the lion house.
There should be a house 120
by 50 feet, with properly fitted cases on both sides and having a wing
20 by 50
feet with table exhibits.
This would enable the park to
exhibit all the important snakes of the United States and the prin-
cipal ones of the western hemisphere, as well as the cobras and others
of tropical East India; also the extremely varied group of lizards,
the different species of crocodiles, etc.
Tortoise house ,—Almost at the inception of the park a group of
giant tortoises from the Galapagos Islands was obtained from lion.
Walter
Eothschild.
These
still remain and might
well
form
the
nucleus of a collection of the tortoises of the world.
A house 80 by
45 feet, with cages on both sides and yards 1C feet deep, would accom>
modate such a collection.
Jlouse for zehros^ wild
asses, and others of the
horse family .
The park has already an interesting exliibit of this family including
the Mongolian wild
hors(3 and two species of
zebra.
This should
be enlarged and
suitable quarters
i>rovided
in
a house 120 by 44
feet.
The stalls should be on one side only and yards 50 feet deep
be arranged.
House for tropical antelopes .—The teeming Afi’ican fauna should
be represented much more
fully.
It would require a house at least
175 feet by 75 with stalls on both sides and with commodious yards
arranged about
it
in an
elliptical
foiin
i*anging
in
dei)th from 40
feet to 80 feet.
Some of the stalls should be fitted up for giraffes.
House for tropical deer and swine .—A few sj)ecimons are already
found in the collection.
An adequate exhibit would
reejuire a house
100 feet by 45 feet with cages on both sides, the yards 30 feet deep
on one side and 50 feet on the other.
House for marsupials .—The group of pouched animals, such
as
kangaroos,
wallabies, opossums, wmmbats, Tasmanian
Tvolves,
etc.,
should be exhibited apart from the other mammals.
These animals
are dying out, rapidly diminishing in number year by year.
They
should have a house 120
feet by 40
feet with cages on both sides,
the yards being GO feet deep on one side, 20 feet on the other.
Pheasantry .—Besides the general aviary building, which it is hoped
may soon be erected, separate quarters should be provided for cer-
tain groups of birds.
Among these are the i)heasants, comparatively
hardy birds
of very showy plumage,
offering great
variety.
An
exhibit can be secured at a reasonable expense. A house for them
should be a low structure 140 by 18
feet.
Visitors should not be
admitted to this house
; the birds would be seen in the outside yards
which should be about 25 feet deep. A small appropriation will be
asked of the present Congress for the establishment of a pheasantry.
BEPOKT OF THE SECRETARY,
97
Ostrich house ,—The ostriches and their near relatives the emus,
the rheas, and the cassowaries are so large and important that they
should have a house to themselves.
This should be 120 feet by 35
feet, with cages on one side only and yards giving plenty of room
for exercise from 30 to 100 feet deep.
Tropical
ivaterfowl ,—These birds
require
heat during the
cold
season and the house would be really their winter quarters.
During
the summer they would be in the large “ flight cage” or in some other
outdoor inclosure.
A house T20 by 50
fe43t, with cages on one side
and one end, would be required.
Tropical birds of prey .—These require similar treatment but could
not, of course, be housed wdth the waterfowl.
A house 80 by 45 feet
with cages on both sides and outside cages
18
feet deep would be
needed.
Aquarium ,—An exhibit of fish and other aquatic creatures is neces-
sary to a complete survey of the domain of zoology.
Such an exhibit
was for a few years shown at the park and was one of tlie most popu-
lar features of the collection.
It was installed in a rude frame struc-
ture erected for tempoi’ary use as a carpenters’ shop.
The tanks and
other apparatus were furnished by the United States Fish Commis-
sion, having been used at the Atlanta Exposition.
The building be-
came quite unsafe and
in
1901 Congress was asked to appropriate
$25,000 toward the construction of a permanent structure.
As this
was not granted it became necessarj^ to abandon the exhibit until such
time as Congress may enable
it to be properly housed. A building
about 130 by 50 feet would be sufficient for the present.
Insectary .—In several European gardens an exhibit under glass is
made of social and other interesting insects, such as ants, bees, wasps,
butterflies, moths,
etc.
These have proved very attractive and are
inexpensive.
A house 60 feet by 30 feet with wall cases and table
cases would accommodate such an exhibit.
The foregoing list merely recapitulates the needs of a fairly com-
plete establishment such as may be seen in the European capitals.
It
would bo well if the municipal architect, to whom the park is required
to go for plans and specifications for buildings, could be asked to
prepare estimates of cost for all of the above improvements to pre-
sent to Congress.
In order to accommodate the buildings a considerable amount of
grading should be done.
The park is already cramped for space for
convenient parking of vehicles upon crowded days.
Over 50 automo-
biles and sight-seeing cars are sometimes assembled here at once, and
there is great difficulty in managing them. A request for an appro-
priation of $4,000 for grading banks and
filling ravines which was
asked of Congress last year will be renewed.
&8
ANIsfUAL KI:F0RT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916 .
Automohile.—The
office of the park very much needs to have a
small automobile for use in attending to the public business.
The
distances within the park itself are so considerable that it is a great
waste of time and energy
to
traverse them on
foot,
or by horse
vehicle, and the
use of an automobile would greatly
increase
effi-
ciency in the business of the park.
The purchase does not involve any
increase of tlie appropriation for the park, but merely the insertion
of a clause in the ap])ropriation
act authorizing the purchase of a
motor-pr(g)el led
a ehiele.
Roads .—The ordinary thorougli fares in (he park were, at the close
of the
fiscal year,
in
fair condition.
N(thing has been done, how-
ever, toward the repairing of the injury done by the construction by
the District of the main trunk scAver kiioAvn as the Hock Creek Main
Interceptor.
Attempts Avere made to gxt an a]>])ropriation to repair
this defacement of the natural beauty of tlie park, but as yet without
avail.
The remarks tlien made Avero as folloAvs:
By authority of Congress a
large
sew(‘r has been constructed on
the right
bank of Kock Creek through the enlire lenglli of tlie [nirk, part of
it being laid
in a deep open cut, and
i):irt of
it in a tuniKa,
A very large amount of roek has
been excavated by blasting and. this has been piUal along
bank of the stream,
destroying the natural beauty of the park by large piles of fragments of stone.
While the contractor Avas reciuiivd to “ restore the surface as nearly as possible
to the condition
in which
he found
it,”
yet
the amount of disturbance
is so
great that
it
Is practically impossible to do this.
It
is proposed to cover these
Stone heaps
Avith earth and
to plant upon tliom
trees and
shrul)S which
will
modify tlie unsightly appearance. A narrow road can be formed upon the top of
the open cut soAver which will be a convenience to the public entering the park
from the soutiiern end.
The general appropriation for the park has remained at $100,000
per annum for six years past.
This has had to suffice for the repairs
and construction of buildings, the care of grounds, and the mainte-
nance of roads and walks.
In the meantime the cost of supplies, ma-
terials of all kinds, and labor has steadily increased so that there has
been no opportunity to make even the most necessary improvements.
The
appropriations
should
be markedly
increased,
since
a
well-
equipped zoological park is something of which the nation may Avell
be proud.
Respectfully submitted.
Frank Baker,
Superintendent.
Dr. Charles
T). Walcott,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.,
Washing ton^ D. 0.
Appendix
5.
REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.
Sir: I have the honor to present the fcillowing report on the opera-
tions
of the Smithsonian
Astroph^^sictil
Observatory
for
tlie
3^ear
ending June 30, 191G.
i:qeipmi:nt.
The cqiii})meiit of the observatory
is as follows:
(a) At Washington there
is an indosure of
al)out 16,000 square
feet, containing five small frame buildings used
for observing and
computing purposes, three movable
fi*ame shelters covering several
out-of-door pieces of ap])aratus, and
also one small
brick building
containing a storage battery and electrical distribution appaiaitiis.
(ft) At Mount Wilson, Cal., upon a leased plat of ground 100 feet
square, in horizontal
projecti<'n, are located
a one-stoiw
ceTuerit ob-
serving
structure,
designed
(‘specially
for
solar-constant
measure-
ments, and also a little frame cottage, 21 feet by 25 feet, for observer’s
quarters.
Upon the observing shelter
at Mount Wilson there
is a
tower 40 feet liigh above the 12-root ]>iers which had been prepared
in the original construction of the building.
This tower is equipped
with a tower telescope for use when observing
(with the spectrobo-
loineter) the distribution of radiation over the sun’s disk.
During the year apparatus for research has been purchased or con-
structed
at the observatory shop.
The value of these additions to
the instrumental equipinent is estimated at $1,500.
WORK OF THE YEAR.
1. AT WASHINGTON.
Some years ago the Institution lent the Harvard College Observa-
tory a silver-disk pyrheliometer for use at Arequipa, Peru.
By re-
quest of Prof. Pickering the observations which had accumulated
since August, 1912, were reduced at the Astrophysical Observatory
and published by the Smithsonian Institution during the past year.^
Owing to the high altitude of Arequipa the variations of solar radia-
tion observed at a fixed zenith distance of the sun
(as, for instance,
' Arequipa Pyrbellometry, Smltheoniau Misc. CoU., Vol. 65, No.
9, 1916.
100
ANKUAL
f^EPORT SMITHSONIAK INSTITUTION,
1916.
that whose secant
is 1.2) were found to be almost wholly governed
by three things—the atmospheric humidity, the distance of the sun,
and the variations of the sun’s emission.
Hence from measurements
of the humidity by the psychrorneter it was possible to compute from
the observed radiation the probable intensity of the solar radiation
outside the atmosphere foi- each day.
These empirical solar-constant
values from Arequipa observations confirm the variations of the sun
observed at Mount Wilson by the complete spectrobolometric process.
Indeed, it appears that if eight or ten well-separated stations at high
altitudes should be equipped with the pyrheliometer and psychrome-
ter their combined results might well be expected to determine closely
enough the sun’s variations. A most interesting feature of Arequipa
observations is that there is nothing anomalous about the observations
of 1912 to suggest that the volcanic eruption of Mount Katmai
(of
June
6,
1912), which produced
a great
deal
of
dust
all
over the
northern
hemisphere,
produced
any
turbidity
of
the
atmosphere
whatever south of the Equator.
Kesults of Mount Wilson
solar-constant observations have been
furnished in advance of publication to Dr. Bauer of the Carnegie
Institution
for comparison with magnetic
data.
He
finds
a
close
correlation between certain fluctuations of the earth’s magnetic field
and the variations of solar radiation.
The tower-telescope observations of the distribution of radiation
along the diameter of the sun’s disk, made at Mount Wilson in 1913
and 1914, having been
fully reduced, a preliminary publication of
them has been made by the Smithsonian Institution.^
These results
show distinctly that the average distribution of solar radiation over
the solar disk varies from year to year.
Greater contrast of bright-
ness between the center and limb of the sun prevailed in 1907 and
1914 than
in
1913.
The change
is greater for short wave lengths
than for longer ones.
Changes also occur from day to day.
Both
of these kinds of changes are found correlated with changes of the
solar constant of radiation, but in opposite senses.
High values of
the solar radiation attend periods of greater solar activity and are
associated with increased contrast of brightness between the center
and edge of the solar disk.
For short-period fluctuations of solar
radiation, however, low values of solar radiation are associated with
increased contrast.
It seems reasonable to suppose that the first kind
of phenomena is caused by increased convection in the sun, bringing
fresh radiating surfaces forward more rapidly, thus increasing the
effective solar temperature.
The second kind of phenomena may be
caused by temporary increases of the turbidity of the outer solar
envelopes, restricting the solar emission especially at the limb.
' On tk9 dlstributloB
of radiation over the sun’s disk and new evidence of the solar
varlablUt;^, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 66, No.
5, May, 1916.
BEPOET OF THE SECEETARY.
101
Mount Wilson observations of 1915, including both the solar-con-
stant work and the tower work, have been almost
all reduced.
Mr. Fowle has continued at intervals between other work the re-
duction of his numerous observations of the transmission of rays of
great wave length through long columns of air of known humidity.
Many sources of error have required to be considered and eliminated,
and the reading and reduction of the curves of observation was ex-
tremely tedious.
The results are at length reaching such a stage that
it can be seen that they fall into excellent agreement and will be of
high
interest in connection with studies of the earth’s temperature
as dependent on
its radiation outward tow^ard
space.
In
fact, the
results of Mr. Fowle’s work arc expected to be ready for publication
within a short time.
For some years we have endeavored to design and construct an in-
strument capable of measuring accurately the intensity of sky light
by day and of radiation outward toward the whole sky by night.
At
last
success seems
to be
reached
in an instrument devised by
Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich and constructed by Mr. Kramer.
The
instrument
is called the pyranometer, from the Greek wmrds
Trvp,
fire,
dud,
up,
ixtTpov^
a
measure;
thus
designating an
instrument
adapted
to measure
heat coming from
or
going
to
space
above.
The pyranometer
is somewhat after the principle of the Angstrom
pyrheliometer,
in
that
the
intensity
of
radiation
is measured by
electrical compensating
currents, whose
strength
is
adjusted with
reference to the indications of a delicate thermocouple.
A full ac-
count
of
the
instrument has been
published
by
the
Smithsonian
Institution,^ including the tests which have been made to determine
its accuracy by comparisons in solar measurements with the pyrheli-
ometer.
Com]3]ete accord between the two instruments is found at all
altitudes of the sun when due regard
is paid
to the fact that the
pyranometer presents a horizontal surface.
The pyranometer seems
to be suitable for botanical investigations, for it is capable of measur-
ing the radiation even in deep shade, as in forests and greenhouses,
as well as in full sun.
In short, it can measure radiation in all situa-
tions where plants are accustomed to grow, except under water.
The consideration of
the pyranometer has led us
to undertake
the
determination
of
the
constant
ordinarily
called “sigma”
of
Stefan’s formula of radiation, according to which the emission of
a perfect radiator per square centimeter per second
is equal to the
fourth. power of the absolute temperature multiplied by “sigma.”
In recent years a good deal of disagreement has
arisen
as to the
value of “ sigma.” We require to use it for certain tests of the py-
^ The pyranometer—an instrument for measuring sky radiation
: Smithsonian Mlsc. Coll.,
Vol.
6ti,
No.
7, May,
1916.
73839**—SM 1916-
8
102
AKKTTAL EEPOET SMITHSONIAK IITSTITUTTON,
lOlC.
ranometer and have devised
a new method which seems very free
from error for making its determination.
The apparatus has been
constructed and
is now set up practically ready for use.
2. AT MOUNT WILSON.
Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich continued observations at Mount Wil-
son of the solar constant of radiation from July
1
to October
22,
1915, and renewed the expedition early in June, 191G.
Besides con-
ducting solar-constant observations and determinations of the
dis-
tribution of light over the sun’s disic in seven di fferent wave lengths
on each favorable day, comparisons of the pyrhelioineters used
or-
dinarily on Mount Wilson were made
in both 1915 and 191G with
standard water-floAv pyrheliometer Xo.
3.
The comparisons showed
no change to have occurred in the sensitiA^eness of secondary pyrheli-
ometers Nos. IV and VTI, on Avhose readings
I’cst the solar-constant
determinations made at Mount Wilson since 190G.
A good deal of attention was also given
to the
installation and
trial of a solar cooking apparatus comprising ovens heated by
oil
under gravity circulation maintained by heat collected by a concave
cylindric mirror of about 100 square
feet
siiiface.
The apparatus
seems highly promising, but owing to
a couple of
defects Avas not
in satisfactory operation until after the close of the period covered
by this report.
a.
I’ROPOSED S0LAI{-(X)NSTAN1’ EXPEDITION.
On recommendation of the
Avriter an
allotment
Avas made from
the Hodglcins fund of the Sinithsonian Institution for the purpose
of duplicating the solar-constant Avork of Mount Wilson at the most
favorable station on the earth.
The expedition
is being prepared
and will go forAvard, probably to South America, in the summer of
1917.
It is intended to continue solar-constant determinations by the
spectro-bolometric method on every favorable day
in every month
of the year for several years at both Mount Wilson and the station
in South America, with
a
vieAv to determining the dependence of
the earth’s climatic conditions on the sun’s variations of radiation.
SUMMARY.
Observations of several kinds haA^e been made, reduced, and pub-
lished which support one another in confirming the variability of
the sun, and some of which tend to indicate dual causes of
it.
An
expedition is proposed to occupy the most favorable station in South
America
for
several
years, beginning
in
1917,
for the purpose of
making, in connection with the Mount Wilson observations, a
full
BEPOET OP THE SECEETAET.
103
and accurate determination of the solar variation for comparison
with climatic changes.
Measurements of the transmission of long-
wave rays through long columns of moist air are almost ready for
publication and appear to be
i-esulting very satisfactorily.
A new
instrument,
called
the
pyranometer,
for measuring
skylight and
nocturnal radiation has been tested and found accurate.
Kespcctfully submitted.
C. G. Abbot,
Director Asfropliyslcal Ohservatory.
Dr. C. D. Walcott,
Secretary of the Srnithsotua7t, Institution.
Appendix
6.
EEPORT ON THE LIBRARY.
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the library of the Smithsonian Institution during the fiscal
year ending June 80, 1916:
The number of packages of books received during the year was
31,017,
as compared
with
29,928
packages
in
the
year
preceding.
Of these 29,619 were received by mail and 1,400 through the Inter-
national Exchange Service.
Correspondence in connection with these
included
1,241
letters
and
3,997
acknowledgments on
the
regular
printed form.
The total accessions of books, pamphlets, and parts
of sets aggi’egated 11,755.
SMITHSONIAN MAIN LIBRARY.
Publications for the main Smithsonian library are forwarded each
day, after entering, to the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Con-
gress.
Those catalogued and accessioned during the fiscal year num-
bered in all 18,637, which may be further described as 8,101 volumes,
739 parts of volumes,
8>83 pamphlets, 18,155 periodicals, 211
charts
and 1,038 parts of serials to complete
sets; extending the numbers
in the accession book from 521,617 to 525,255.
The cataloguing included 5,045 volumes, 200 chaids, and the adding
of 738 new^
titles and the making of 5,329 typewritten cards; 3,480
printed
cards from
the
Librai-y of Congress
for
})ublications
de-
posited by the Institution were filed in the (aitalogue.
In addition,
3,596 volumes were recatalogued on standard size cards, from the old
catalogue for inclusion in the new catalogue.
Documents
relating
to
public
matters and
statistics
of
foreign
countries, presented to the Smithsonian Institution largely in return
for its own publications, were forwarded to the Library of Congress
without stamping or recording, continuing a policy of some years
standing.
The publications sent in this way numbered 4,642.
Dissertations were received from Utrecht, Toulouse, Lund, ITpsala,
Leiden, Leipzig, Giessen, Paris, Bern, Pennsylvania, and Johns Hop-
kins, and from the Technical Hochschules of Berlin and Stuttgart.
104
EEPOET OF THE SECRETAEY,
105
Mr. Herbert A. Gill, administrator of the estate of Dr. Theodore
Nicholas
Gill, has presented
his brother’s
scientific library to the
Smithsonian
Institution
with
the understanding that
it
is
to be
credited to the estate and that such publications as relate to the work
of the Museum shall be placed in that library.
The securing of exchanges in return for Smithsonian publications
and missing parts to complete the sets have been continued, notwith-
standing war conditions abroad, and the results have added new titles
and completed sets and series.
In response to the requests for missing
parts in the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress 50 sets
were completed and
1,038
])arts supplied.
These numbers include
the completing of 30 sets in the series of publications of learned in-
stitutions and scientific societies, and the supplying of 821 paii:s and
the completing of 20 volumes of periodicals, and the supplying of 212
separate numbers.
SMITHSONIAN OFFICE LIBRARY.
The office library includes a collection of books relating to art, the
employees library, and various works of reference, besides quite an
extensive aeronautical library.
In tlie reference room the transactions of scientific societies, and in
the reading room the current foreign and domestic periodicals, have
been in constant use.
In the latter there are now 189 titles on the
shelves.
In addition to the use of the library by the scientific staff of the
Institution, almost all of the bureaus of the Government have availed
themselves of the privileges of consulting and using the publications
in the libraries.
From
the
reference and reading rooms
in the Institution
3,330
publications were
circulated during the
year.
Of
these 473 were
bound volumes and 2,857 were single periodicals.
Additions have been made to the aeronautical
collection by way
of exchange and by purchase of a few of the important works recently
published.
An acquisition of special value was
a number of refer-
ence works formerly in the library of Maj. Baden-Powell.
A scrap book of articles from the older magazines
is of interest,
as
describing
early
inventions
in
the
arts, brought
together and
arranged in chronological order.
Dr. Alexander Graham Bell has continued to add to his collection
of works relating to aeronautics by contributing 33 books and 37
portfolios and
periodicals.
This working library, which Dr. Bell
used
constantly while carrying on his experiments in
aeronautics,
will be of great value to students in the future.
In addition to Dr.
Bell’s gift a total of 58 volumes were added during the year.
106
ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
NATIONAL MUSEUM LIBRARY.
The library of the National Museum has been handicapped, as has
almost every
library
in the country, by
the nonreceipt of many
European publications on account of the war.
Accessions .—There are now in the Museum library 47,713 volumes,
79,241 pamphlets and unbound papers, and 124 manuscripts.
During
the year just closed the
accessions numbered
1,895
volumes,
2,873
pamphlets, and 72 parts of volumes.
Cataloguing .—New matcidal was entei'ed as received and sent out
to the shch es or to the sectional libraries, so that
it Avould be avail-
able at once to those interested.
The reeataloguing from the larger
cards to the standard size, and the identification of the publications
has Ix'en continued.
The new publications catalogued numbered 914 books, 3,157 pam-
phlets, and the total number of cards made was 4,009.
The periodi-
cals and parts of jjublications catalogued numbered 9,074, and peri-
odical cai’ds vere made for 25 new publications; 2,025 section cards
were made
foi’ periodicals assigned to
sectional
libraries, and
460
new periodical cards were written for the IMuseum library record.
There were rccatalogued 135
Itooks, 275 pamphlets, nece.ssitating
the making of 415 cai'ds.
Exchanges.—Notwith.standing the conditions abroad, the efforts to
secure missing
jiai’ts and new exchanges have been continued.
In
connection with this work 257 letters weiT written, with the result
that many parts that were kicking were sup]died and many new
titles were secured.
Loam .—During the year the loans from the general library num-
bered 12,08.5 publications, which includes books assigned to the sec-
tional
libraries, 4,978;
3,228 books borrowed from the Library of
Congress, which included those from
the Smithsonian
collection;
207 from
the Department
of
Agriculture
library;
100 from
the
United
States
Ceological
Survey;
50
from
the
Array
Medical
Museum
library; and
11
from
other
places.
From
the Museum
shelves there were borrowed 3,511 volumes, and 1,899 section cards
were made.
Binding .—^Thc binding of the publications that have come to the
Museum in parts, or paper covei s, in order that they may be prop-
erly cared for and saved from destruction, is still a serious matter,
as many remain unbound.
It was possible this year to bind more
than last year, which has relieved the situation; but
it
will take
several years, at the present rate, to catch up with the needs of the
library in this direction.
EEPOET OF THE SECBETARY.
107
Thei’e were
790 volumes prepared and
sent to the Government
bj;ridei\
Of this number G25 were returned to the ISIuseum before
the close of the year.
Gifts ,—Tlie
folloAving persons have contributed to
tlie
collection
in the building: Dr. William Healey Dali, Dr. Edgar A. Mearns,
Dr. Charles Doolittle Walcott, Dr. Oliver l^erry Hay, Dr. F. Alex-
ander McDermott, Dr. F. P. Dewey, Dr. Walter Hough, Mr. William
E. Maxon, Dr. A. C. Peale
estate, and the estate of Dr. Theodore
Xicholas
Gill.
Doll Collection,—Dr. William Healey Dali has continued to con-
tribute to his collection of books relating to mollusks which he pre-
sented some years ago for the sectional library
of the division of
mollusks.
Since July
1, 1915, he has added 207 titles.
GUI collection .—All the books and pamphlets from the estate of
Dz\ Theodore
Nicholas
Gill
are being
classified
and
arranged
so
that they can be propci’ly distributed.
From the hasty examination
made
in looking over the collection
as
it was being transferred
it
appears that the Museum library will have
a
valuable addition to
its
series
of works
relating
to natural
history,
esi)ecially
in
zch-
thyolog}\
Technological
series ,—In
this branch
of the
library
lliere have
been catalogued 1,052 volumes and 2,125 pamplilets, making a total
of 3,177.
The cards typewritten and
tiled
in connection with this
work numbered 3,505, the periodicals entered 3,631.
The books and pamjzhlets withdrawn for consultation in connection
with the work of the Museum from this part of the library num-
bered 537.
This
is in addition to
tliose borrowed from the central
library.
Ihc filing of cards in the scicntilic depository set of ])rinted cards
from the Library of Congress has been continued.
Two thousand
and thirty-three author cards and 4,031 subjects cards were placed
in the alphabetical
series.
Sectioniil lihrarics,—The checking of publications assigned to the
sectional libraries has been continued as the other Avork would allow,
and while some ]n‘ogress has been made the work
is not near com-
pletion.
The following is a complete list of the sectional libraries:
AdrainistratioD.
Administrative assistant’s olliee.
Anthroi>ology.
Biology.
Birds.
Botany.
Comparative anatomy.
Editor's ottice.
Ethnology,
Fishes.
G(H)logy.
Graphic
arts.
History.
Insects.
108
AI^TKIJAL BBPOET SMITHSONIAK INSTITUTION,
1916.
Invertebrate paleontology.
Mammals.
Marine invertebrates.
Materia modica.
Mechanical technology.
Mesozoic fossils.
Mineral technology.
Minerals.
MoHusIvkS.
Oriental archeology.
Paleobotany.
LIBKAllY OF BUREAU
Ol^
The collection of works relatin;
the etlinologist-in-cliar^o, and an
found in the report of that bureau
ASTROPIIYSICAL OB^
The collection of reference work
sta»t use, and during the year the
of volumes, and 18 parnpldcts.
NATTONAl. ZOOLOG [
Parasites.
Photography.
Physical anthropology.
Prehistoric archeology.
I'roperty clerk.
Reptiles and bntrachians.
Superintendent s office.
Taxidermy.
Textiles.
A^'ertobral
i )n leont ol ogy
AxMERIOAL ETHNOLOGY.
; to ethnology
is administered by
account of
its operations
will be
ERVATORY TJBRARY.
s relating to astrophysics is in con-
•e were added G1 volum(‘s, 20 parts
^AL PARK TJBRARY.
This library contains pubbeations relating to the work of the park
and the care of the animals, reports of other zoological parks, and
works on landscape gardening.
The number of publications added
was 21 volumes and 5 pamphlets.
SUMMARY OF AtVESSIONS.
The accessions during the year, with the exception of the library of
the Bureau of American Ethnology, may be summarized as follows:
To the Smithsonian
depo.sit in the Library
(»f Goncress, including parts
to complete sets
5^ 472
To the Smithsonian office, Astrophysical Observatory, and National Zoo-
logical Park
443
To the United States National Museum
4^ 840
Total
^
„
11,755
Respectfully submitted.
Paul Brockett,
Assistant Lihrana/n.
Dr. Charles D. Walcott,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Appendix
7.
EEPOET ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the United States Bui-eau of the International Catalogue of
Scientific Literature for the fiscal 3^ear ending June BO, 1916:
Each year 17 volumes of the catalogue are published by the Central
Bureau
in London, one volume
for each
of
the following named
sciences:
Mathematics,
mechanics,
physics,
cliemistry,
astronomy,
meteorology, mineralogy,
geology, geography,
palaeontology,
gen-
eral
biology, botany,
zoology, anatomy,
anthropology,
physiology,
and bacteriology.
The publication was begun in 1901, and since then
all of the first
11 annual issues have been published, together with 14 volumes of
the twelfth issue, 10 volumes of the thirteenth
issue, and
1 volume
of the
fourteenth,
a
total
of 212 regular volumes,
in
addition
to
several special volumes of schedules, lists of journals,
etc.
The 14 volumes of the twelfth issue published are mathematics,
mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy,
geography, palaeontology, general biolog}^, botany, zoology, anatomy,
and anthropology.
The 10 volumes of the thirteenth issue published are mathematics,
mechanics, physics, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy, geography,
palaeontology, general biology, and zoology.
The one volume of the fourteenth
issue published
is zoology.
During the year there were 24,160 classified references to American
scientific literature prepared by this bureau as follows:
Literature of
1908
6
1909
2
1910
75
1911
H09
1912
885
1913
3.948
1914
8, 750
1915
10, 175
Total
24,100
It was, of course, inevitable that an international cooperative enter-
prise such as the International Catalogue should be affected by the
m
110
ANISVAL EKPORT SMITHSOmAN TKSTITUTION;
1916.
war in Europe, but it is a matter of congratulation that the prepara-
tion and publication has been continued with comparatively
little
change.
As was pointed out in the last report the finances of the
catalogue had been seriously affected on account of the inability to
collect the subscriptions from Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium,
and Poland.
Before the beginning of the war the receipts and expenditures of
the London Central Bureau approximately balanced and therefore
as the delinquent
remittances from
the
five subscribing countries
above mentioned amounted to almost $G,000 a year
it was necessary
to obtain this sum in order to continue the luiblication.
The Royal
Society
of London very generously
offered
to make
good this loss of income and made a grant of £1,100 to enable the
thirteenth annual issue to be published.
The Royal Society has sub-
sequently granted additional sums aggregating £3,750 to enable the
Central Bureau to continue the publication of the catalogue without
interruption.
A request having been made for assistance from the United States
the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution became so interested in
the subject that he was enabled to obtain a grant of $0,000 from the
Carnegie
Corporation
of New
York
for
the
purpose
of
aiding
American students by making it possible for the Central Bureau to
publish the fourteenth annual issue of the catalogue.
The value and service to science of the work done by the catalogue
is so universally recognized that any lapse in its regular publication
would be a serious calamity.
The great need for a Catalogue of Scientific Literature was felt as
far back as 1855 when Prof. Jose])h Henry brought the subject to
the
attention
of the
British
Association
for
the Advancement Of
Science.
The
idea
resulted
in
the Royal
Society's
Catalogue
of
Scientific Papers which
will, when
completed,
be
a
catalogue
of
periodical scientific literature from 1800 to 1900.
Though this catalogue is simply a list of titles by authors’ names,
including only periodical literature,
it soon became evident that its
production was too great
a task for one society or even one nation
to continue; therefore in 1893 a council of the Royal Society was
held and a committee was appointed to consider the question.
It
was agreed that international cooperation should be obtained for the
production of a complete subject and author catalogue of
science
beginning with 1901.
The value of such a catalogue as then proposed may be estimated
when it is considered that some of the most eminent scientific men
of the day were members of the committee.
Among the members
were Lord Kelvin, Lord Rayleigh, Sir Michael Foster, Sir Joseph
Lister, and Dr. Ludwig Mond.
At the first meeting Prof. Armstrong
EEPOBT OP THE SECEETARY.
HI
was elected chairman and he has ever since been prominently identi-
fied with the affairs of the catalogue.
To
obtain international
cooperation the committee
caused
over
200
letters
to
be
sent
to
institutions and
societies
tlirouglxout the
world and in 1895 a special meeting was called to confer with Prof.
Alexander Agassiz, who advised that an international conference be
called in 1896.
In the report of the committee
it was stated ‘Hhat in no single
case was any doubt expressed as to the extreme value of the work
contemplated,” and “that the matter had been taken up in a most
cordial manner by
the
Smithsonian
Institution,
the
seci'etary
of
which,
in his reply, refers to the desirability of
a catalogue of the
kind suggested as being so obvious tliat the work commends
itself
at once.”
Three international conferences were held in London
(189G, 1898,
and 1900), and as a result the publication of tlie catalogue was under-
taken.
It may be noted
that among the prominent
delegates attending
these conferences
(not includiiig those before mentioned as members
of the Committee of the Royal Societj^) were Sir Xormaii Lockyer,
Prof. H.
Poincare,
Prof. Simon Newcomb,
Dr. Jolm
S.
Pollings,
Right Hon.
Sir. John E. Gorst, and Prof. Yan^t lloff.
On the ad-
vice of these and other jxrorninent men the catalogue was begun.
The value of the catalogue
is shown by the folloAving resolution
adopted 10 years after the publication was begun by the represen-
tatives of the countries f)articipating in the work:
That in view of
tlie success already aclUeved
l)y the International Oataloj;ue
of
Scientilie Literature
an(i
the
j^reat importance of the objects promoted by
it,
it
is imperative
to continue
tlie
puhlic'al ion
of
tlu'
catalo^nie
at
least dur-
inf?
tlie period
1911-15 and
on recommendation
of
the International
Council
dnrint? the
siiiisi-fpient
live years 1910-20.
(Tlie Interna (imial
Council
of the
catalo.£»ue has siihseiiueritly voted to extend the work diiriTit? the period 1910-20.)
This convention was presided over by Sir Arcliibald Geikie, then
president of the Royal
Society, and had among
its members repre-
sentatives from
all
of the principal
countries
of the world.
These men were thoroughly familiar with the service of the cata-
logue to the
scientific men in their respective countries and voted
unanimously
to
continue
the work on
account
of
the
value and
success achieved by
it.
Respectfully submitted.
Leonard C. Gunnell,
Assistant in Charge.
Dr. Charles D. Walcott,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Appendix
8.
KEPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS.
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the pub-
lications of
the Smithsonian
Institution
and
its
branches during
the year ending June 30, 1916
The Institution proper published during the year 22 papers
in
the series of Miscellaneous Collections, 2 annual reports, pamphlet
copies of 54 papers from the general ap])endiees of these reports, and
8
special
publications.
The Bureau
of American Ethnology pub-
lished 2 annual reports, separates of 4 accompanying papers in these
reports, and 2 bulletins.
The United States National Museum issued
1 annual report, 2 volumes of the proceedings, and 52 separate papers
forming parts of these and other a olume^i, and 4 bulletins.
The
total number of
copies
of
publications
distributed by
the
Institution and its branches was 153,262, which includes 219 \olumes
and separate memoirs of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowdedge,
t32,397
volumes
and
separate
pamphlets
of
Smithsonian
Miscel-
laneous Collections, 25,718 volumes and separate jiamphletsof Smitli-
sonian Annual Reports, 73,798 A’olumes and separates of National
Museum publications, 12,420 publications of the Bureau of American
Ethnology, 7,696 special publications, 47 volumes of the Annals of
Astrophysical Observatory, 83 reports of the Ilarriman Alaska Expe-
dition, and 647 reports of the American Historical Association.
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.
QUARTO.
The title-page, table of contents, and cover for volume 27 were
issued, and there was in press at the close of the year a memoir by
Dr. J. S. Foote, of Creighton Medical College, on
The comparative
histology of the femur,” the result of extended original research.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.
OCTAVO.
Of the Miscellaneous Collections, volume
62, 2 papers were pub-
lished ; of volume 63, 1 paper ; of volume 64, 3 papers ; of volume 65,
8 papers and title-page and table of contents; of volume 66, 8 papers;
in all, 22 papers, as follows:
112
EEPOET OF THE SEOBETAEY.
113
Volume 62.
No. 4. Reports on wind tunnel experiments in aerodynamics.
By J. C. Hunsaker,
E. BuckiriKliain,
IT. E. Ro.ssell, D. W. Douglas, C. L. Brand, and E. B.
AVilson.
Hodgkins Fund.
January
15,
191G.
92
pp., 5
pis.
(Publ.
23G8.)
No, 5. Dynamical stability of aeroplanes.
By Jerome C. Hunsaker, assisted by
T. H. Huff, D. W. Douglas,
11. K. Chow, and V. E. Clark.
Hodgkins
Fund.
June 30, 191G.
78 pp., 3 pis.
(Publ. 2414.)
Volume 63.
No. G. Smithsonian Physical Tables.
Reprint of sixth revised edition.
By F. B.
Fowle.
February 18, 101 G.
xxxvi4-355 pp.
(Publ. 2269.)
Volume
No. 3. Cambrian Ceology and Paleontology.
HI, No. 3.
Cambrian trllobites.
By
Charles
D.
Walcott.
January
14,
101 G.
I»p.
157-258,
pis.
24-38.
(Publ. 2370.)
No. 4. Caml)rian C(‘ology and I’aleontology.
Ill, No. 4,
Relations between the
Cambrian and
])re-Can]brian formations
in
the
vicinity
of Helena,
IVTontama.
By Charles D. Walcott.
June 24, lOlG.
Pp. 259-301, pis.
30-14.
(Publ. 241G.)
No. 5. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology,
in, No. 5.
Cambrian trilobltG.s.
By
Charles D. Walcott.
In pre.ss.
Volume 65.
No. 3. A study of the radiation of the atmosphere.
Based upon observations of
the nocturnal
radiation during expeditions
to Algeria and
to
Cali-
fornia.
By Anders
Angstrom.
Hodgkins Fund.
August
27,
1915.
159 pp.
(Pu!>l. 2354.)
No. G. Fxplorations and tieUl work of llie Smithsonian Institution in 1914.
July
1, 1915.
95
PI).,
1
pi.
(Publ. 2.3G3.)
No. 0. Arwiuipa
i)yrlielioim‘try.
By
C.
G. Abbot.
Hodgkins Fund.
March
1,
191G.
24
])p.
(I>ubl. 23G7.)
No. 10. A phylogeneti(! study of the n'ctmt erinoids, with special reference to the
(luestioii of specialization tlirough tlie partial or complete suppression
of .structural characters.
By Austin H. Clark.
August 19, 191.5.
67 pp.
(Piihl. 2309.)
No. 11. A magneton
tlioory
of the
structure
of
the
atom.
By
A.
L.
Parson.
November 29. 1915.
80 pp., 2 pis,
(Publ. 2371.)
No. 12. The jaw of the Piltdown Mam
By Gerrit
S.
Miller,
jr.
November 24,
1915.
31 pp., 5 pis.
(I^ubl. 2376.)
No. 13.
Di'scriptions of seven new subspecies and one new
species of African
birds
(Plantain-Eater,
Courser, and
Rail),
By Edgar
A. Mearns.
November
2(), 1915.
9 i)p.
(Publ. 2378.)
No. 14. The s('nse organs on the nioutli parts of the iiuney bee.
By N. E. Mclndoo.
January
12,
191G.
55 pp.
(Publ. 2381.)
Title-page and table of contents.
June 17, 1916.
v pp.
(Publ. 2419.)
Volume 66.
No.l. Descriptions
of a new genus and eight new
species and
subspecies of
African
mtimmals.
By
N.
Hollister.
February
10,
1916.
8
pp.
(Publ.
241G.)
114
ANKUAL EEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916.
No. 2. A list of the birds observed In Alaska and Northeastern Siberia during
the summer of 1914.
By F. Seymour Horsey.
March 31,
1916.
33
pp.
(Publ. 2408.)
No. 3. Explorations and field work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1915.
May
27, 1916.
119 pp.
(Publ. 2407.)
No. 4. The Ordaz and Dortal expeditions in search of El Dorado, as described
on
sixteenth century
mapis.
By
Kudolf
Schuller.
April
27,
1916.
15 pp., 2 maps.
(Publ. 2411.)
No. 5. On the distribution of radiation over tlu^ surf.s disk and new evidences of
the solar variability.
By (1 0 . Abbot, F. E. Fowle, and
Ij. B. Aldrich.
Hodgkins Fund.
May 23, 1910.
24 pp., 1
pi.
(Publ. 2412.)
No. 6. Phonetic transcription of Indian languages.
In
press.
No, 7. The Pyranoineter—an instrument for measuring sky radiation.
By C. G.
Abbot and
L.
B.
Aldrich.
Hodgkins Fund.
May
23,
1916.
9
pp.
(Publ.
2417.)
No. 8. Three new African
shrews
of
tlie genus
Crocidura.
By
N.
Hollister.
May 23, 1916.
3 pp.
(Publ. 2418.)
SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL KEPORTS.
Report for
The completed
volume
of
the Annual Keport
of
the Board of
Regents for 1014 was received from the Public Printer in August,
1915.
Annual Report of the Board of Regents of tin* Smithsonian Institution showing
operations, exi)eiiditures, and contlition of
11 k‘ Institution for the year ending
June 30, 1914.
xi+729
pp., 155
pis.
(Publ. 2321.)
The general appendix contained the following papers, small
edi-
tions of wliich
wei’v'- ])rinted in ])amphlet form
The radiation of the sun.
By 0. G. Abbot.
16
pi>., 4 pis.
(Publ. 2322.)
Modern theories of the sun.
By Jean Hosier.
8 pp., 2 pis.
(Publ. 2323.)
The form and constitution of the earth.
By liOuis B. Stewart.
14 pp,
(Publ.
2324.)
Some remarks on logarithms
ai)roi)os to
their tercentenary.
By
]\I.
d’Oeagne.
7 pp., 2 pis.
(Publ. 2325.)
Modern views on the constitution of the atom.
By A.
S. Eve.
9 pp.
(Publ.
2326.
)
Gyrostats and
g^rostatic
action.
By Andrew
Gray.
16
pp.,
10
pis.
(Publ.
2327.
)
Stability of aeroplanes.
By Orville Wright.
8 pp.
(Publ. 2328.)
The
first man-carrying aeroplane
capable
of sustained
free
flight—Langley’s
success as a pioneer in aviation.
By A. F. Zahiri.
6 pp., 8 pis.
(Publ. 2329.)
Some
aspects
of
industrial
chemistry.
By
L.
11.
Baekeland.
25
pp.
(Publ.
2330.)
Explosives.
By Edward P. O’Hern.
27 pp., 7 pis.
(Publ, 2331.)
Climates of geologic time.
By Charles Scliucliert.
35 pp.
(Publ. 2332.)
Pleochroic haloes.
By
J.
Joly.
15 pp., 3 pis.
(Publ. 2333.)
The geology of the bottom
of
the
seas.
By
L.
de Launay.
24
pp.
(Publ
2334.)
Recent oceanographic researches.
By Ch. Gravier.
10 pp.
(Publ. 2335.)
The Klondike and Yukon
goldfield
in 1913.
By H. M.
Oadell.
20
pp., 6 pis.
(Publ. 2336.)
EEPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
115
The history of the discovery of sexuality in plants.
By Duncan
8.
Johnson.
24 pp.
(Publ.
2337.)
Prohloins and progress
in
plant pathology.
By
h,
R.
Jones.
13
pp.
(Publ.
2338.)
Plant
autographs and
their
revelations.
By
Jagadis
Chuiuler
Bose.
23
pp.
(Publ.
2339.)
The National
Zoological Park and
its inhabitants.
By Frank Baker.
34
pp.,
41 pis.
(Publ, 2340.)
On the habits and behavior of the lierring gull.
P>y R.
]\I.
Strong.
31
pp., 10
pis.
(Publ. 2341.)
Notes on some
eff(M*ts
of
extianne drought
in
Waterberg,
South
Africa.
By
Eugene N.
IMarais.
12
i)p.
(Thibl. 2342.)
Hoinmotic
regeiK'ration
of
the
anlennae
in
a
Phasmid
or
walking-stick.
By
H.
O.
Sclnnit-Jensen.
14
pi^, 2
pis.
(Publ. 2343.)
laitent
life:
Its nature and
its
relations
to
certain
tlieori(\s
of contemporary
biology.
By Paul
Bi'cfjiu'rel.
15
])p.
(Publ. 2344.)
The early inhabitants of
we.stern Asia.
By Felix
v. Luschan.
25
pp., 12
pis.
(Publ.
2345.)
Excavations at Abydos.
By Edouard Naville.
7 pp., 3
pis.
(Publ. 2340.)
An examination
of
Chinese
bronzes.
By
John
C.
Ferguson.
0
pp.,
14
pis.
(Ihibl. 2347.)
The role of dei)oj)u]alion, <Ieforestatiou, and malaria
in the decadence of certain
nations.
By Felix Ilcgnault.
5 pp.
(1‘ubl. 2348.)
The .story of the cliin.
P>y Louis Robinson.
11
]>{>., 12
pis.
(Ihibl. 2349.)
Recent
dovelopineiits
in
tlur
art
of
illumination.
By
Preston
8.
Millar.
18
pp., 2
pis.
(Publ. 2350.)
The loom and
S[)iiidle:
Past, present, and
future.
By Luther Hooper.
49
pp.,
11
pis.
(Publ. 2351.)
The demonstration
i)lay
.school
ot
1913.
By Clark
\V.
Hethorington.
29
pp.
(Publ.
2352.)
Sketch of
tile
life of Eduard
Siiess
(1831-1914).
By Pierre Termier.
10 pp.
(Publ.
2353.)
Report for
1915,
The
report
of
the
exet*iiti\e
conBiiittee and
jiroceedings
of
the
Board of Regents of the Instilution, and the re]>ort of tlie Secretary,
both forining ptirt of the Animal Ih'port of the l>oard of Regents to
Congress, were issued in pamphlet foian in December, 1915:
Report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents of
the
8mil])soniau
Institution
for
the
year
ending
June
30,
1915.
21
pp.
(Publ.
23S0.)
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June
30, 1915.
110 pp.
(Publ. 2379.)
Small editions of the following papers, forming the general appen-
dix of the report for 1915, were issued in May, 1910, and the complete
volume was received from the printer in June:
Review of astronomy
for the year 1013, by P. Puiseux.
9 pp.
(Publ. 2383.)
The utilization of solar energy, by A.
8. E. Ackermann.
20 pp., 6 pis.
(Publ.
2384.)
The constitution of matter and the evolution of the elements, by Ernest Ruther-
ford.
36 pp., 5
pis.
(Publ. 2385.)
116
ANirtTAL EBPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Submarine signalling, by R. P. Blake,
11 pp.
(Publ. 2386.)
The earthquake in the Marsica, Central Italy, by Ernesto Manclnl.
4 pp., 1 pi.
(Publ. 2387.)
Atlantis, by Pierre Termier.
16 pp.
(Publ. 2388.)
Evidences of primitive life, by Charles D. Walcott.
21 pp., 18 pis.
(I’ubl. 2389.)
The place of forestry among natural sciences, by Henry S. Graves.
13 pp.
(Publ.
2390.)
Ijignum Nephriticum, by W. E. Salford.
28 pp., 7 pis.
(Publ. 2391.)
Impressions of the voices of tropical birds, b>
Louis Agassiz Phiertes.
25 pp.,
16 pis.
(Publ. 2392.)
The Eskimo Curlew and
its disappearance, by Myron
11. Swenk.
16 pp., 1
pi,
(Publ. 2393.)
Construction of insect nests, by Y. Sjdstedt.
7 pp., 3 pis.
(Publ. 2394.)
Olden time knowledge of Hippocampus, by (1 R. Eastman.
9 pp., 4
pis.
(Publ.
2395.)
Heredity, by William Bateson.
36 pp.
(Publ. 2396.)
Some aspects
of progress
in modern
zoology, by Edmund
B.
Wilson.
14 pp.
(Publ. 2397.)
Linguistic areas in Europe: Their boundaries and political slgniflcance, by Leon
Dominian.
35 pp., 5 maps.
(Publ. 2308.)
Excavations
at
Tell el-Amarna,
Eg.\i)t,
in
1913-14, by Ludwig Bor(‘hardt.
13
pp., 13 pis.
(Publ. 2399.)
Vaccines, by L. Roger.
8 pp.
(Publ. 2400.)
Progress in reclamation of arid lands in the Western rinteti States, by John B.
Beadle.
22 pp., 13 pis.
(Publ. 2401
)
Some recent developments
in telephony and
teh^graphy,
by Frank
B. Jewett
21 pp,
(Publ.
2402.)
Sir David Gill, by A
S. Eddington.
12 pp.
(Publ. 2403.)
Walter Holbrook Gaskell, by J. N. Langley.
10 j>p.
(Publ. 2404.)
Special p'uhlicatwns.
The following special publications were issued in octavo form:
Publications
of
the
Smithsonian
Institution
issued
between
January
1 and
June 30, 1915.
Published July 20, 1915.
2 pp.
(Publ
2372
)
Publications
of
the
Smithsonian
Institution
issued
hetveen
January
1 and
September 30, 1915.
October 25, 1915.
2 pp.
(Publ. 2377.)
Publications
of
the
Smithsonian
Institution
issued
between
January
1 and
December 31, 1915.
January 27, 1916.
3 pp.
(Publ. 2405.)
Publications
of
the
Smithsonian
Institution
issiu^d
between
January
1 and
March 31, 1910.
Ajail 20,
1916
1
p.
(Publ. 2413.)
Classified
list
of Smithsonian publications available
for
distribution,
October
15, 1915.
November
4,
1915.
iv+32 pp.
(Publ. 2375.)
Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
Opinion 67.
April
27, 1916.
Pp. 177-182.
(Publ. 2409.)
Rules and regulations
for the conduct of the work of the National- Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics.
July
16,
1915.
5 pp.
Sources of nitrogen compounds
in the United
States.
By Chester G.
Gilbert.
June 30, 1916.
12 pp.
(Publ. 2421.)
PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.
The publications of the National Museum
are:
(a) The annual
report to Congress;
(6)
the Proceedings of the United States Nb-
BEPOET OF THE SECBETABY.
11 (
tional Museum; and
(<?) the Bulletin of the United States National
Museum, which includes the Contributions from the United States
National Herbarium.
The editorship of these publications is vested
in Dr. Marcus Benjamin.
During
the
year
the Museum
published
an
annual
report,
2
volumes of the Proceedings and 52 separate papers forming parts
of these and other volumes, and 4 bulletins.
The issues of the Proceedings were as follows: Volume 48; volume
49, papers 2092, 2094 to 2130, and the complete volume; volume 50,
papers 2131
to
2138.
The Annual Report
of the United
States
National Museum for 1915 was also published.
The bulletins were as follows:
Bulletin 50, The Birds of North and Middle America, pjirt 7, by Robert Ridgway.
Bulletin 01, Rei)ort
oii the Turton collection of South African marine mollusks,
with additional notes
oti
otlier South African shells contained in the United
States National Museum, by Paul Bartsch.
Bulletin
02,
Bibliographic
index of American Ordovician
and
Silurian
fossils
(two volumes), by Ray
S.
Bassler.
Bulletin
94, Handbook and
descriptive catalogue
of the
meteorite
collections
in the United States National Museum, by George P, Merrill.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
The publications of the bureau arc discussed in appendix 2 of the
Secretary’s report.
The editorial work of the bureau has continued
in charge of Mr. J. G. Gurley, editor.
During the year, 2 annual reports and 2 bulletins were issued, as
follows:
29th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology
(containing an
ac-
companying
paper,
“ The
Ethnogeograpliy
of
the Tewa
Indians,”
by
John
Peabody Harrington).
30th Annual Report of the Bureau of American lOthnology
(containing two ac-
companying
papers,
“ Ethnobotaiiy
of
the Zuni
Indians,” by Matilda Coxe
Stevenson, and ‘‘An Inquiry
into the animism and folklore of the Guiana
Indians,” by W’alter E. Roth), and a *‘List of publications of the Bureau of
American Ethnology.”
BuUetin 57. An Introduction jo the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs, by Sylvanus
Griswold Morley.
Bulletin
62. Physical
anthropology
of the Lenape
or
Delawares, and
of the
Eastern Indians in general, by AleS Hrdli^ka.
In
i)reas.
REPORT OF THE xVMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.
The annual
reports of the American Historical Association are
transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution and are communicated to Congress under the provisions
of the act of incorporation of the association.
73839"--8M 1916
9
118
ANlirUAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
The annual report for 1913 (2 volumes) was published during the
year, and the
first volume of the 1914 report was in press at the
close of the fiscal year.
REPORT OP THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
The manuscript of the Eighteenth Annual Report of the National
Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution for the year
ending October 11, 1915, was communicated to Congress on March
28, 1916.
THE SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND
PUBLICATION.
The editor has continued to servo as secretary of the Smithsonian
advisory committee on
printing and publication.
This con)mittee
passes on all manuscripts offered for publication by the Institution
or its branches, and considers forms of routine, blanks, and various
other matters pertaining to printing and i^ublication.
Eigliteen meet-
ings were held during the year and 96 manuscripts were acted upon.
Respectfully submitted.
A. Hov'akd CnAKK, Editor.
Dr. Charles D. Walcott,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
REPORT OE THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARH.OF
REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE
YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1016.
To file Board of Regents of the Bmifhsonian InstHutwn:
Your executive committee respectfully submits the following re-
port in reLation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the In-
stitution, and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the
National
Museum,
the
International
Exchanges,
the
Bureau
of
American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysi-
cal Observatory, and the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera-
ture for
the year ending June 30, lOlG, together with balances of
previous approiiriations
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
Condition of the fvnd July i, 1016.
The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which
it has lK‘en derived are as follows:
1)K1»()S]TFI)
IN THK THEVSCRY OF THE UNIT! I)
RT VTES.
Beqiie.st of Smithson,
1S4C>
$515,160.00
Kesidiiary h'picy of
Sinitlison, 1S67
26.1210.0.’^
Deposit from savings of iiuome, 1807
108,020.37
Bequest of James Ilamiiton, 1875
$1,000.00
Accumulnted
intere.st on ITamiiton fund, 1895__
__
__
1, 000. 00
— —
2, 000. 00
Beque.st of Simeon Hahel, 1880
5(HJ. 00
Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881
51, 500. 00
Gift of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1891
200, (X)0. 00
Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1891
8,000.00
Deposit from savings of in(*ome, 1903
25,000.00
Kesiduary
legnej
of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1907
7,018.09
Deposit from savings of income, 1918
636.94
Part of bequest of William Jones llbees, 1913
251.05
Deposit of proceeds from sale of real estate
(gift of Robert Stan-
ton Avery ),1913
9, 692. 42
Bequest of Addison T. Reid, 1914
4, 795. 91
Depo.sit of savings from income of Avery bequest, 1914
204. 09
Balance of bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1915
248. 05
Deposit of savings from income of Rhees bequest, 1915
28. 39
Deposit of savings from income of Avery fund, 1915
1,862. 60
Deposit of savings from income of Reid fund, 1915
426. 04
Deposit of
first payment of Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund,
1915.,.^
24,584.92
119
120
ANNUAL EEPORX SMIXHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Deposit of iiart of principal of Addison T. Reid fund, 1916
$4, 698. 59
Deposit of principal of George H. Sanford fund, 1916
1, 020. 00
Deposit of savings from Income, 1916
2, 681. 41
Total amount of fund In United States Treasury
996,000.00
#
OTHER llESOURCES.
Registered and
giiarantcH'd 4 per cent btaids of
tlie West Shore
Railroad (Jo., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value)-
42, 000. 00
Coupon 5 per cent bonds of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co., due
July
1. 1918
(cost)
5,040.63
Coupon
6 per cent bonds of the Argentine Nation, due Dec.
15,
1917
(cost)
5,093.75
1,048, 134. 38
Also three small pieces of real
e.state located
in the District of Columbia and
bequeathed by the late Robert Stanton Avery, of Washington, D. C.
That part of the fund deposited
in the Treasury of
the United
States, now amounting to $996,000, bears interest at G
pei* cent per
annum, under the provisions of the act of Congress of August 10,
1846, organizing the Institution, and the act approved March 12, 1894.
The real estate bequeathed
to the Institution by
the late Eobsrt
Stanton Avery
is exempt from taxation and yields only a nominal
revenue from rentals.
Statement of
t'ceeipts and disbvrsemcnts from July
1.
J015,
to dime
30,
1916.
RECEIPT.S.
Cash on deposit and in safe July
1, 1915
.
.$42, 165. 86
Interest on fund
deposited
in United
States Treasury
due July
1, 1915, and Jan.
1, 1916
$59, 071. 23
Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1915,
and Jan. 1, 1916
1, 680. 00
Repayments,
rentals, publications, etc
9, 205. 45
Contributions
from
various
sources
for
specific
pur-
poses
22, 954. 09
Frances Lea Chamberlain fund
10, 000. 00
Addison T. Reid fund
4, 698. 59
107, 670. 26
DISBURSEMENTS.
Buildings, care and repairs
Furniture and
fixtures
General expenses:
Salaries
Meetings
Stationery
Postage, telegraph, and telephone
Freight
Incidentals,
fuel, and
lights
Garage
149, 836. 12
5, 718. 46
1, 451. 61
18, 783. 21
163. 25
830.39
599. 12
86. 82
1, 165. 92
1, 950. 16
23, 578.87
BEPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE,
121
Library
$2, 545. 91
l^ublicatlons and their distribution:
Miscellaneous collections
.$4, 218. 26
Contributions to knowledge
139. 75
Reports
324. 58
Special publications
209.82
Publication supplies
221.05
Salaries
0,802.90
11, 976. 36
Explorations, researches, and collections
5, 441. 85
Hodgkins speeilic fund, researches, and puldications
3,008.57
International exchanges
4, 043. 31
Gallery of Art
21.88
Langley Aerodynam Seal Laboratory
-
70.95
Deposited to credit of permanent fund
8, 400. 00
Consolidated fund, purchase of bonds
10,134.38
Advances for field expenses, etc
28,672. 95
Balance June 30, 1910:
Deposited with the TreasunT of the United Stales
44, 511.02
Cash on hand
200. 00
44,711.02
149, 830. 12
Your executive coiuniittee again employed the Capital Audit Co.
of
this
city
to
audit
the
receipts and
expeuditui*e.s of the Smith-
sonian
Institution dining
the
period covered by
this
report.
An
itemized report has been submitted, but the following certificate of
examination supports
the
foregoing statement and
is hereby
ap-
proved
:
A ITUITOK’S STATEMENT.
Capital Audit Co., Metropoutan Bank Building,
Washingtmi,
1).
0., August
Ui, J91 (k
Executive Commitiee^ lUmnl of Regents,
Sniillisonlan
J iistit ution.
Sirs:
VVc have examined
tlu‘ act'ouiUs and vouchors of the Smithsonian In-
stitution
for
tlie
fiscal year ended June 30,
J910, and
(*ertify the following to
be a correct statiancnt:
Total receipts
^ $107, 062. 40
Total
disbui’soinents
^ 105, 117. 80
Excess of receipts over ilisbursements
2,545.16
Amount from July
1,
1915
—
—
42,105.80
Balance on band June 30, 1910
44,711.02
Balance as shown by Treasury statement us of June 30, 1910
47,831.11
Less
outstanding
checks
3,320.09
Balance
44,511.02
Cash on hand
200. 00
Balance Jum*
30,
1910
-
44,711.02
^ Does
not
Include
$7.80 Eastman
Kodak
Co,
voucher
No.
5038,
entry
and
counter
entry.
122
ANNUAL HEPOEl' SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
The vouchers representing payments from
the
Smithsonian Income during
the year, each of whieli boars the approval of the secretary, or In his absence,
of the acting secretary, and a certificate that the materials and servi{‘0.s charged
were applied
to
tlie purposes of the
Institution, have been examined
in con-
nection with the books of the Institution and agree with them.
Capital Audit Co.,
By William
L. Yakger,
rresident.
All moneys
received by
the
Smithsonian
Institution
from
in-
terest, sales, and refunding of moneys temporarily advanced are de-
posited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the
Institution, and
all payments
are made by
checks
signed by
the
secretary.
The expenditures made by the disbursing agent of the Institution
and audited by the Auditor for the State and Other Departments are
reported in detail to Congi-ess and will be found in the printed docu-
ment.
Your committee
also presents the following summary
of appro-
priations for the fiscal year IDIG intrusted by Congress to the care
of the Smithsonian Institution, balances of previous appropriations
at the beginning
of the
fiscal
year, and amounts unexpended on
June 30, 1916:
Tnternutional
1914
IntornuUoiKil Kxclmiigos, 1915
International Exchanges, 1010
American Etlniology, 1914
American Ethnology'
, 1915
American Ethnology, 1916
International ( 'atalogue, 1914
International f'atalogue, 1915
Intemationiil Catalogue, 1910
Astrophyslcal Ol)servatory, 1914
Aatrophysical Obsorv^atory', 1915
Astrophyslcal ObservatorV, 1910
Bookstacks, Oovemment uiirean libraries, 1914
Bookatacks, Government bureau libraries, 1915
Bookstacks, Govemnifmt bureau libraries, 1915-10.
Tower telescope on Mount Wilson, 1915
Eepalrsto Smithsonian Building, 1915
National Museum:
Eumiture and fixtures, 1914
rurniluroand fixtures, 1915
Furniture and fixtures, 1910
Heating and lighting, 1014
Heating and lighting, 1915
Heating and lighting, 1916
Preservation of collections, 1914
Pt^esorvation of collections, 1915
Preservation of collections, 1910
Books, 1914
Books, 1915
Books, 1916
Postage, 1916
Building repairs, 1914
Building repairs, 1915
Building repairs, 1916
National Zoological Park, 1914
National Zoolo^oal Park, 1915
National Zoological Park, 1916
Bridge over Bock Creek, National Zoological Park.
Aviillu])le
Balance
lifter July
Juno 30,
1, 1915.
1910.
SO.fd
i$0.01
3, 453. 79
.20
32,0(K).00
3,584.17
JS5. 3(1
1 170. 59
3,^54.513
1,119.04
4‘3,()00.IX)
2,897.78
21.50
1 21.50
S(i4. 45
198. 39
7, 5(i0. 00
549. 81
02.30
1 02. 36
1
, 203. 57
4(3. 35
] 3, OlH). 00
1,522.31
33. 01
i 33. 61
35. 30
1.09
2 0, 5(H). (H)
64. 16
1,284.17
410. 23
4.52. 13
176.88
56. 85
156.85
1,048. 83
13.34
25,IH)0.00
1,941.96
242. 62
1 242, 62
4,473. 33
109. 63
40,000.00
5,852.66
573. 75
1 509. 15
8,774.88
1,278.34
300,000.00
7,696.91
25.83
1 10. 30
1,389.73
115.60
2,000.00
600.00
1,157.49
6.03
16.03
487.15
1.32
15,000.00
2,298.68
3.94
13.94
6,261.07
.83
100,(HK).00
6,653,99
1,830.90
1 1,830.00
1 Carried to credit of surplus fund.
2 Immediately available.
REPOBT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
123
statement
of
estimated income from
the Smithsonian fund and from
other
sources, accrued and prospective, to be available during the fiscal year ending
June 30, 19X7.
Balance June 30, 191 G
$44,711.02
Interest on fund
deposited
in United
States Treasury
due July
1, 1916, and .Tan.
1, 1917
$00,451.00
Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds due July
1, 1916,
and Jan.
1, 1917
1,680.00
Exchange repayments,
sale
of
publications,
refund
of
advances,
oic
7, .526. 04
Deposits for specific i)urposes
12, 000. 00
81,657.04
Total available for year endinp; .Tune 30, 1917
126,368.06
Kespectfully submitted.
George Gray,
Alexander Graham Bell,
Ernest W. Roberts,
Executive Committee.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH-
SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR
ENDING JUNE 30, 1916.
ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER
9,
1915.
The Board of Regents met at the Smithsonian Institution in regu-
lar annual session at 10 o’clock a. m. December 9, 1915.
Present: The lion. Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United
States, chancellor, in the chair; Senator Henry Cabot Lodge; Senator
William
J. Stone; Senator Henry P\ Hollis; Representative Scott
Ferris; Representative Ernest AV. Roberts; the Hon. Maurice Con-
nolly; Dr. Andrew D. White, Dr. A. Graham Bell
; the Hon. George
Gray; Mr. John B. Henderson; tlie Hon. Charles AV. Fairbanks; and
the secretary, Dr. Charles D. AValeott.
APPOINTMENT OF PEOKNT.
It was announced that William J. Stone, Senatoi* from Missouri,
had been reappointed a Regent by the Vice President on February
18, 1915.
UESOLtll'ION KELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.
On motion by Judge Gray, cliairman of the executive committee,
the following resolution was adopted:
Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the
fisciil year endiiif^ June
30, 1917, be appropriated for the sorviee of
tlie Institution, to be ('xpended by
the secretary with the advice of
tlie executive committee,
with
full
discTotion
on the part of the secretary as to items.
VACANCY IN EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
On motion it was
Resolved^ That Mr. Ernest W. Roberts be elected to the executive committee
to
fill the vacancy caused by the retirement of Mr. Maurice Connolly.
ANNUAL REPORT OP THE EXECUTIVE COMMllTEE.
The annual report of the executive committee reviewing the finan-
cial condition of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1019, was presented in printed form and adopted.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
125
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE.
The permanent committee presented the following statement:
Hodgkins fund ,—A third allotment of $5,000 was made from the
income of this fund for the purpose of continuing the work of the
Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory.
Poore iequest,—Mr. John J, Pickman, executor of the estate of
George W. Poore, was given an indemnity bond
to guarantee him
from
loss,
and
he thereupon paid to the
Institution
the sum
of
$24,534.92, the net proceeds of the estate, exclusive of certain parcels
of land, which are estimated to have a value of $10,000.
The Addison T, Reid> hequest was made for the purpose of found-
ing a chair in biology as a memorial to the testator’s grandfather,
Asher Tunis,
subject to the condition that the income be paid
in
three
shares
to certain enumerated
beneficiaries
until
their
death,
when the principal of the estate, with accumulations, was to come to
the
Institution.
As
previously
reported,
one
of
the
beneficiaries
died in 1913, and the amount of her share, $4,795.91, was duly
re-
ceived by
the
Institution.
A second
benefidary
died
during the
summer of
1915, and
lier share, amounting
to
$4,(>98.59, was
also
received.
Rhees bequest,—Mr. William Jones Khees, chief
clei’k of the In-
stitution
for nearly 40 years, died March
18,
1907, l)equeathing to
the Institution the sum of $500.
This bequest lias been received and
will be allowed to increase by the addition
of
its earnings to the
principal
until
a
suflicient sum
shall have been
realized
to make
possible the provision of a suitable work of some kind to serve as a
memorial to this able and faitliful
ofiicial.
ChamheHain
bequests ,—The board was informed
at
a
previous
meeting that Dr. Leander T. Chamberlain had made two beejnests to
the Institution, each to be known as ‘‘the Frances Lea Chamberlain
Fund.”
^
The first bequest was $25,000, the income of whicli was to be used
“ for promoting the increase and the scientific value and usefulness
of the collection of gems and gem material known as the
‘ Isaac Lea
Collection’
in
the
department
of
minerals
in
the United
States
National Museum.”
The second bequest was $10,000, the income to be used “ for pro-
moting the scientific value and usefulness of the collection of mol-
lusks known as the ‘Isaac Lea
Collection,’”
also
in
tlie National
Museum.
This second bequest has been received.
Sanford bequest,—A bequest of $1,020 has been
received by the
Institution under the will of Mrs. Helen B. Sanford for the purpose
of founding “ the George H. Sanford fund,”
as a memorial to her
husband.
The income of this fund is to be used for the increase and
126
AHNUAL BEPORT SMlTHSONIAK IKSTITUTION,
15)16.
diffusion oi knowledge on such subjects as the Institution may decide
upon.
"
On motion the report of the permanent committee was accepted.
secretary’s ANNUAL REPORT.
The secretary presented
his annual
report
in printed form and
made statements thereon as follows
The Smithsonian Institution and its branches since the last annual
meeting of the Eegents have issued a total of 93 publications aggre-
gating
about
8,000
pages and
550
plates.
Twenty-four
of
these
publications (1,595 pages and 180 plates) were issued by the Institu-
tion proper; 66 of them (5,370 pages and 380 plates) by the National
Museum; and 3
(1,103 pages and 6 plates) by the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology.
The
total number
of
all publications distributed
during the year was 145,272.
In addition, the annual report of the
American Historical Association and of the National Society of the
Daughters of the American Revolution were examined by the Institu-
tion and transmitted to the Congress.
From among valuable
contributions
to
nearly
every branch
of
science covered in these various publications, may be mentioned as
of special interest two papers issued by the Institution proper mider
the Hodgkins fund, one, an extended study of the radiation of the
atmosphere, the other,
a paper on the
intensity of solar radiation
outside the atmosphere.
In the course of experiments covered by
the latter, free balloons with recording apparatus reached altitudes
up to 15 miles and were recovered with the records in good condi-
tion.
Another
paper
of
considerable
interest
to
physicists
and
chemists
is
entitled
magneton theory
of
the
structure
of the
atom,” by A. L. Parson.
Among National Museum publications there was Issued from the
United States National Herbarium a Flora of New Mexico, which
describes some 3,000 species of plants from that State.
There was
also printed the usual pamphlet on explorations and
researches by the Smithsonian Institution and
its branches, written
in a semipopular style and containing numerous illustrations.
Last year thei’e was published a work giving some results of the
secretary’s studies in Pre-cambrian Algonkian algal flora, and there
has been prepared for the cuinrent annual report a general review of
the secretary’s field and laboratory work in Cambrian geology dur-
ing several years past.
The Annual Report of the Institution for 1914 was completed con-
siderably earlier than for any previous year.
The general appendix
contains 30 papers relating as usual to all branches of science.
The
public demand
for the Smithsonian Report has become
so great
PROCEEDINGS OP THE REGENTS.
12
that Congress authorized the edition to be increased from 7,000 to
10,000 copies.
THE LANOLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY.
At the annual meeting of the Board of Regents, held December
10, 1914, a resolution was adopted providing for the appointment by
the chancellor of a committee of four members of the board and the
secretary
“ to consider
questions
relative
to
the Langley Aerody-
namical
Laboratory.”
The
following
committee
was
appointed:
Dr,
Alexander Graham
Bell, chairman;
lion. William
J.
Stone,
Hon. Ernest W. Roberts, Mr. John B. Henderson, and the secretary.
This committee presented a report to the l)oai*d on the history of
the organization
of the laboratory under the
aiithoi’ity of the Re-
gents and on the need of a National Advisory Committee on Aero-
nautics; also a statement of American agencies, resources, and facili-
ties for the work, and of the progress made by otlier nations in this
subject.
In addition a report was made on the action taken by Con-
gress authorizing the appointment of an advisory committee by the
President of the United States, wlio subse(]iienlly selected such com-
mittee as follows
Gen.
(leorge
P.
Scriven, United
States Army,
and
Lieut.
Col.
Samuel Reber, United States Army, representing the Army; Capt.
Mark L. Bristol, United States Navy, and Na\ al Constructor H. C.
Richardson, United States Navy, representing the Navy; Mr. Charles
F. Marvin, Chief United States Weather Bureau; Dr. S. W. Strat-
ton,
Director United
States Bureau
of Standards; Mr. Byron R.
Newton, Assistant Secretary TTnited States Treasury;
Prof. W.
F.
Durand, Stanford University of California: Prof. Michael I. Pupin,
Columbia
University, New York
City;
Pi'of.
John
F. Hayford,
Northwestern
University,
Illinois;
Prof.
Josei)h
S. Ames,
Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.; Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secre-
tary Smithsonian Institution.
The committee’s report stated further that it was not deemed prob-
able, in view of the organization and scope of the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, that the Smithsonian Institution would
find it necessary to cstablisli an aerodynamical laboratory for experi-
mental purposes.
Its function would now be more in the direction
of aiding in such studies and experiments as could not well be other-
wise provided
for and
in publishing such material as might be of
value in the development of the art.
On motion, the report was accepted.
In this connection the secretary stated that the experiments being
conducted with the Langley aerodrome on Lake Keuka, New York,
were successfully continued during the year 1915 and that a report
128
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
thereon had been
filed
in the
office by Dr. A.
F. Zahm
;
that the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had approved of the
cooperation between
the
Smithsonian
Institution and
the United
States Weather Bui’eau in connection with the investigations of the
atmosphere having a bearing upon aeronautics, and that this coopera-
tion had met with the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture and
of the Chief of the Weather Bureau.
To carry this into effect, $2,500
had been set aside from the allotment for the Langley Aerodynamical
Laboratory for the purchase of necessary instalments, sounding bal-
loons, etc., and for conducting such experiments as could not be pro-
vided for from funds of the Weather Bureau.
Site for Freer Gallery of Art .—At the last meeting of the board a
resolution Avas adopted authorizing the chancellor to appoint a com-
mittee to consider the matter of a site for the proposed Freer Build-
ing, and the folloAving were appointed on said committee: Senator
Lodge, Senator Hollis, Judge Gray, Mr. Connolly, and the secretary.
The committee jiresented a report recommending that the building
be erected on a
site
in
the southwest corner
of
the
Smithsonian
grounds, west of the Smithsonian building, and south
of the
line
recommended by the National Park Commission in 1900 for future
buildings on the Mall.
The committee’s I’ecommendation was apjAroved by the board.
In tins connection the secretary read an (‘xtrad from Mr. Freer’s
letter of December 4. stating that
if the board took favorable action
he would at once place at the Institution’s disf)osal the $1,000,000 he
had already set aside for this purpose.
The secretary referred
to the Widener
art
collection and
to the
neAvspaper comments as to
th(i possibility of securing the collection
for Washington City.
These art objects were left to Mr. Widener’s
son with discretion as to donating them to Philadelphia, Washington,
or Now York.
The collection
is now handsomely
houscal, and the
secretary very much doubted that any action would be taken toward
its being placed elsewhere for many years to come.
Speaking on the subject of the National Gallery of Art, the secre-
tary mentioned the art collections already in the custody of the Insti-
tution and said that the time will soon be here when definite action
must be taken looking to their proper housing.
Bird and animal ref^iges.—The secretary stated that he had given
considerable attention to the development of the movement for the
creation of bird refuges, and that he had called the attention of the
executive committee to an inquiry that had been made as to whether
the Smithsonian Institution would consider the acceptance of a large
tract of land on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico for the administra-
tion of a great bird and wild animal refuge.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
129
The board decided that gifts of lands, buildings, or funds to estab-
lish bird or wild animal refuges might be accepted and administered,
on condition that adequate provision for their proper maintenance
be made by the donor or donors or other agencies.
skckktaky’s statement.
The secretary also made the following statements:
The National (Jallery of Art received in July^ 1015, a collection of
pictures which, though not of an elaborate nature, is remai’kable for
the long list of eminent artists represented.
The collection consists
of 82 drawings executed with various mediums, principally water
color, crayon,
charcoal,
pencil, chalk, and pen, by as many of the
most prominent contemporary painters, sculptors, and engravers of
the French Republic.
It came as a testimonial from the people of
France to the people of the United
States in recognition of their
sympathetic
efforts toward
relieving the
distress and
suffering
in
France occasioned by the war in Europe and
is the result of action
by an organizing committee in Paris begun
in March,
1915.
The
collection was delivered to the American ambassador at the French
capital early in July, and immediately upon its receipt at the Depart-
ment
of
State
in Washington
it was
deposited
in
the
National
Gallery.
A catalogue of the collection has been printed and widely circu-
lated, and
it constitutes a most distinguished honor roll.
Of added
interest
is the fact that the pictures arc all signed, and, with very
few exceptions, each is also inscribed by the artist with an expression
of friendly feeling and gratitude.
Bureau of /Urhcrican Ethnology,—During the summer and autumn
of 1915 important archeological excavations were conducted in the
historic Nacoochee Mound in MTiite County, Ga., as well as in the
Mesa Verde National Park of southern Colorado, where a large ruin
exhibiting remarkable masonry was thoroughly excavated and
re-
paired.
Ethnologic investigations among the Creek and Natchez Indians
of Oklahoma, the Fox Indians of low^a and Oklahoma, and the Chu-
mash and Mohave Indians of California, w^ere prosecuted in the field
with excellent
results, and equally successful
efforts were made in
studying the languages of some of the tribes of Oregon that are
threatened with extinction.
A reconnaisance of the ruins of pueblos in the Zuni Valley, New
Mexico, was made with a view to their excavation during the summer
of 1916.
•
Addition of
laiid to the National. Zoological^ Park,—The laundry
civil
act
for the
fiscal year ending June
30,
1914,
appropriated
130
ANNUAL EEPOHT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1M6.
$107,200 for tlio purchase, as an addition to the National Zoological
Park, of land lying between the present western boimdary of the
park and Connecticut Avenue, between Cathedral Avenue and Klin-
gle Eoad.
After many delays in the legal steps to acquire this land, the jury
of condemnation
presented
its
findings
to
the court on December
11, 1914, as follows:
Daiiia.ires
aptiraisod
$194,438.08
lOxpcnscs
of Jury
2,203.35
Total
.
.
100,041.43
Bencfit>^ assossf'd
;it
.
00,013.50
F.xcf'ss of
(]:iiiia.a:cs
ovt'r
btau'lits
.
130,027.93
This sum oxceo'Is
tlic appropriation by
.
_
23, 427.93
On January 12, 1015, tJie niofion of tin* Si'ciTiary of tlie TiTasnry
to confirni
tlie
verdict was received by
tlie
(‘oiii’t and
filed.
From
time to time exceptions to the verdict were bled by A’arious property
owners interested, and on June 28. 1915,
t])c court
std aside the ver-
dict of the assessnamt of lienefits and costs as regards exc(‘ptors and
confirmed
tlic
remainder
of
tlic
assessmtaits
and
the
awards
of
damages.
A recent statement from the Assistant United States Attorney for
the District shows that the benefits assessed by
tlie jury that have
been
set aside by the court amount to approximately
$18,000, and
that, according to his figures, the total amount that
will
lie refpiired
to
secure the land
will
bo approximately
$170,000
instead
of
tlie
$107,200 as appropriated.
The land in question has a frontage on Conneciiciit A Maine of 1,750
feet and
covers
about
10
acres, which
if
olitaineil
will
bring
the
park area to an aggregate of 180 acres.
Notes on
the
recent worh
of
the
Astrophf/slccl
Ohnerentory .
Dr. Charles G,
Alibot,
director, and Mr. L.
B.
Aldrich,
assistant,
have continued at Mount Wilson, Cal., their observations on the in-
tensity of solar radiation.
Complete reductions of the Mount Wilson woi*k of 1914 show that
the return of solar
activity
in
that year—after the passage of the
minimum epoch of 1913
(in which sun spots had become fewer than
at any time for a century)—was attended by a very considerable rise
in the intensity of solar radiation.
Work with the tower telescope
on Mount Whitney was
continued,
and
this
also
confirmed
the
variability of the sun.
It
is greatly regretted that no other observing station had been
equipped to share with the Institution these observations on the varia-
tion of the sun.
Only when several observatories, widely scattered
in favorable regions as regards weather conditions,
shall unite to
PROCEEDINGS OE THE REGENTS.
131
follow these observations from daj^ to day for sevei*al years can the
results be of much value to meteorologists as evidence whether or not
the sun’s variability influences terrestrial climate.
The Institution
is looking forward to establisliing and operating a station in Argen-
tina or some oilier favorable situation in South America, the expense
to be provided for from the income of the Hodgkins fund.
A new vacuum bolometer has been devised vhich
in
actual
trial
developed 20
times
the
sensitiveness
of
the
bolometer
heretofore
used on Mount Wilson
for these researches.
With
this new
bolo-
meter
at
leavSt
one
ten-millionth
of
a
degiee
rise
of
terni^erature
could be detected and measured, and
it seems not impossible that a
bolometric
outfit
could
be
constructed
ca])al)1e
of
detecting
and
measuring even a l)illionth of a degive
i*ise of tem})ei*atm'e.
77ic licscarrh Corpovailon.— 'I'he
Kes(‘ai’eh
tVu’poralion lum
suc-
cessfully continued
its work during the ^a^ar and
is now on a sound
financial
basis.
On Octohci*
JJ)ir). the
assets of
tlie corporation
were
$l()G,001.tio.
In
these
assets the
Cottrell
process patents
are
valued at the nominal sum of $1,000.
It will be recollected that the Keseareh Cor])oration was organized
in Ihhnuuw, 1012, with
a capital of $10,000 and a salary roll of less
than $3,000.
The sahiry roll for tlie ensuing year, owing to the great
increase
in
the scope of the work,
will
he in the neighborhood of
$38,000.
The energies of the corporation have been almost entirely applied
in connection with
the experimental
iprecipitation processes which,
it
will be
recalled,
were offered
to the Smithsonian
Institution by
Dr. Cottrell, and by
it
in turn
oller(‘d to the Eesearch Corporation
for commercial development.
If the su(‘eessful development of the
organization continues otlier lines of research
will he entered upon.
Kledv}(‘(il preeJplfatJon of fog
.—Under a gi*ant of $2,000 made l)y
the Institution from the Hodgkins fund Dr. F. 0. Cottrell has con-
ducted ex])('rimcnts at the Paiunna-l^acifif’ Exjiosition at San Fran-
cisco in
I’elation
to the
electrical
precii)itation
of
fog.
The
secre-
tary,
while
visiting
the
exposition, saw something of
the
experi-
ments and examined the apparatus used.
The most striking features
of
the
apparatus
are
the Thordarson
350,000
and
1,000,000
volt
transformers placed
at the service
of Dr.
Cottrell.
These experi-
ments involved
the cooperation
of the Panama-Pacific Exposition
officials, the Eesearch Corporation, Mr. C. H. Thordarson, the Uni-
versity of California, the General Electric Co., and the Smithsonian
Institution.
The problem of clearing fog differs from other precipitation prob-
lems in several respects.
For instance, in the latter cases it is mani-
festly necessary to actually deposit the suspended matter on the elec-
trodes in order to accomplish the effect sought, while in the case of
132
ANNUAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
fog,
if even a considerable coalescence of the minute particles into
large ones could be effected, it would become much more transparent,
even aside from the more rapid settling of the drops.
New
difficnl-
ties are to be expected, however, such as the matter of insulation,
for tlie rtnisou tliat the whole apparatus
is of necessity continuously
immersed in the Avet atmospliere.
Ilavrhndn trust finuL—Dr. C. Hart Merriam, operating under the
trust fund established by Mrs.
E.
II. Ilarriman, has continued the
study of the Big Bears of North America, and the preparation of
manuscript and illustrations
for the press.
Owing to the scarcity
of specimens
of some
of the
less knoAvn
species,
final
effort was
made
to obtain
additional
skulls, and more than 50 were secured
which have proved of value in clearing up j)oints previously in doubt
as to the charactei’s of several of the species.
The labor of
seai'ching the
literature
relating
to early explora-
tion, hunting, and ti‘avel
for records of bear and otluu* animals, has
been continued, and large additions
liave
l)een made to the
files of
material relating to North American mammals and
to the Indian
tribes of California and iNevada.
Borneo and
('ef(t>cs expedition .—As previously stated, Dr. W. L.
Abbott,
a collaborator of the National Museum, contributed $11,000
in money and between $500 and $1,000 in ammunition
arul supplies
for the purpose of conducting a collecting expedition in Borneo and
Celebes.
Mr. Henry C. Baven, Dr. Abbott’s personal representative
in this enterprise, spent about two years in Boimeo and nearly a year
in Celebes.
He returned to Washington during the summer of 1015.
The expedition has beem lirieliy described
in a pamphlet recently
is-
sued b^T' the Institution.
Its main results include a collection of 405
fwammals, 870 birds, 50 reptiles, and a miscellaneous series of ethno-
logical and zoological miiterial.
lir, Abbott has i*ecently adde^l to
liis generous gifts a donation of
$2,0\)0 to provide for a second expedition to make natural history col-
lecticlns and
explorations
in
the Dutch
East
Indies,
particularly
in
Celebes.
Mr. Kaven was selected
for this new expedition, and
after
outfitting
at Washington, he
sailed
October
19,
1015, from
Seattle
for
the
field
of
his new
operations
via
Singapore.
The
expedition is expected to last about three years, and the results will
bf presented to the National Museum.
Siberlcm Expedition .—As previously
reported, an
expedition
to
Siberia was financed by the Telluride Association, of Ithaca, N.
Y.,
which generously donated $3,500 for the purpose.
The expedition
was under the direction of Capt. John Koren, who was accompanied
by Mr. Copley Amory,
jr., a collaborator of the National Museum,
and by Mr. Benno Alexander, who specially Bepresented the Smith-
sonian Institution.
PEOCEEDINGS OP THE KEGENTS.
133
The party sailed from Seattle on June 20, 1914, and after an ex-
})loration
of
the
territory
about
the Kolyma
River
region,
Mr.
Amory returned during the summer of 1915 bringing 305 mammals
and 264 birds.
This collection was obtained at the nominal cost of
an outfit and the transportation from Nome, Alaska, to Washington,
and
is a very important contribution to the National Museum.
Biological worlc in North China.—Mr. A. de C. Sowerby
is con-
tinuing his Avork in Manchuria and northeastern China through the
generosity of a friend of the Smithsonian, whose identity, as here-
tf)forei repoTfed, is withheld.
Two wapiti bucks and a roe deer have
been received, but the main collections have been delayed in transit.
Montana and Wyoming .—The
secretary
continued
his
Avork
of
exploration among the
fossil beds of Montana
in connection with
liis studies of the early
life of the earth.
In the
YclloAvstonc Na-
tional Park
he
observed
the
character and method
of
deposition
of
the hot
si)ring and
geyser deposits by the primitive blue-green
alga‘, and
su])ei’A ised
llu‘
collecting of
siliceous geyserite,
silicified
wood, and
volcanic
rocks.
Over
5 tons of
material
Avei’e shipped
to the National Museum during the summer of 1915.
On leaving the park the canyon of the West Oalhitin RiA^r Avas
folloAved
for a
distance
of
3t)
miles, and
the
valley
of
the upper
Missouri River Avas crossed at ToAviisend, Mont., en route to the Belt
Mountains.
A
collection
of very ancient
fossil
algal remains was
made there, of Avhi(‘h one and a half tons of specimens were selected
for study
in connection with the material obtained dr.ring the
field
season of
1911.
These specimens contain the oldest
fossil
bacteria
knoAvn, as well as deposits similar to those made by the blue-gi'cen
:dga^ in the YelloAvstone National Park hot s])rings.
Throughout the
trip Dr. Walcott Avas
assisted by Mrs.
AYalcott,
Avlio is an enthusiastic photographer and collector.
Dr.
Urdlich^dH proposed Asiatic expedition
.—The
object
of the
contemplated expedition
is to trace in eastern Asia, as far as may be
possible, tlm origin of the American aborigines, which is noAV one of
the foremost problems befoi-c the anthropologists of the world. A
preliminary
survey
of
parts
of
Siberia
and
Mongolia, made by
Dr. ITrdlicka under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution in
1912, yielded results of the most interesting nature, and the evidence,
ethnological
and
archeological, encouraged
the
belief that
further
research Avould lead to determinations of great scientific value.
The
primitive
tribes
visited
by
Dr.
Hrdlicka
are,
in
their
physical
characteristics, hardly to be distinguished from the typical American
Indian and the traces of prehistoric culture give almost equally close
analogies, and
it
seems most
desirable
that
further
explorations
should be undertaken.
73839'’—SM 1916
10
134
ANNUAL BKPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
The great group of peoples concerned and to bo studied are dis-
tributed over Tibet, western China, Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea,
Japan, and a large part of Siberia, and extend in varying degrees
of relationship to Polynesia, Malaysia, and the Philippine Islands.
The special object of Dr. Hrdlicka’s proposed expedition
is to
defi-
nitely trace
this distribution in
its relation
to the peopling of the
American Continent.
It
is anticipated that
the
proposed
survey
should extend over four or five years.
Mr. IFara^r’s proposed expedition to eastern A sia.—An expedition
which
is exjiected to eooi)erate
in important ways with that of Dr.
Hrdl irka, but which will devote its main attention to the prehistoric
and
early
historic archeology and
art of eastern
Asia,
is contem-
plated by Mr. Langdon Warner.
Mr. Warner plans to explore cer-
tain
districts
of
southern
Chimi,
excavating mounds and
ruined
cities which are confidently expected to yield archeological and art
treasures of exceptional value.
Doubtless these excavations will re-
sult in the recovci'y of
lai'ge quantities of skeletal remains and of
objects of primiti\e art, which ))laced in the hands of specialists in
these branches will serve to throw much light on the ancient peoples
of Asia.
This expedition is undertaken under the auspices of the new Cleve-
land Museum of Art.
GENEMI. APPENDIX
TO TJIE
SMITHSONIAN REPOIIT FOR 1!)I6.
ADVEETTSEMENT.
The object of th6 General Appendix to the Annual Eeport of the
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis-
covery in
]>articular directions;
reports of
investi^atiojis made by
collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a ^(‘nernl charat^ter
or on special
to])ics that are of interest or value to
the numerous
corresjiondents of the Institution.
It has been
a prominent object of the Board
of
Ivc^ciits of the
Smithsonian Institution, from a very eaidy date, to enricli tlie annual
report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more
remarkable and important developments in physical and
biological
discovery, as avcU as showing the general character of (lie operations
of the Institution; and this purpovse has, duriiig tln^ gic^ater part of
its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such pa})ers
as would possess an interest to all attracted by
scientitii^ progress.
In 1880 the secretary, induced in part by the dis(‘ont)nuan(5e of an
annual summary of progress which for 30 years previous had beeri
issued by well-known
private publishing
firms,
Iiad
prc|)ared by
competent collaborators a series of abstracts, shoAving concisely the
l^rominent features of recent scientific iirogress in astronomy, geol-
ogy, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology,
and anthropology.
This latter plan Avas continued, tliough not alto-
gether satisfactorily, doAvn to and including the year
18f^8.
In the report for 1889 a return Avas made to the earlier method of
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origi-
nal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and
discussion.
This method has been continued in the present report
for 1916.
186
ADMTNLSTRATTON AND ACTIVITIES OF THE SMITH-
SONIAN INSTITUTION.
By A. Howard Clark,
Editor, ^mitksonian Imt itxition.
[With 22 plates.
THE ESTABLISHMIONT- BOARD
t)E REGENTS.
The Smitlisonian
Institution was created by act of Congress, in
1846,
according
to the
terms
of the
will
of James Smithson,
of
England, who in
J8i^(> bequeathed his property to the United States
of America
‘Ho
found
at
Washington,
under
the name
of
the
Smithsonian .Institution, an establishment for the increase and dif-
fusion of knowledge among men.”
In receiving the property and
acce|>ting
tlte trust, Congress determined that the Federal Govern-
ment was without authority to administer
the. trust
directly, and
ther(d’orc CAmstituted an
establishment,” whose statutory membersj
are “the President,
tlie Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the
heads of the executive departments.”
The business of the Institution
is conducted by a Board of Regents composed of “ the Vice President*,
the Chief Justice of the United
States, and three Members of the
Senate and three Members of the House of Re])resentatives, together
with six other persons other than Members of Congress, two of whom
shall be resident in the city of Washington and the other four shall
be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.”
The Regents
elect one of their number as chancellor, usually the
Chief Justice, who is the presiding oftlcer of the board, and elect a
suitable person as secretary of the Institution, who
is also secretary
of the board and the executive officer and director of the Institution’s
activities.
RESOURCES.
The annual income of the Institution
is about $100,000, deidved
from interest on the permanent fund
(in the United States Treas-
ury) and on special funds, and contributions from various sources,
which
is
applied to
operations of the
Institution
proper, besides
annual congressional appropriations of about $600,000 for the main-
137
138
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1D16.
tenance
of
the bureaus
or branches
of
the
Institution
developed
through
its early
activities, including the United
States National
Museum and the National
Gallery
of
Art, the
International Ex-
change
Service, the Bureau
of American Ethnology, the National
Zoological Park,
the Astrophysical
Observatory, and
the United
States Bureau of the International Catalogue of
Scientilic
Litera-
ture.
The llegeiits are empowered to accept gifts without action of
CongiTss in furtherance of the purposes of
tlie Institution, and to
administer trusts in accord therewith.
Many important researches
and
expeditions,
particularly during
recent
years, have
also
been
aided by
special
trusts
provided
by
})atrons
of
the
Institution.
Among the most notable of thc'se explorations, financed through ])ri-
vate donations, was the African expedition under Theodore Roose-
velt, and explorations in the Ear JCast continued
for several years
past through the liberality of Dr. William L. Abbott.
The income
of certain trust funds
is set aside for specific
])ur[)oses, as that of
the Frances Lea Chambeidain fund for the maintenance of the Isaac
Lea collections of gems and molhisks. and that of a fund established
by Mrs.
E. II. ITarriman for carrying on certain biological studies;
also the income of a portion of the Hodgkins fund, devoted to the
study of atmospheric air.
SMITHSONIAN HUILDINOS.
The
buildings
occupied
by
the
Institution
and
the
National
Museum are in the Smithsonian Park, an area of
acres about mid-
way between the Ca])itol and the Washington Monument.
The origi-
^lal Smithsonian building
is of brownstone in twelfth eentnry Nor-
man or T./ombard style of architecture, LIT feet front and covering
about 00,000 square
feet.
It was completed
in
1855.
The adminis-
trative
offices are here, as also several
sections of the
library, the
Musenni
division
of plants or National
Herbarium, and
the
divi-
sion of graphic
arts, also the
offices and
library of the Bureau of
American Ethnology.
Adjacent to the administrative building on the east is the Museum
of Industrial Arts, built of brick in modernized Romanesque style of
architecture, covering about 2^
acres, and comj)leted in 1881.
Here
are exhibited objects relating chiefly to the arts and industries and
American history.
On the north side of the park is the Museum of Natural History,
completed in 1911.
This fine structure is of granite in modern classic
style with dome and columned portico.
It covers an area of about
4 acres and in its ground floor and the three stories there are 468,118
square feet of floor space, one-half of which is devoted to exhibition
purposes, the other half being
utilized
for
storage rooms,
offices,
Smithsonian Report,
1 91^.— Cl.nk.
Plate
1.
Jit
J
i
!
James Smithson.
RiES
Bu!LD:ng,
U.
S.
National
Museum.
Natural
HiSTORr
Bu'ldin-,
U.
S.
National
Museum.
South
Front.
Tllli SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION— CLARK.
139
laboratories, and other purposes.
As the latest of the groat museum
hiiilcliiigs of the world it embodies many new and im])ortant features.
Ilei'e
are displayed the collections pertaining
to anthropology,
bi-
ology, and geology, and the National Gallery of A]*t.
The number of visitors to the original Smithsonian building from
1881
to
1916 was
4,580,932;
and
to the
industrial
arts building
7,727,732;
while the
visitors to the natural history building from
1910 to 1916 numliered 1,835,529.
Through the generosity of Mr. Charles L. Freer there was begun
in the summer of 1916 in connection with the National Gallery of
Art, the coiistriu^tion of a beautiful edifice to house the splendid col-
lection of American and oriental works of art presented to the Insti-
tution by Mr. Freer, who has placed at the disposal of the Institution
more than a million dollars to defray the cost of the building.
The
Astrophysical
Observatory
is housed
in
a
grou]:)
of
small
wooden structures south of the Smithsonian administrative ))uilding.
PUKI’OSKS AM) (UUKCTS.
The Smithsonian
plan
of
(ugaiiization
embi*aces the two
objects
named by the tt'stator: one, the increase of knowledge by
tlie addi-
tion of new truths to tlie existing stock; the other, the
diil'usion of
knowledge, thus increased, among mom
No
restriction
is made
in
fa\or of any kind of knowledge, and hence each branch is entitled to
and receives a share of attention.
Paid of the
])laii has included the
formation of a libiury of science and art. a museum, a gallery of art,
and
[)r(>\ isions
foi* ])bysical research and
})o])ular lectures.
41ie
acti\'ities of the Institution embrace
all branches of natural
science, the line arts, and industrial arts,
it lias at all times fostered
])rogi‘es.sive
scientific reseaivh.
Since
its establishment the
Institu-
tion
b:rs inaugurated and maintained or has paitici])ated in
a great
number of astronomical, anthropological, biologiiad, and geological
expeditions and ex])lorations in every portion of the world, resulting
ill
largc'ly increasing our knowledge of the geography, the meteor-
ology, the fauna and
lloi’a, and the ethnology of all lands, and in the
ac(jiiisitioii of
a
\ ast amount of valuable material for the National
]\Iiiseiun.
Tlie Smilhsonian
is not an educational institntiem of the nature of
a
uniyersity with
a
ccu'ps of
professors and
students, and
yet
its
educational functions are of the highest rank, for the members of
its scientific staff and its many collaborators aie constantly engaged
in
investigations
in which students
of
science
in
all
its branches
participate; and the museum
collections and
the collection of ani-
mals
iix the Zoological Pai*k are a constmit source of original infor-
140
ANNUAL RUPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
191G.
mation to specialists and to groups of pupils from public aiul private
schools in Washington and elsewhere.
The Institution aids investigators by making limited grants for
research and exploration.
It advises the Government in matters of
scientific
importance.
It
cooperates with
all departments
of
the
Government and with many scientific and historical national organ-
izations.
ACTIVITIES AND ACHIEVEMENa\S.
The Tvegents controlling the policy and conducting the operations
of the Institution have alwa3^s been men well known
in public life
and in the educational and scientific world.
Among the more than 150 eminent Americans who have guid(‘d
Smithsonian activities in past years maybe mentioned Louis Agassiz,
the naturalist; Alexander Dallas Bache; George Bancroft, the his-
torian; Salmon Portland Chase; Kufus Choate; James Dwight Dana,
the eminent geologist and mineralogist; Asa Gray, the botanist; Gen.
Montgomery
C. Meigs, engineer; President Noah
Poifcr,
of Yale
University;
Lieut.
Gen.
William Tecumseh
Sherman;
and many
other men ])rominent in science and art and in public' allairs in niore
recent years who are
still active as Eegents or patrons
or* otlierwise
vitally interested in the work of the Institution.
Under such leadership the achievements in every branch of knowl-
edge have l)een notable and numerous.
The Institution is practically
tlie parent of maii}^ of the scientific Imreans of the Goviuannent.
1 lei'e
were begun researches in astronomy, physics, meteorology, geology,
liotany, fisheries, aviation, and other lines, some of wliidi, ha\'iiig out-
grown facilities and means immediately available to the Institution,
have been developed into separate Government bureaus, irn'liiding tlu^
United Slates Weather Bureau, the United States Geologii'al Sui-vey,
the Fisheries Bureau, the National Advisory Committi'e for At'ronau-
tics, and other Fedci'al bureaus, with all of which the Tustitutioti con-
tinues in close and constant cooperation.
To some of
tli('S(‘. bunauis
now belong
tlie more economic phases of scientific work, while the
Institution
devotes
its energies
largely to the fundamental
work,
researches in the domain of xinre science, kee])ing in view, however,
the l)earing of these reseairhes on the welfare of mankind.
To Josejih Henry, Secretary of the Institution, 1H4() to 1878, emi-
nent as a physicist, the world of S(;ience and industry owes a lasting
debt, for it was be who in great measure made possible the electrical
achievements of the present day.
He married the intensity magnet
to the intensity battery, the quantity magnet to the quantity battery,
discovered the law by which their union Avas effected, and rendered
theii* divorce impossible.”
The intensity magnet is that which is to-
Natural
History
Building,
U.
S.
National
Museum.
Northwest
Corne
Joseph Henry,
So( U‘t;iry ul Smiih.suiuaii
lii.sl Kill ion,
IM(>- l^TH.
bPENCER Fullerton Baird,
,S('c:rl;n\
<>l
iii.sntiilioii,
Ls’rs-l,SS7.
bmithioniuM Report.
— Cl.-irk
Plate 8.
Samuel Pierpont Langley,
Sctrulary of J^uiiLlLsoiiJan Just ilui ion, JssT-JoiMi,
THE SMITHBONIAH INSTmiTTON—ClARK.
141
day in use in every telegra}>h syslein.
Henry’s oscillating machine
was the forerunner of all our modern electrical motors.
The rotary
motor of to-day
is the
direct outgrowth of
his improvements
in
magnets.”
His name is perpetuated in the term ‘4ienry,”
tlie unit
of electric inductance.
Henry also inaugurated the system of daily meteorological observa-
tions, out of which gi*ew the United States Weather Bureau, and,
as head of the Lighthouse Board, he revolutionized the methods of
lighthouse operation and signaling.
In 1847 the Institution made an appropriation
for instruments
and
other
expenscis
connected
with
meteorological
observations.”
The
instruments
thus
secured
were
distributed
throughout
the
country, and within two years the volunteer observers reporting to
the
Institution numbered about
400.
In
1849 Henry
realized the
value of the electric telegraph as
ready means of warning the
more northern and southern observers to be on the watcli
for the
first appearance of an advancing storm,” and there was inaugurated
a system of daily telegraphic weather reports, a system which was
continued under the direction of the Institution until the beginning
of the Civil War.
On a large map in the Smithsonian building the
weather over a considerable part of the country, according to
re-
ports
received
at
10
o’clock each
day, was
indicated
by
suitable
symbols.
Spencer Fullerton Baird, Secretary, 1878 to 1887, noted as a biolo-
gist, during his administration bent his energies to iruTease man’s
knowledge of animal
life.
He established the United
States* Com-
mission of Fish and Fisheries, now known as the Bureau of Fisheries,
foi- the study of food fishes and river and ocean fauna.
Secretary
Baird, as keeper of the Museum, took a deep interest in the national
collections in natural history and other objects, and under his direc-
tion there was erected the Museum building for the exhibition of the
valuable collections acquired from the International
FxhiI:)ition at
Philadelphia
in
1876.
During
his
administration
the
National
Museum
was
rapidly
developed under
the
direction
of
Assistant
Secretary G. Brown Goode, and the need for more ade(|uatc (piarters
soon became evident.
Samuel Pierpont Langley, Secretary, 1887 to 1906, won eminence
by his achievements as an astronomer, especially by his astropliysical
observations and discoveries, and he became known to the world at
large through his 18 years of administrative service as Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution.
His fame will also become increasingly
greater as the new science of aviation
is further developed, for to
Langley belongs the honor of being the
first to demonstrate to the
world, in 1890, the practicability of mechanical flight with machines
heavier than the air, sustained and propelled by their own power.
142
ANNUAL KEl^OBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
and he later developed and built the
first nian-carryiii" aeroplane
capable of sustained free flight.
Ijangley’s success as a pioneer in
aviation was commemorated
on
the Column
of
Progress
at
the
Panama-Pacific
International Exposition by
a
tablet bearing the
inscription
: “ To commemorate science’s gift of av iation to the world
through Samuel Pierpont Langley, an American.”
It was Prof. Langley who, in 1869, inaugurated a general system of
standard-time distribution to various cities and railroads, a system
which in 1885 had extended to 4,715 miles of railroad and
is now
universal throughout the country.
He devised that most delicate instrument—the bolometer or elec-
trical thermometer—by which changes of temperature of
le.ss than
the hundred-millionth of a degi-ee centigrade are measured, and by
special
installation
difl'erences
in temperature amounting
to
one-
billionth of a degree can be detected.
Langley’s investigations
in
radiation include
(a)
the distribution of radiation
over the
sun’s
sgrface and
in sun
spots,
(J)
the solar
enei-gy spectrum and
its
extension toward the infra red,
(c) the lunar energy spectrum and
the temperature of the moon,
(d) spectra of terrestrial sources and
determination of
hitherto unmeasured wave
lengths, and
(d)
the
absorption by the earth’s atmosphere of the radiation of the sun and
the determination of the solar constant of radiation.
In each
of
these lines of research important discoveries were made by Langley,
and since his death the Mork has been gi'eatly advanced through (be
present director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Dr.
Charles Greeley Abbot.
It was during the administration of Secretary Langley that the
National Zoological Park, largely the outgrowth of investigations
on
living animals under the
direction
of
Assistant
Secretary
G.
Brown Goode, was founded, and during this period there was begun
the erection of the present great structure for the natural history
collections of the National Museum, a building planned under the
direction of Assistant Secretary Kichard Kathbun, who had made
careful studies of the principal museums of the world.
Charles Doolittle Walcott, the present Secretary, a geologist and
]mleontologist, began his administration as Secretary of the Institu-
tion in 1907, having been connected with the Museum as an honorary
officer of the department of paleontology
since
1882.
From 1888
to 1907 he held various positions in the United States Geological
Survey, being its director from 1894 to 1907.
His special study has
berai Cambrian geology and paleontology, and he has recently suc-
ceeded in bringing to light evidences of algal
life in the pre-Cam-
brian Algonkian. sediments, as also the discovery of most delicate
examples of
fossil holothurians and medusae
in Middle Cambrian
Charles Doolittle Walcott,
of Km:!
i'
loi'.i ni
Jii'
! iliilioii.
Smithsonian
Report,
191
THE BMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—CLABK.
143
time.
His publications have been voluminous in
all phases of his
specialty.
During his administration the natural history and fine-arts collec-
tions have been brought to a high status.
The Institution has come
into very
close
affiliation
with a number of
researcli
corporations
and
scientific bodies through
his
official
relation
in their
director-
ship.
He has taken deep
interest in the promotion of the art of
aviation, being largely instrumental
in the establishment by Con-
gress of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, having
as one of
its primary objects the bringing into
close coordination
of the Army and Navy and other branches of the Government and
private
interests engaged
in various lines of aeronautical research.
A prominent department of activity throughout the Iiistory of the
Institution has been the scientific exploration of regions imperfectly
known,
pailicularly
in
Noilh
America.
Expeditions
Inn^e
been
fitted
out under the
Institution's immediate
direction and
others
organized
by
private
enterprise
or by
Government
departments
have been aided by counsel and instructions.
Tlie geological work of
the Mexican Boundary Survey, the Colorado expeditions of Lieut.
Ives, explorations
to the
Yellowstone, and many
exiigditions and
explorations in Alaska, in the Arctic, in xAfrica, in Siberia, in South
America, in China, in Tibet, and elsewhere have been more or less
intimately related with the Smithsonian Institution.
The numerous and important services render ed to botanical science
have greatly increased knowledge of the flora of little-known regions,
especially in the south and west of this country and in Mexico, and,
as a
result of numerous investigations ami surveys, there has been
brought together in the Institution the great National Herbarium of
more than 1,000,000 specimens of the flora of the United States and
foreign lands.
Kecently the Institution has acquired a three years’ lease of the
Cinchona Botanical Station
at Jamaica, comprising about 10
aci’es
of land, with
offices, laboratories, and other buildings, for the fur-
therance of our knowledge of West Indian botany.
Assignment of
botanists who desire to prosecute studies there are made on the recom-
mendation of organizations which have cooperated with the Institu-
tion in securing the use of this important field for botanical investi-
gations.
Under the
auspices of the
Institution and
in
cooperation with
several departments of the Government, there has been a most thor-
ough biological and geological survey of the Panama Canal Zone,
resulting in a great addition to the knowledge of the fauna and flora
and the geological history of that region.
144
A^iTKUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
As an aid to students of marine
life, the Institution
for several
years has maintained a table at the Naples Zoological Station.
The
use of the table for stated periods has been accorded to a lai^ge num-
ber of investigators on the recommendation of a committee appointed
to advise the Institution as to the qualifications of applicants for the
privilege of using the facilities thus afforded for carrying on their
reseaj’ches.
Many
zoological explorations have
likewise been
carried on
or
aided by the Institution.
Through the influence of the Institution
naturalists or collectors were attached to practically
all the impor-
tant early surveys by the engineers of the United States Army, and
the vast collections thus brought together have,
in the main, been
studied
within
the
walls
of
the
Smithsonian
buildings
and
the
natural
history
results made known through
Smithsonian
publi-
cations.
An important feature of the Institution’s activities has been
its
participation in the many international expositions held during the
last
forty years
in the United
States and Europe and numerous
medals and diplomas of commendatory nature have been received for
the exhibits displayed on these occasions, illustrative of the work of
the Institution and of the resources and industries of the country and
the customs of its jicople.
In
tlie interest of general education, particularly in natural
his-
tory and mineralogy,
it has been the custom of the Institution to
distribute to schools and colleges througliout the country such dupli-
cate material as could be vspared from the National collections.
These
specimens are fully
lal)eled and have aided instruction by supple-
menting textbook information.
A large addition to the Smithsonian fimd was made in 1891 when
Thomas
(5.
Hodgkins,
of
Setauket, N.
Y.,
presented
$200,()()()
to
the
Institution.
The donor was
deeply
impressed
with
the
im-
portance of a careful study of atmospheric air, and stipulated that
the income of $100,000 of his gift should be devoted to the increase
and diffusion of more exact knowledge in regard to the nature and
properties of atmospheric air in connection with the welfare of man.
He indicated his desire that researches be not
limitexl
to sanitary
science, but that the atmosphere be considered in its widest relation-
ship
to
all
branches
of
science,
referring
to
the experiments
of
Franklin in atmospheric electricity and the discovery of Paul Bert
in regard to the influence of oxygen on the phenomena of vitality
as germane
to
his
foundation.
To
stimulate
researches
in
these
directions the
Institution
offered
a
prize of
$10,000
for a paper
embodying some new and important
discovery
in
regard
to
the
nature and
properties of atmospheric
air, which was awarded
in
1895 to Lord Kayleigh and Prof. William Ramsay, of London, for
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
CLARK.
145
the discovery of argon, a new element in the atmosphere.
Another
prize of $1,000 for the best popular treatise on atmospheric air was
awarded to Dr. Henry de Varigny, of Paris, from among 229 com-
petitors in the United States, France, Germany, England, Scotland,
Ireland,
Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Norway, Denmark,
Fin-
land, Bohemia, Ba^'aria, Servia, Switzerland, Spain, India, Canada,
Mexico, and Argentina.
Numerous inA^estigations on the
composi-
tion of ex]>ired air and its effects upon animal life,” in “ atmospheric
actinometry,” the
“ air of towns,”
‘‘ animal
resistance
to
disease,”
^‘ex])erimeiits with ionized
air,” ‘Hhe ratio of
specific heats,” and
kindred
to])ics have been
carried on with
tlie aid of grants from
the Hodgkins fund.
Researches have
likcAvise been aided
in
con-
nection wfitli the temperature, pressure, radiation, and other features
of the iitmospliere at very
liigh altitudes, and many other lines of
investigation have been carried on, through all of which it is believed
that
valual)!e knoAvledge has been acquired by
Avhich
tlie welfare
of man has been advanced.
rrofxaviNS and langlea" ArEDALS.
The Hodgkins gold medal was established by the Smithsonian In-
stitution to be awarded for im[>ortant (‘ontributions to the knowledge
of the nature and properties of atmospheric
a/ir, or for practical ap-
plications of existing knoAvledge to the Avelfare of mankind.
It was
first bestoAved April
3, 1899, on Prof. James Dewar, F. R.
S., and
second, October 28, 1902, on Prof. J. J. Thomson, F. R. S.
The Langley medal Avas established in memory of the late Secre-
tary Samuel Pierpont Langley and his contributions to the science
of aerodrornics, ‘Ho be aAvarded for specially meritorious investiga-
tions in connection
Avith the science of aerodrornics and
its applica-
tion to aAoation.”
This medal Avas presented in 1910 to the brothers
Wilbur and Orville Wright, and in 1913, to Mr. Glenn II. Curtiss and
Mods. Gustave Eiffel.
TUIRLK^ATIONS AND EXCHAN(;ES.
The “diffusion of knoAvledge,” Avhich, next to
its “ increase,” Avas
so promirrmtly
in the mind of the founder of the Institution,
Avas
provided for in the program of organization, submitted by Secre-
tary Henry to the Board of Regents in 1847, by a system of several
series of publications constituting original contributions to knoAvl-
edge,
accounts
of
scientific
explorations
and
investigations,
and
papers recording the annual progiess in the field of science, which
are distributed gratuitously to important libraries throughout the
world.
146
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
The publications have been numerous and include many important
and authoritative works.
There is no restriction as to subject; they
consist of memoirs upon
aeronautics, archeology, astronomy, astro-
physics, ethnology, botany, zoology, geology, paleontology, meteor-
ology, magnetism, physics, physiology, philology, and many other
subjects.
The several series comprise
(1 ) The Annual Report of the
Board of Regente to Congress with
a
general appendix of papers
illustrating progress
in
a wide range
of
scientific branches;
(2)
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, begun in 1850, in quarto
form;
(3)
Smitlisonian
Miscellaneous
Collections,
in
octavo;
(4)
Harriman Alaska
Series, on the results of the scientific expedition
to Alaska, in 1800;
(5)
Bulletin of the National Museum, including
Contributions from
the
Ibiited
States National
Herbarium;
(fi)
Proceedings of the National Museum;
(7)
Annual Report of the
National Museum;
(8) Annual Report of the Ihireati of American
Ethnology:
(0)
Bulletin of the Bureau
of American Ethnology;
(10) Annals of the Astropliysical Observatory; and
(11)
a number
of special publications independent of the above sei ies.
There is also communicated to Congress tlirough the Secretary of
the Institution the annual report of the American Historical Asso-
ciation and of the National Society of the Daughters of the American
Revolution.
The
complete
collection
of
Smithsonian
publications
numbers
about 450 volumes, aggregating more than 200,000 printed pages.
Since
it wmuld be im[)ossible through
the
limited funds
of the
Institution and printing allotments by Congress to meet the great
popular demand for Smithsonian publications, they are necessarily
almost
entirely
distributed
to learned
institutions and
impoi'tant
public
libraries,
where
they
are
available
for
general
reference.
Through this distribution there developed a system of exchange of
Smithsonian publications with those of scientific and literary socie-
ties
of the United
States and of other
])arts of the world and
a
general interchange of publications of American and foreign institu-
tions, which has come to be Icnown as The Smithsonian International
Exchange Service.
In 1886 a treaty was made in Brussels between
the United States and
a number of foreign countries providing for
the interchange of their governmental, scientific, and literary publi-
cations, and the work of carrying out
its pro\dsions in the United
States was intrusted by Congress to the Smithsonian Institution.
Under certain regulations the Institution accepts from correspond-
ents in this country publications intended as exchanges and donations,
and they are shipped by freight, at intervals not exceeding a month,
to about 60 distributing imreaus or agencies abroad, which in turn
receive from correspondents in their countries and forward to the
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—CLARK.
147
Smithsonian Institution, under certain rules, publications addressed
to institutions in the United States and territory subject to its juris-
diction.
This service handles annually from 300,000 to 350,000 pack-
ages, weighing upward
of
half
a
million
pounds.
Through
its
operation the national collection of books in the Library of Con-
gress has been greatly increased.
SMITHSONIAN LIBRARY.
The accumulation of
a,
scientilic
library has been an important
phase of the Institution’s work in the “diffusion of knowledge,” and
the collection has increased in size from year to year, until at present
it numbers well over half a million titles.
The main Smithsonian
library
is assembled
in
the Library
of
Congress, and is known as the Smithsonian deposit.
This collection
consists chiefly of transactions and memoirs of learned
institutions
and
s(dentific societies and periodicals relating to science
in general
brought together from
all parts of the world on a systematic plan
since the middle of the last century.
The National Mnseinn and the
lil)rary of the Bureau of American Ethnology also maintain largo
special
libraries, and there arc libraries connected
witli the Astro-
physical ObvServatory and the National Zoological Bark, besides some
35 specialized sectional collections located in various
offices for the
use of the sdentific
staff of the Institution and
its branches.
The
ISmithsonian
office libra ly contains a collection of books relating to
art, the cmjdoyees’ library, and an extensive aeronautical library.
INTERNATIONA!. CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
The Smithsonian Institution directs the work of the TTnited States
Bureau
of
the
International
Catalogue
of
Scientific
Literature,
which is one of 33 regional bureaus in various countries engaged in
the collecting, indexing, and classifying of siuentlfic publications of
the
year.
The
classified
references
are forwarded
to
the
central
bureau in London, where they are collated and published in a series
of 17 annual volumes covering each branch of science and aggregat-
ing about 8,000 printed pages.
These volumes are sold at an annual
subscription price of $85, chiefly to large reference libraries and im-
portant scientific institutions, the proceeds covering in part the cost
of publication.
From 1901 to lOlO the bureau at the Smithsonian
Institution forwarded
to London about 350,000 reference cards to
publications issued in the United States during that ])eriod.
A plan for a work of this character was proposed as early as 1855,
when Secretary Henry, of the Smithsonian
Institution,
called
the
attention of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
to the great need of an international catalogue of scientific works.
148
Ai^nsrtTAL rkpobt smithsoniak ikstitutiok, im
In
1867
the Eoyal
Society
of London
published
its well-known
Catalogue of Scientific Papers,” and the Smithsonian Institution
has from time to time issued catalogues of the literature of special
branches of science.
In 1894 the Royal Society invited the Govern-
ments of the world to send delegates to a conference to be held in
London in 1896.
At this and the following conferences in 1898 and
1900 a plan was formulated to start the work with a classified sub-
ject and author catalogue of all original scientific literature, begin-
ning with January 1, 1901.
Tim UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSUEM.
By the act of 1816 the Smithsonian Institution was made the cus-
todian
of
the
national
collections
in
both
nature
and
art.
Tlie
Museum branch was
definitely organized
in
1850, the
title ‘MI.
S.
National Museum” being authoritatively given by Congress in 1875.
During the first iaw years expenses of the Museum were Avholly met
from the Smithsonian fund, and it was not until 1878 that the Gov-
ernment began to provide entirely for
its maintenance, this being
done through annual appro]>riations by Congress.
The Museum
staff includes the Secretary
of the
Institution
as
keeper
ex-officio, the
assistant secretary
in immediate
charge,
the
administratue assistant, tluee head curators, and about 50 curators,
assistant
curators,
custodians, and
aids,
besides many
clerks and
other employees.
Four general
divisions are recognized:
(1)
Natural history,
in-
cluding ethnology and arclieology;
(2) the fine arts;
(3) the indus-
trial arts;
(4) histoi’y.
The division of natural history is divided into three departments,
biology, geology, and anthropology.
The collections of natural
liis-
tory have been received in greater part from Government surveys
and explorations, and are richest in material from North America.
Many other parts of the world are also well represented in one sub-
ject
or another, especially Central America, the Philippines, Ma-
laysia, and some portions of Europe, Africa, and South America.
The deep-water zoological
collections from both the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans are the most extensive and important in existence.
Among important early sources of collections may be mentioned
the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838 to 1842, the Perry
IJxpedition to Japan, the North
Pacific Exploring Expedition of
the Navy, the railroad and wagon-road surveys by the Army
in
connection with the opening up of the far West, the Canadian and
Mexican boundary surveys, certain geological explorations, and the
work of the coast survey in Alaskan waters, besides many expedi**
tinns ojtf
or
by the Smithsonian Institution*
Of more
PLATE
Exhibition
of
Fossil
Vertebrates,
i
i.
S.
National
Museum.
Plate
Exhibition
of
Fossil
Vertebrates.
U.
S.
National
Museum.
Plate
1
3.
Group
of
African
Lions
from
Roosevelt
Rxpedition,
I'l.
S.
National
Museum.
Plate
1
4.
<HMB1TS.
U.
S
N
A
TILS'
AL
M
USEUM
llilii SMITIISOOTAK 1NB11TU1?I0K~CLA11K.
149
I'eceixt date are the investigations of the Bureau of
Fisheries, the
Geological
Survey,
the Bureau
of American Ethnology, and
tlie
Bureaus of Plant Industry, -Entomology, and Biological Survey of
the Department of Agriculture.
Of private donors, some of whom
have made gifts of great extent and value, the list is very long.
The total number of specimens in all branches of natural history
recorded to the present time amounts to several millions, the annual
accretion during several years past having a^uraged a quarter of a
million specimens.
Of arts and industries there are on exhibition extensive collections
of firearms, the most (lomplete
in
this (^ountiy
;
l)oat and railroad
models,
electrical
appai’atus, time-keeping and
measuring
devices,
musical
instruments,
ceramics,
graphic
arts,
h'xtiles,
laces,
em-
broideries, and collections in mineral technology and in ])hotography.
The growtli of the National Museum has heretofore been greatest
in
natural
history
lines,
including
primitive man.
The
develop-
ment of the natural resources of the country and the study of the
American aborigines through (iovci'nincnt surveys and explorations
have contributed toward building u]) collections illustrative of nature
and early man that e(]unl
if not actually surpass those of any other
country.
The millions of specimens and hundreds of thousands of
distinct
s]'>ecics and forms here
preserver!
sei‘ve
as
the
basis
for
extended researches and discoveries,
'idiroiigh cooperation with the
executive departments of the Government the Museum
collections
constantly render aid in solving many broad economic problems in
agj’iculture,
in mining,
in
fisheries, and
in Indian
affairs.
Unri-
valed conditions are here afforded
for
tlie arrangement,
care, and
safety of the Nation’s treasures, for their uni’estricted study
in the
advancement
of knowledge, and
for
their
use
in
promoting
the
interests of public education.
In recent years great advance has been made in the development
of the department of technology—a Museum
of
Industrial
Arts*
It
is in this department
in particular that the Museum manifests
one of its principal functions.
The exhibits are so selected and so
installed
as to teach
visitors how things are made and what they
are made of, and not so much who makes the best articles or how
they should be packed to meet the demands of trade.
And yet whilft
these collections
first of
all educate the public they
also teach the
manufacturer and therefore
are of decided economic
importance.
While commercial museums have their place for developing trade
and commerce, and are of much value for such purpose, the develop-
ment
of
the
artistic
taste
of the
public through
an
educational
Museum of Industrial Arts seems of even gi^eater general impbrt|i^e*
It Simulates
inventive
skill and
advances
every
art and
e^^%y
1916
li
150
ANNUAL BBPOBT WITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
industry.
The
exhibits
illustrating
textile
industry
and
mineral
technology in particular are very complete, consisting of specimens
of raw materials, machinery used in manufacture, and the finished
products.
The division of history has likewise greatly broadened in recent
years.
Here are displayed memorials of many leading American
soldiers and
sailors, inventors, explorers, and men of
science, and
memorials of important events in American history.
A collection
of costumes worn by ladies of the White House during each admin-
istration
since
1789
is
of much
popular
interest.
Among
other
objects of
historic value
are
large
collections
of postage
stamps,
coins, and medHls.
The Museum has been defined as one of record, of research, and of
education.
As a Museum of record it preserves the very foundations
of an enormous amount of
scientific knowledge in the many thou-
sands of type specimens from numerous natural-history investiga-
tions, and
these
are
increasing
rai)idlv
as
the
results
of new
re-
searches and explorations
arc here permanently
deposited.
As
a
Museum of research the collections .serve
as a stimulus to inquiry
and
tlie foundation
for further
investigation.
The
installation
of
exhibits
is carefully planned to make
tlie Museum an aid to public
education.
Every kind of natural object and every manifestation
of human thought and activity are illustrated by specimens accom-
panied by general and descriptive labels.
Eaces of men are
illus-
trated by groups of figures in their native costumes, many of them
represented in their daily occupations; mammals, birds, and other
zoological specimens are each assembled
in groups wdth natural sur-
roundings.
In every exhibition hall the educational feature is con-
stantly kept in mind.
It is
a consultative library of objects,'’ an agency for the instruc-
tion of all the people of the country,
and it keeps in mind the needs
of those whose lives are not occupied in the study of science as well
as those of the professional investigator and teacher.”
THE NATIONAT. GAIvLETlY OF ART.
^The foundation of a National Gallery of Art was contemplated
and directed in the act of organization of the Institution
in 1846
and
in the program of operation adopted by
the Board
of Re-
gents in 1847.
It was several years, however, before the gallery was
in active operation.
The national gallery received very great stimu-
lus in 1906 through the bequest of Harriet Lane Johnston, niece of
Pi^esident Buchanan; the munificent gift of Mr. Charles L. Freer,
an4 the gift of Mr. William T. Evans, thus bringing into national
C)Wi|€rehi|) a very rich collection of paintings and other objects of
Plate
1
5.
Exhibition
Group
of
Chilkat
Indians,
U,
S.
National
Museum.
Exhibition
Group
of
Bering
Strait
Eskimo,
U.
S.
National
Musei
SrM
Jacquard Machines,
U. S. National Museum,
4TE
18
Working
Modei
of
P.oal
Mine,
U.
S.
National
Museum.
Tttfe SMITHSONIAN IN&ttfUTION—CLARK.
151
art
The gallery is now administered as the department of line arts
of the National Museum.
The
collections of the gallery include
paintings and
other
objects which had long been in the custody of the Institution;
(6)
the Harriet Lane Johnston bequest, including a number of highly
interesting and valuable paintings and sculptures;
(c)
the William
T. Evans gift of more than 150 carefully selected works by modern
American painters;
(d) the Charles L. Freer collection, numbering
more than
5,000
items of
paintings,
sculptures,
pottery,
bronzes,
jades, and other works of
art;
(e)
a collection of 82 drawings in
pencil,
pen,
charcoal,
chalk, crayon, and water color executed by
eminent contemporary French
artists.
The munificent donation by Mi*. Freer of his collection and pro-
vision for its preservation
is unsurpassed in this country and
is one
of the moat notable
gifts of
its character in the world’s
history.
Mr. Freer describes his collection as follows:
These several collections Include specimens of very widely separated periods
of artistic development, bogmniiig before the birth of Christ and ending tOKiay.
No attempt has been made to secure specimens from unsympathetic sources,
my
collecting
liaving
been
confined
to American
and
Asiatic
schools.
My
great
desire
has
been
to
unite modern
work
with
masterpieces
of
certain
periods
of high
civilization harmonious
in
spiritual
and
physical
suggestion,
having the pemer
to broaden
esthetic culture and
the
grace
to
elevate
the
human mind.
The
original
collection
consisted
of
about 2,300
paintings and
other
objects of
art and has since
Ix'cn
increased
to
5,340
items,
including American paintings and
sculptures, the Whistler
collec-
tion, and oriental paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades from China,
Korea, Japan, and other Asiatic countries.
Mr. Freer retains his collection
in
his home citv until the com-
pletion of the building now under constniction in the Smithsonian
Park, for which
Iia has placed in the hands of the Institution the
sum of $1,000,000.
BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
The Bureau
of American Ethnology
is an outgrowth
of
early
ethnological and archeological researches of the Institution, and of
later
investigations conducted
in
behalf
of the Commissioner of
Indian Affairs to determine the
aflRnities of the various
tribes of
Indians to serve as a guide in grouping them on reservations, as it
was believed that an effective classification of the tribes materially
reduced the danger of warlike outbreaks. A
vast amount of
lin-
guistic and bibliographical
information
relative
to the American
Lps
liflPin nnbbsbed by the Bureau, and DTcnt
e,n1lections of
152
ANKUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTlTOTlOlr,
1916.
ethnological material have been gathered
for the anthropological
department of the Museum.
Several years ago there was begun a series of handbooks on the
American
Indians.
The
first of
these,
in two volumes, was the
Iltindbook of American Indians North of Mexico, containing a de-
scriptive
list
of the
stocks,
confederacies,
tribes,
tribal
divisions,
and settlements, with
sketches of their
history,
archeology, man-
ners, arts, customs, and institutions.
The second series. Handbook
of American Indian Languages,
discusses
the
characteristics and
classification of the 55 linguistic families north of Mexico and their
relation to ethnology.
Further
scries,
including
a Handbook
of
American Antiquities, a Handbook of Aboriginal Kemains East of
the Mississippi, and handbooks of the Indians of the several States,
are in preparation.
Since 1879 the Bureau has published 34 \’olumes
of annual reports and 62 bulletins, covering eiery phase of American
Indian life and history.
It has surveyed, excavated, and put in con-
dition for permanent preseination a number of aboriginal ruins in
the southwestern portion of the country, and is constantly cooperat-
ing with
the Department
of the
Interior and with
archeological
societies in the work of saiing these interesting sites for the benefit
of future generations,
h'ield operations by the Bureau during recent
years in New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and Wyoming have brought
to light exceedingly interesting aboriginal remains that have been set
apart as national monuments.
NATION.VL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.
In 1890 the Congress set apart
167 acres in the beautiful Rock
Creek Valley on the northwestern borders of Washington City as the
National Zoological Park, which was founded “ for the advancement
of science and the instruction and recreation of th^ people,” and Con-
gress placed its administration in the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution.
The collection of mammals, birds, and reptiles
numbers about 1,400 individuals, representing some 860 species.
Its
visitors now
average
about
1,000,000
each
year,
including many
groups of public and private school students accompanied by their
teachers.
Among the buildings in the park are the lion house, containing the
large
cats and other animals, the monkey house, the
bird
hotusc,
houses of the elephants, and the antelope house.
There are
also
ihcloSures for bears, pumas, wolves, and foxes; pools for sea
lions
,and other Ifrater-loving animals, and paddocks for deer, lama, yak,
and oth^ ruminants;
also many cages for small
animals.
Wild
turkeylty* |lil®tridg6fi^ peacocks, squirrels, and wild rabbits wander in
perfeist iteedom throughout the park.
;-ATE
1
y.
Mammal
House,
National
7oological
Park.
bmithsonian
K' port,
— ClarU.
PLATE ^U.
View
in National Zoological Park.
2. Swan
in National Zoological Park,
Sfnith5onia
Report, 1916
-Clark
Plate 22.
2. Polar Bear Cage, National Zoological Park.
ITBP SMITHSONIiN mSTiWMOK—OLABK.
163
One of the principal aims in establishing the park was to promote
.the preservation of races of animals threatened with extinction, such
as the American bison, which once roamed in vast herds over the
Western plains and was rapidly disappearing before the advance of
railroads and the rapacity of hunters.
Several bison were secured
for the park and have thrived here, and through the efforts of the
Smithsonian Institution and others the Government was aroused to
establish preserves in the West where the bison breeds freely.
There are several large cages for birds in the park.
The great
“ flight cage,” 158 feet long by 50 feet in width and height, is built
over several full-grown trees and has a running stream of water sup-
plying
pools for the convenience of the
birds, which
are mainly
herons, stolks, cranes, cormorants, gulls, and pelicans.
Among the particularly impoi’tant exhibits
is a fine collection of
ungulates, or hoofed animals, no less than 50 species of wild cattle,
deer, sheep, goats, antelopes, horses, and their Idndred being repre-
sented, many of them by breeding herds.
There
is also a valuable
collection of North American water fowl, a specially prepared breed-
ing lake being set aside for the wild ducks, geese, and swans of this
continent.
ASTROPHYSICAL OBSKRVATORY
The Astrophysical Observatory, founded in 1890, investigates solar
radiation, and
in
general,
solar phenomena, and has produced
a
complete chart, made by automatic processes, which shows in detail
the so-called invisible spectrum.
The work of this Observatory
is
especially directed to those portions of the energy of the sun that
affect through its radiation the climate and the crops.
Through
the
use
of
s])ecially
designed
pyrhelioraeters attached
to
free balloons, observations have been made of the
intensity
of
solar radiation
at various elevations up to a height of more than
80,000
feet, above
sea
level.
Special
studies have been made
of
the
solar
constant and
of
the
distribution
of
radiation
over
the
sun’s disk.
The principal astrophysical work
is carried on at the
observatory in the Smithsonian Park in Washington and at Mount
Wilson and Mount Whitney
in
California.
On
the summit
of
Mount Wliitney the Institution has constnicted a
shelter
for the
general use of observers.
Expeditions to various parts of the world
have been made for observation
of
eclipses of the sun and other
special studies.
As the result of researches made by the observatory during the
period from 1900 to 1915
it is found that the average value of heitt
emitted by the sun
is
1.932
calories per minute per square
centi-
ineter, and that the heat emitted in a year equals that obtained
bjjfe
164
ANKITAL EEPORT SMITHSOI^IAI^ IKSTITUTION,
1916.
burning
four
hundred
sextillion
(400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000)
tons of anthracite coal.
It is found that there is a variability in the
sun’s radiation, with a range about 7 per cent irregularly in periods
of a week to 10 days.
The sun’s radiation is generally greater, par-
ticularly toward the center of the solar disk, at sun-spot maximum,
though the temperature of the earth
is generally greater at sun-spot
minimum.
Standard pyrhelionieters have l)een recently devised by
the Astrophysical Observatory for measuring solar heat and are in
use at observatories in several parts of the world, and also a pyran-
ometer for measuring tlie intensity of skylight by day and radiation
outward toward
tlie sky at night.
These
studies are of economic
agricultural importance as well as of scientific interest.
OUIOIN OF THE INSTITUTION.
James Smithson, of England, a graduate of Oxford University,
Master of Arts, Fellow of the Koyal Society, a chemist and mineral-
ogist, made his will
in 182G bequeathing his property to the United
States of America to found
tlie Smithsonian Institution
at Wash-
ington for the increase and diffusion of knoA\ledge among men.
He
died in Italy
in
1829.
In July,
18)15, the Secretary
of State was
officially informed of the bequest, and on December
27, President
Andrew Jackson communicated the papers to Oongress.
The mes-
sage of the President was referred to the Senate Committee on the
Judiciary and to a select committee of the House of Re})re^ntatives.
After deliberate
discussion of the authority and
projiriety of the
United
States Go\ eminent to accept such
a trust
for the purpose
stated, there was approved by the President, on July 1, 183G, an act
of Congress
to
authorize and enalde the President to
assert and
prosecute with effect the claim of the United States to the Smithson
legacy, and Mr. Richard Rush was appointed agent of the United
States for that purpose.
On December 3, 1838, the Secretary of the Treasury reported to
the President that the bequest, amounting to $508,318.46, had been
paid into the Treasury of the United States.
In a message to Congress on December
6,
1838, President Van
Buren invited attention to the obligation devolving upon the United
States to fulfill the object of the Smithson bequest.
For eight years
thereafter the subject was under consideration
in the Senate and
House, resulting in the founding of the Institution by an act of Con-
gress of August 10, 1846, and by law the Smithsonian fund was made
perpetually entitled to an annual income of 6 per cent interest, and
definite resources were thus assured for carrying out the purposes
and objects of the founder of the trust.
Since the original bequest
by Smithson, other bequests and gifts have come to the Institution
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—-CLABK.
155
Tom generous benefactors, varying in amounts from a quarter of
i million to the modest, but none the
less acceptable, sums of
a
bousand dollars or less, until the total invested permanent fund now
iggregates more than a million dollars, and
is gradually increasing
Vom year to year.
In discussing the acceptance of the Smithson bequest in 1836, John
Juincy Adams, in the House of Kepresentatives, said
Of all the foundations of establishments for pious or charitable uses, which
!ver signalized the spirit of
llie age, or
(lie comprehensive
lienellcence of
tlie
ounder, none can be named more deserving of
(lie
apiirobation of mankind
han this.
Should
it be faithfully carried into eflect,
witli an earnestness and
agacity of application, and a steady perseverance of pursuit, proportioned to the
nenns furnished by the will of (he founder and to the greatness and simplicity
if his design us by himself declared “(lie increase and diffusion of knowledge
iinong men ”
it
is no extravagance of anticipation
to
declare that
his name
vlll be hereafter enrolled among (lie eminent benefactors of mankind.
Eighty years have passed .since Mr. Adams spoke those prophetic
vords.
The name of James Smithson, and the Smithsonian Institu-
ion, which he founded,
are to-day known
to
all men
of
science,
ind everywhere are held in the liighest esteem.
NEWS FROM THE STARS.
By
().
(}. AimoT,
Director^ .MraphyfiicdJ Obacrratory,
^^inUJiHou’nni Imtiiution,
[Willi 5 plates.]
Light
is the messenger that brings the news.
The message
is in
cipher, very long, faint, and hard to read.
It tells of the materials,
classification, temperatures, motions,
distanc^e, grouping, brightness,
variability, mass, size, and number of the stars.
TtATEIUALS.
Starlight collected by a telescope is passed through a spectroscope.
This forms a narrow band, called the spectrum,
violet
at one end,
red at the other.
A photograph of
tlie spectrum
is made, and for
most stars this shows the band of colors crossed by dark lines.
Suppose an electric arc
is made to play between
iron
poles, and
its light is sent through the spectroscope.
Instead of a bright con-
tinuous spectrum with darh lines, as given by a star, there appears
its exact opposite—a very
faint si)ectrum
ciT>ssed by
hriglit
lilies,
especially numerous whei*e the green occurs in the spectrum of star-
light.
Matched together, one speidrum above the other, the bright iron
lines occur where the dark lines cross the star s|)ectriim.
So unmis-
takably
is one the i*eversal of the other that the coincidence seems
to give proof of the presence of iron in the star.
Probability be-
comes assurance when
it
is known that under some circumstances
iron vapor can produce davh lines on bright spectrum ground, just
as usually found in starlight, and that some stars, on the other hand,
show hright lines on a faint spectrum background.
Hydrogen, helium, oxygen, calcium, and many other elements are
similarly shown to exist in the stars by spectroscopic examination of
starlight.
But not all the stars show all these elements.
Great dif-
ferences are found
in the
stellar
spectra, and
stars
are
classified
accordingly.
157
J58
aIS'N'TJAL EEfOBl* SMITHSONIAI? iNSrlTTJtlOlT, l&ie.
CLASSIFICATION.
As proposed at Harvard College Observatory, the following classi-
fication
of
btellar
spectra
has
been
generally
adopted;
Class 0
( Wolf-Eayet type)
.
The spectrum consists of bright lines on a faint
continuous
background.
Class B
(Orion
type).
Dark
lines
of
helium are sparsely set on a bright ground.
Class A (Sirian type).
Ilydiogen
lines
are most
conspicuous.
Class F
(calcium
type).
Hydrogen
lines
are
still
conspicuous,
but many
lines
of
metals
appear faintly, and notably two great lines of calcium in the violet.
Class G
(solar type).
Numerous strong metallic lines occur as in
s^iuilight.
Class K (sun-spot type).
The lines are darker and sun-
spot
flutings
occur.
Hydrogen
lines
are
faint.
Type M
(fluted
type).
Titanium oxide flutings are strong, and carbon flutings also
w^ell marked.
Several
other
(dasses
are noted by
specialists, but
those above named are the chief ones (pi. 1).
The classification of the stellar spectra
is a very important aid to
research.
It
is found that motions, position in the heavens with
leference
to the Milky Way,
si/e, temperature, distance,, and other
characteristics of stars, vary with spectral
class.
Director Picker-
ing, of IlarNard College Observatory, has already done a work of
higli
\ alue m securing the s^iectra and publishing the classification
of about G,000 stars covering both the northern and southern hemis-
pheres.
Now a new publication
is about
to bo made by Harvard
College Observatory, giving the classification of the spectra of above
200,0(X) stars, all obsei\ed by the Harvard staff, and all examined by
Miss A. J. Cannon within the last four years.
nnOMPEKATlTRKS
Cold iron does not shine in the dark, but let the smith heat it in
his forge and soon
it glows red, then yellow, then white hot.
The
hotter the body is the more its spectrum is enriched toward the violet
end as compared with the
red.
Exact mathematical
relations are
known to connect temperature and distribution of light in the spec-
trum.
Working on
this
basis,
it
is found that our sun’s surface
appears to be at about 6,000° centigrade (10,800° Fahrenheit) above
the melting temperature of ice.
(See pi. 2.)
By photographic methods Wilsing and
Scheiner, of the Agtro^
physical Observatory at Potsdam, in Germany, have assigned tem-
peratures to about 100 of the brighter stars.
The results run from
^,000° C. for class B down to 3,000° C. for class M, varying in fairly
regular progression.
Very recently
Coblentz, of the National Bureau
of Standards,
lybrking temporarily
at Lick Observatory
in California, has sue*
M measuring the heat caused by the rays of stars so faint tl^l
^
1*1
i
CLASSfFICATION
OF
STELLAR
SPECTRA
^ADAMS).
From
Harper’s
Mairazme,
October,
I'JIO,
Prismatic Stlctrum (Langlty).
From J’roc. Amor. Asso. AUv. Sci., Vol. lil, lssr>.
MWS PROM THE STABS—ABBOT.
159
eye can scarcely see them.
For this purpose the rays were col-
lected by a concave mirror of 3
feet diameter and focused on the
Surface of a very delicate electrical thermopile (pi. 3 and pi. 4, fig. 2),
This instrument acts on the principle that a difference of temperature
between the junctions of two metals made up into a closed wire cir-
cuit, produces an electric current.
The apparatus used was so deli-
cate that if the experiment could be made in a vacuum the heat from
rays of a candle at flS miles could be observed.
Further work along
similar lines is proposed.
DISTANCE.
When a surveyor measures the distance of an inaccessible object
he selects two convenient stations and measures their distance apart.
This is called the base line.
At each end of the base
line he observes the angle
the base line makes with a
line
sighted
toward
the
inaccessible
object.
The
angles and the base of his
triangle being thus meas-
ured,
the two
remaining
sides
can
be
calculated.
By such a
process, using
the earth’s diameter, or a
large
part
of
it,
as
the
base
line, the
distance of
the moon
is
readily
de-
termined, and comes
out
243,000 miles.
Even the length of a diameter of the earth is too small a base line
from which to triangulate for the distances of the stars.
Astrono-
mers use the diameter of the earth’s orbit round the sun, 186,000,000
miles, for this.
Astronomers also take advantage of the
f^ict that
very faint stars are usually much farther away (though not invari-
ably so) than bright ones.
Thus it comes about that if photographs
of a bright star are made with the same telescope at two dates ax
months apart, and exact measurements of the distance of the bri^t
Star from its faint neighbors are made on both photographs, a slf^t
displacement of the bright star will often be found to havo occurred,
^he angular measure of displacement gives the vertical angle of
wo isosceles triangl% of which the base line is the diameter of thO
amth’s orbit, and from these data the star’s distance is easily found,
from the nearest
star, « Centauri, the radius Of the earth’s
Fio. 1— Method
of
triangulating
for
distances
of
heavenly
bodies.
From
“ The
Sun,”
by
C.
G.
Abbot
Published by Appleton & Co., 1911.
AKTST/AL WPO»T SMITHSONUjSr IN&TITUTIOIT, mSl
01‘bit, 93,000,000 miles, subtends an angle of only 0.75 seconds.
is Called the star’s parallax.
Up until very recently the parallax determinations of Elkin an^
Chase
at Yale University Ob&er\ atory, by direct eye observations
with the heliometer, were regarded as of the highest accuracy.
Bwt
now the photographic method as worked out at Yerkes Observatory
by Prof.
Schlesinger, now director at Allegheny Observatory, has
come
to be
preferred.
This work
is
being
pushed by
Director
Mitchell, of Leander McCormick Observatory, and is also occupying
a prominent
place on the program
at several other observatories
where large telescopes are available.
Altogether less than 1,000 star distances have been measured.
It
is a slow, tedious work, often disappointing,
a Centami, the nearest
star, except the sun, is at 25,000,000,000,000 miles, while the sun is at
only 93,000,000 miles.
When a measurement
indicates that a
star
is
at
2,000,000,000,-
000,000 miles or more (parallax 0.01 seconds)
it is the same as saying
that the star is too far away for its distance to be determined.
It
may be ten or a hundred times as far as the measurements indicate.
This is about the average distance of the faintest stars visible to the
naked eye.
The great majority of telescopic stare lie beyond this
distance.
If observers did not choose stars cx])ected to be relatively
near, most of their results would come out thus indeterminately.
Even as it is, a great number of measurements do come out in this
disappointing fashion.
Unless some better method of investigation is
discovered, measurements of individual star distances must ever be
in this imsatisfactory state.
In ti'eating of star motions we shall see
how our knowledge of the avei'age distances of certain gi-oups pf
stars has been extended.^
MOTIONS.
About the year 1750 the English astronomer royal, Bi-adley, ob-
served the positions in the heavens of 3,222
stars.
Bradley’s stars
and many others have been observed often in moi'e recent years.
All
the best work relating to about 6,000 of the brighter stars was com*'
pared and reduced to a homogeneous system about the year 1910 by
Hiie late Broi Lewis Boss, of the Dudley Observatory and Carnegie
Imdatufeottl.
(
FfOln Boss’s work the proper motions *(so called)
of these
Wene
accurately
determined.
All
stars,
including our auib mplb
*——
i ijifjft
1 Sliftce tW»
was written Dr, Adams, of Mount Wilson Solar 0]t»«ervat<M^»
dliKiov^ed i
method of determining parallaxes,%hlcli
la applicable to
of iSiemkli % 4 i; nnd M, and
I« independent In accuracy of
tl^e dlstattOe of the
It te
to permit a good spectrum photograph to be made^
Coblen/tz
Plate
IffWS Fll()M THE STARS" ‘ABBOT.
Ifl
eaoh with his own rate and direction, so that at the end of a century
thd configuration of the heavens is not quite the same as at its begin-
ning.
These
proper motions” range from 870 seconds of arc pef
century down.
(A second of arc
is about the angular width of a
Megraph wire as seen at a distance of a half mile.)
The vast ma-
|brity of stars have a less proper motion than 20 seconds per century.
/
Proper motions are observed as angles and can not be expressed
in miles per second without other information.
We
see only the
component of motion at right angles to the line from the earth to
the star.
If a star is coming directly toward us, it has no proper mo-
tion, though
its
real speed may be very
great.
Near stars have
greater average proper motions than distant ones, just as men walk-
ing on the other side of the street apparent!}" outdistance those a
bhx^k away.
Two things besides proper motion are therefore needed
to detenninc the real motion of a star, namely, its distance and the
angle its real motion makes to the lino of siglit.
Fortunately, the spectroscope can help in this matter.
Although,
as stated above, the chemical element'", are discovered in stars by the
reversal of
their sjiectrum
lines, c^refnl measurement shows that
the positions of the stellar lines are slightly shifted, either toward
the red or toward the violet, with respect to the bright lines of the
comparison spectrum of a metal.
Doppler predicted this effect nearly
a half century before it was observed in starlight.
It depends on the
motion of the star in the line of sight.
Light travels by waves.
Violet light .has more waves per second
than red.
If a star is approaching, its light seems to have more waves
per second because the star’s motion
is added to that of light, and
hence all the spectrum lines are shifted toward the violet.
The lines
are shifted toward the red for stars that are receding.
From the
amount of tlie shift the actual rate of approach or recession of the
star may be found.
Natunilly, a small correction must be made for
the motion of the earih on
its axis and
its motion round the sun.
We then have the actual rate of motion of the star to or firom the
shn.
It is a very valuable thing about this kind of measurement that
pnly a star is bright enough
it makes no difference at all in the
acijilracy of the detemiination how distant the star may be.
This
ithfortunately is not so with proper motions.
As the sun has a motion of its own, which Sir Williaih Herschel
itly concluded in the year 1783 is toward the noi^hern cplistella^
tion Hercules and not far from the bright star Vega, all the stellar
motions, of course, appear to be affected by an equal motion toithat
of fhe sun but in the opposite direction.
'
/^rpetor Campbell, of Lick Observatory, has recently
pttbiis
a ediiectite of the so-called
radial motions” of nearly 2,000
g
If®
AKJSfUAL KBi^r SMITHSONIAN INSTlI^TldiN* MSi
resiiltai^
filioin Ms
of spectroscopic observing in both the
Northerft and Southern Hemispheres, begun about the year 1898.
From this work he finds the sun to be moving at about 19.6 kilom®*;
ters (12 miles) per second in its course among the stars.
Rapid progress is being made in measuring the radial motions of
the fainter stars at Mount Wilson Solar Observatory.
The 60-inch
reflecting telescope there has been employed, under the direction of
Dr. W. S. Adams, for this purpose since 1910, and the new 100-inch
reflecting telescope also will soon be available.
Other great refleetors
are being prepared for Canada and for Argentina, and will doubtless
be joined in this work.
As it is a slow business at best, observers of
the radial motions of the fainter stars will generally confine their
measurements to what are termed Kaptcyn’s selected areas.
Prof. Kaptcyn, of Groningen, Holland (who has just been deco-
rated for his astronomical work by the Emperor of Germany with
the Prussian order Pour le Merite, at the same time with a group
of generals, marshals, and kings) , has been engaged for many years
in a general study of the motions and distances of the stars.
His
studies are continually thw'arted by lack of information about the
fainter
stars, which are so numerous that they
will never be
all
observed individually.
Hence Kapteyn has proposed that attention
be devoted to 206
selected areas
all over the
sky, each about
IJ
degrees
scjuarc, so that samples of the stars so chosen may have
their positions, motions, brightness,
distances, and spectral
classes
determined within a reasonable time.
The distances wdll always be
the weak point, but progress will be rapid along the other lines.
;
Now, let us see hgw knowledge of proper motions, radial motions,
ai)4 distances can be combined when all three are known, as in the
M
individual
stars.
From
the
distance and proper
motion k^ther we learn that the star appears to move at right
apgles to the line of sight at a certain rate in miles per second.
Tht proper motion also indicates in which direction this cross motion
'is taking
the
star.
The
spectroscope
indicates that
the
star
ig
4)^proaching or receding at a certain
rate.
By combining the two
f^mponents—the apparent cross and radial motions—^the actual speed
and direction of the star’s motion becomes fully determined.
Apply-
ing next a correction for the known motion of the solar system, !^
own peculiar motion with respect to the whole system of sfeprs
via kt length found.
STAR GROUPING.
distance is so weak a link in this chain, several devices have
Ki^ployed to strengthen it, and these depend in one way or an-
^pi^ -ktar grouping.
First of all, there are a good many i^irs
l^^'-whidi have bw» shown by t^Mcopic observatiw to be
l^evolving about their common center of gravity.
Spectroscopic de-
terminations of radial motion for such telescopic double stars give
sufficient additional information to yield us their distances.
Secondly, there are a number of large groups of
stars, each of
which have been found to have their peculiar motions all toward a
single converging point.
If the reader will stand at one end of a
long corridor and look down the four corners of
it as they stretch
away from him, or,
still better, will look from the back of a train
at a long, straight stretch of railway, he will see at once that this
convergence really means for these stars tluit their motions are
all
parallel.
This could only happen
if the stars were
all of a single
flock, moved by some common cause in the same direction.
Finally,
as these stars have been moving since a time immeamraMy long ago,
they would not now have been seen in the same part of the slcy if
their speeds were unequal.
Such a gi*oup, therefore, consists of stars
moving at equal speeds in parallel paths.
Yet their proper motions are unequal.
This is because their dis-
tances are unequal.
If now the distance of a single one of these stars
can be determined in some way, the distance of every one of them
whose proper motion is known follows at once.
But the great extension of knowledge as to star distances comes
when stars are
classified according to proper motion.
Consider a
large number of stars of equal proper motion.
It is to be supposed
that generally (apart from s[>ecial groups like those just mentioned)
their real motions will be at random in space, and though some will
be moving squarely across the line of sight and showing all of their
real motion, others moving nearly along the line of sight showing
but
little of
it, the average of all f)roper motions will be approxi-
mately two-thirds of the average real motion.
The same is of course
true for large groups at two, four, or any number of times smaller
average proper motion than the group first considered.
Their aver-
age real motions will also be approximately 3/2 their average proper
motions.
It is further to be supposed that the average of
all the real mb-
tions in each of these large groups of stars
is the same, whatever
their distance from us. We may at least adopt this hypothesis
f<jr
lack of knowledge to the contrary.
If so,
it follows at once that a,
large group of stars whose mean proper motion is one second is twice
as far away on the whole as a large group of
stars whose meah
proper motion is two seconds.
Prof, Kapteyn has carefully compared all the known distances of
individual stars with their proper motions, and has considered
in this coihparison certain other data, especially brightness.
In this
way he has Worked out a formula by which one can determine
average di^anoes of stars of different mean proper motions, and ithtiS\;
164
ANNUAL EUPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
we escape from the limitations imposed by the comparative meager-
ness of
oiir knowledge
of
individual
stellar
distances.
According
to Kapteyn’s formulae, the vast majority of the stars are so far away
that it takes light thousands of years to come to the earth from them,
though light travels 186,000 miles per second.
Returning now for a moment to the considei'atiou of star motions,
we understand at once
that,
just as the mean proper motion
of a
large group of stars corresponds to two-thirds of the average real
motion of these
stars, so the mean
radial motion
of the group
is
actually
approximately
two-tlnrds
of
tlic
average
real
motion.
Director Campbell
has
in
this way worked out
the average
real
motions of stars of
diirerent
specti*al
classics, and
Prof. Boss also
has done the same, basing his
l esult on the mean proper motions and
mean probable distances.
Their results are in very close, agreement.
Both find our sun to be moving a very little slower than the average
of all stars in their lists.
When,
however,
the
stellar
motions
aro
an*anged
by
spectral
classes they find the B stai-s moving slower, otlmr classes faster and
faster in
a somewhat regular progression up
to the M
class
star^.
Quite
recently Adams
has extended
tliis
investigation
to
fainter
stars.
He
finds
the.se dilferencos of
s])eed
l)etvveen
s|)ectral
(da9S(\s
not so great as found by Boss and CamplTell, and the average speed
of the
fainter
stars
also
less.
It may be that
the
brighter
stars,
being relatively near us, form a s])ecial group, not rpiite representa-
tive of all the stars in the universe.
The
greatest
conception
in
regard
to
star grouping
is
that
of
‘‘star streaming,” recently wT)rked out by Kapteyn and by Edding-
ton,
of
the
Ibiiversity
of
Cambridge,
England.
They
find
that
when the proper motions of the stars are cleared of
tlie
effects of
solar motion the remaining so-called “peculiar motions” of the in-
dividual
stars, while they go to some extent at random, plainly in-
dicate the governing influence of two great streams moving oppo-
sitely.
If we could
(a)llect all the stars at one point and endow each
of them with its “ peculiar motion ” just as it has been ol)served, then
at the end of a century the stars wmuld have sti'etched out, not into a
sphere but into an ellipsoid, owing to the influence of the two star-
streams.
This grand phenomenon
is attracting deep attention from
astronomers to-day, and will undoubtedly play a gi'eat part in future
studies.
BRIGHTNESS AND VARIABILITY.
Stars look hardly as bright as the
fireflies of a summer night, but
in reality they glow like the sun, and seem faint only l)ecause far
away.
Astronomers speak of “magnitudes” and of “ absolute mag-
mtndes.”
The
first
gives
the
relative
brightness
of
the
stars
as
NEWS FKOM THE STARS—^ABBOT.
165
they seem to us to be, and the second as they would seem if all were
equally distant. A diiference of a magnitude means about 2| fold
in brightness, and
five magnitudes 100
fold.
Thus a star of sixth
magnitude, which can just barely be seen by the naked eye, under
best conditions,
is 100 times fainter than stars of
first magnitude,
like Aldebaran, which
is among the brightest.
On
this
scale our
sun is of —20.5 magnitude.
But on the scale of absolute magnitudes our sun
is only an aver-
age star.
If removed to Aldebaian's distance the sun would seem
a fifth magnitude star.
Some bright stars like Tligcl, (Ainopus, and
Deneb give thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands or millions,
Fig.
2,—Llght-fiirve of
Ti R Draconic uf oclipso
(Sears).
From
Astropbyskal
Journal,
vol.
30.
Vertical
scale, days; horizontal
scale, magnitudes.
of times as much
light as does the sun.
On the other hand a vast
number of stars give less light than the sun.
Measurement of brightness is called photometry.
A very large pro-
gram of stellar photometry has beendoneunder Director Pickering at
Harvard College Observatory.
Many stars aie found to be of vari-
able brightness.
It has been shown lately by the Smithsonian observ-
ers that even the sun is variable through a
l ange of about 10 per cent.
But most of the known variable stars vary much more widely than
this.
The cause of the variation is now known to be, in many but not
all cases, the presence of a companion star so near the primary star
as to be indistinguishable by the telescope, but discoverable by spec-
73889®—SM 1916
12
166
ANKUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, im.
troscopic studies of motion in the line of sight.
As the two stars re-
volve about their coimnoii center of gravity they alternately eclipse
each other as seen from the earth.
Of course the eclipse may be
either total or partial, according to the relatiA e sizes of the tw’^o stai>>
and the inclination of their orbit to our line of sight.
By a careful
study of the variation of brightness of these objects
it
is possible to
fix the period of revolution, the relative size of the two stars, the in-
clination of their orbit, and other data.
This branch of astronomy
has been much investigated at the Observatory of Ih'inceton ITniver-
sity under Director Eussell, and a most interesting publication of the
results has just been made by his pupil Shapley, now at Mount Wil-
son Solar Observatoi'V.
MASS AND SIZE OF STABS.
The spectroscope shows, by noting the periodic variability of ve-
locities of stars in the line of sight, that about one- fourth of all the
visible stars are really double or multiple, though appai’cntly single to
the telescope.
So, for instance, Campbell found that the i^olar star is
probably triple.
In cases where the stars are so wide apart that the
telescope can perccDe them as separated, not only can the distance
of the stars from each other and from the earth be determined, but
also the combined mass of the pair in terms of the mass of the sun.
When there is no visible separation, the mass can be determined for
some cases in which the plane of the orbit is known.
For a Centuuri,
the nearest star to the sun. there is visible si'paration of two compo-
nents, which revolve in 81 years.
The total mass is twice that of the
sun, and the two components being nearly equal, ea('li
is of about the
sun’s mass.
The two are separated about 23.6 times as
far
as the
earth is from the sun.
The periods of revolution of double stai’s thus
far determined spectroscopically range from 4^ hours to 90 years.
From the photc/metric study of eclipsing binary stars
it has been
shown by Eoberts and by Eussell that the average densities of these
stars is small, no more than one-eighth of that of the sun.
On this
and other grounds astronomers are of the opinion that stars are gen-
erally
less dense than
the
sun, that
is
that they occupy
a
larger
volume when of equal mass.
The sun
is only 1.4 times as dense as
water, or half as dense as glass, while our earth is 6.5 times as dense
as water, or 4 times as dense as the sun,
THE NUMBER OF THE STARS.
Stars are divided according to brightness in classes called magni-
tudes.
First magnitude stars like Aldebaran are rare.
A good ex-
ample of the second magnitude is Polaris.
Stars as faint as the fifth
NEWS FBOM THE STABS—ABBOT.
167
or sixth
niagiiitiide can be seen with the unaided eye, according to
the cleamess of the sky and its freedom from the glare of cities.
A
difference of five magnitudes means a difference of a hundredfold in
brightness.
Thus sixth, eleventh, sixteenth, and twenty-first magni-
tude stars arc lespecti vely a liundred, ten thousand, a million, and a
hundred million times fainter than
first- magnitude stai^.
Our sun
is about twenly-six magnitudes, or twenty-five billion times brighter
than zero magnitude stars like Vega.
Do the stars increase in number without limit as we consider fainter
and
fainter
ones
revealed
by
larger
and
larger
telescopes?
To
answer
this* (juestion counts have been made of the actual numbers
in the whole sky for the brighter magnitudes, and then of numerous
patches of
.slcy sufficient to give a fair average sample
for the fainter
magnitudes.
In
this way
it has been found
that up
to the tenth
magnitude the num-
ber of stars l')righter
_
than a gi^en magni-
r
^
d
""
tilde
is about three
'**
-
^
\
‘^
times
as
gi*eat
as
the number bright er
than the magnitude
next p r e c e
(
I
i n g
From this point on
the
increase
grows
•
-
-
^
less and
less rapid,
-
^
^
^
^
so
t hat
of
s t a r s
hrighte)'
than
tlu'
Fi<r a.— The syslom of R
R
Droconis.
Diagram by Shajiioy.
seventeenth
magni
-
Astro,a.ysicai journal,
voi. 3T.
tilde, the estimnted number acconliiig to (h{)])man and
Melotte,
is
only 55,000,000 instead of 1,800,000,000 as it would be if this constant
ratio of
increase
prevailed.
T'P
to the present time no thorough
counts have been finished beyond the
17.5 magnitude, although by
the aid
of photography
it
is
possible
to obser\'o
stars as
faint as
the twenty-first magnitude with the great 60-iiich reflector of Mount
Wilson KSolar Observatory.
Arranging the information given by the
counts in mathematical
fashion,
it appears that
it
is unlikely that
any very considerable increase
in the number of the stars will be
found by observing stars fainter than the twenty-sixth magnitude,
however large the telescope available.
Stars at this limit are about as much fainter than those of zero
Fi<!.
a.*— The syslom of R
R
Droconis.
Diagram by
SbajiU'.v.
From Astro, )liysU*al Journal,
vol. 3T.
magnitude as our sun
is brighter, so that the brightest
star
(our
sun) is twenty-five billion times twenty-five billion (25X10^X25X10®)
times as bright as the stars of the faintest class which are probably
shining upon us in any considerable numbers.
The total estimated
168
ANNUAL E!j:POBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
number
of
stars
including
this
supposed
limiting magnitude
is
probably between one and two thousand millions.
But why is
it that there is a limit of numbers?
Are we to sup-
pose that there are no more
stars, and that
if our
tehvs(*o})es were
sufficiently
powei’fu!
to
perceive
those
of
twenty-sixth
inagnitude
we could see
all,
little or big, that exist?
Or are we rather to sup-
pose that there is
a
limit of distance beyond
wliich no star can be
seen, however
briglit,
so
that
thougli myriads without
limit may
exist, no single station
in the universe
is able to receive light from
those beyond
this limiting
distance?
It seems probable
Unit
tlie
latter hypothesis
is the true one, although astronomers would not
he unanimous in saying so.
In recent years one
bit after another of evidence has come
out,
tending to show
that there
is
a
light-absorbing medium
in
space.
It is very rare.
Dr.
li. \\ King has recently comjiuted that the most
probable measures of
its effects on star brightness would be satislled
by assuming
a density of the sui)})osed absorliing medium
in space
less than
one-trilliorith
pai’t of that of the
air.
But even
at
tliis
rate, space
is
so
vast that the
(juantity
of
the
suppos(.‘d medium
within a sphere wliose radius
is the average distance of the iiearcvst
star
(a Centauri)
is about 10,000 times the mass of the sun, which
is startling if true.
There figures are of course very uncertain.
But that there
is
in
space
hei’e
a
paidicle,
tliere
another, yonder
a hydrogen molecule,
beyond
still others, and that in the well-nigh endless path extend-
ing to stars of the twenty-sixth magnitude,
wliose
light traveling
186,000 miles per second takes tens of thousands of years to travel
to ns, there would be found enough such
particles to bar the doors
of light, as a fog shuts out the sun—this seems reasonable.
THK DIS1 ANCES OF THE ITEAVENr.V BODIES.^
P»y W.
S.
ElCIlKLliKRCKIi,
IJ. N. \
(i ru1 Ohs<'rra!(>rfi,
Before any attempt was made by
tlie
ancients
to determine the
distance from the earth of any
celestial body we find them arrang-
in^i^
tliese
iiodies
in order of
distance*
very mucli
as we know them
to-day, assuming that
tlie more rapid
the motion of
a
IkhIv among
the stars the
less
its distance from
the eaifli; the
stars, that
were
su])posed to have no relative motions, were assumed to be the most
distant olijeets.
The
first attemiit
(o assign
definite ladative distan(‘es to any two
(if the bodies was jirobably that of Endoxris of (hiidus, who, aliont
1^70
B.
C., siipposeib ac'cording to
Archimech's.
tliat the diameter of
the sun was nine times greater than that of the moon, which is equiva-
lent to saying that, since the sun and
t!u‘ moon have approximately
the same apparent diameter, the distance of the sun from the earth
is nine times greater than that of the moon.
A century
lat(‘r, about
lb
(\,
Aristarchus of Samos gave a
method of determining the relative distaiKHS of the sun and moon
Irom the
eaidh,
as
follows: AMien
the moon
is
at
the
phase
first'
(luarter or last quarter the earth
is in the ])lane of the circle which
separates the portion of the moon illuminated by the sun from the
nonilluminated part, and the line from the observer to the center of
the moon
is jierpendicular to the line from the center of the moon
to the sun.
If at this instant the angular separation of the sun and
moon
is detennined, one
of the
acute angles
of
a
right-angle
tri-
angle—sun, moom and earth—is known, from which can be deduced
the ratio of any two of the sides,
as,
for instance, the
ratio of the
distance from the earth to the moon to that from the earth to tlie sun.
Aristarcdnis gives the
\'alue of this angle as differing fixnn
a right
angle by only one-thirtieth of that angle,
i.
e., it
is an angle of
87^^,
from which
it follows that the distance from the earth to the sun is
» Presidential
aildross
]>ef()ro
tlu*
riiilosop]ii<‘al
HocUtty
of Washington on Mar.
4,
1910.
109
170
ANNUAL rMPOBT SMITHSONIAN TNBTTTUTION,
19W.
nineteen times that from the earth to the moon.
This method of
Aristarchns is theoretically correct, but in determining the angle at
the earth as being 3°
less than a right angle he made an error of
about 2° 50'.
Hipparchus, who lived about 150 B. C. and was called by Delambre
the true father of astronomy, attacked the problem of the distance's
of the sun and moon through
a study
of
eclij)ses.
Assuming
in
accordance with
the
result of Aristarclius that the sun
is 19 times
as far from the earth as the moom having determined the diametei*
of the
earth’s shadow
at
the
distance
of
the moon
and
Iniowing
the angular diameter of the mo<m he found 3' as the sun's horizontal
parallax.
By the sun’s ])arallax
is meant
(lie angl(‘ at the sun sub-
tended by the earth’s semidiameter and
if
f?,
the semidiameter of
the
earth, A=-
the
distance
to the sun, and
11 ^
sun’s
horizontal
parallax, the
relation between
these
(juantities
is expressed
by
the
equation
a
Sin 11 =
A
The
next attempt
to determine
the distance of
a
heavenly body
was made
about
150
A. D. by Claudius
l^tolerny,
tlie
last
of
the
ancient
astronomers and
one
wlu>se
writings
were
considered
tlu'
standard
in
things
astronomical
for
15
centuries.
To
determine
the
lunar parallax he resorted
to
direc^t ol)servations of the zenith
distance of the moon on the meridian, com] >:i ring the
result of his
observations with
the
|)()silion obtained from
tlie lunar theory.
Tie
determined the ])arallax when the moon was nearest the zcuiith, and
also when
it crossed his meridian at
its
fartluvst distance from the
zenith.
From his observations he obtained
results varying fi'om
less
than 50 pei‘ cent of the true
i)ara11ax
(57'.0)
to more than
150 per
cent of that value.
According to Houzeau
the dcdinitiAe
result of
Ptolemy’s work is 58'. 7,
It
is
thus
seen that
tlie astronomers of
2,000 years ago had
a
fairly
accurate knowledge
of
the
distance
of
the moon from
the
earth, but an entirely erroneous one of the distance of the sun, the
true distance being something like 20 times that assumed by them.
This value of the distance of the sun from the earth was accepted for
19 centuries from Aristarchus to Kepler, liav ing been deduced anew
by such men as Coperni(*us and Tycho Brahe.
With the announcement by Kepler, early in the seventeenth cen-
tury, of his laws of planetary motion
it became possible to deduce
from the periodic times of revolution of the planets around the sun
their relative distances from that b(K]y, and thus to determine the
DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES—KICHELBEBGEB.
171
distance of the sun from the earth by determining the distance or
parallax of one of tlie planets.
From observations of Mars, Kepler obtained the distance of the
sun from the earth as about three times that accepted up to his time.
Ilis value, however, was but one-seventh of the true distance.
About
50 years
later Flamsteed and
Cassini, working independently and
using the same method as that employed by Kepler, obtained for
the first time approximately the correct value of the distance of the
sun from the
eartli.
In
a
letter dated November
16,
1672, to the
publisher of the Philosophical Transactions, Flamsteed says:
Septomber last
I went
to Townlcy.
The
week that I intended
to have
observed
6
there with Mr. Towuley,
I twice observ’d him, but could not make
two Observations, as
1
intended, in one night.
The llrst night after my return,
I had
tlic good hap
to measure his distances from two Stars
the same night;
wliei-eby
I,
(ind,
Ibat
the Parallax was very small;
certainly
lad 30 seconds:
So
that
I
belkwe
(he
Sun’s
Parallax
is
not more than
10
seconds.
Of
this
Observation
I
intc'ial to wiite a small 'Craet, when
I shall gain leisure; in which
I
shall
denuuistrate
both
the DiameUa* and
Distances
of
all
the
Planets by
observations; fur wbieli
1 am now in’etty well
titt(H}.
Dui'ing the two and
a half centuries since Flamsteed's determina-
tion
tlieiT
liave
laeen more than
a
hundred
determinations
of the
solar parallax by
various methods.
In
the method used by Flam-
steed the rotation of the earth
is depended upon to change the rela-
tive
position
of
the
obstn*ver, the center
of the
earth, and Mars.
Another method
is to eslal»lish two stations widely separated in lati-
tude and in ai)proximately the same longitude.
At one station the
zenith distance of Mars will be determined as it crosses the mei’idian
north of the zenith; at the other station the zenith distance will be
determined as
it crosses the meridian south of the zenith.
The sum
of the two zenith distances minus the diil'erence in latitude between
the two stati(»ns will give the displacement of Mars due to parallax.
These two methods have been successfully applied to several of the
asteroids whose distances from the sun are
\ ery nearly that of Mars.
The nearest approach of Venus to the earth
is during her transit
across
the
face
of
the
sun, and
these
occasions—four during
the
last two centuries-—have been utilized to determine the solar paral-
lax.
Here,
as in the case of Mars, two different methods may be
used, either by combining observations at two stations widely sepa-
rated in latitude or at two stations widely separated in longitude.
The methods just described for obtaining the solar parallax, the
geometrical
methods,
were made
available,
as has been
said, by
the discovery of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
Newton’s dis-
covery
of
the
law
of
gravitation
gave
rise
to
another group
of
methods,
designated
as gravitational methods.
The
best
of
these
is probably that in which the distance of the sun from the earth
is determined from the mass of the earth, wliich
in turn
is deter-
172
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
1916,
mined from the perturbative
effect of the
eartli npon Venus and
Mars.
This method
is long and laborious, but
its importance
lies
in the fact that the accuracy of the result increases with the time.
Prof. C. A. I'Diing says
this is file “mothod
ol' the futiiro,” niid two or tlireo hnndrod yoars hence will
have superseded
all
the
other.s, unless, Indeed,
it should appear
tliat
bodies at
present
unknown
ai‘e
interferinji:
with
the
nioveinents
of
our
neij^hborinj'
planets,
or iinU^ss
il
should turn
out
that the law of j^vavitation
is not
quite
so simple as
it
is now supposed
to be.
A third grouj) of methods of determining the distance of
tlie snii
from the eaidh,
ejvlled the
idiysieal metliods, depends upon
tlie de*
termination of the
velocity of light in conjunction either with the
time
it
takes
light
to
travel from
the sun
to
the
eaidh
obtained
from observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's saUdlites or with the
constant of aberration
derived from observations of the
stars.
In
August,
1898,
Dr.
Witt,
of
Berlin,
discovered
an
asteroid,
since named Ei’os,
\vl\ich was soon seen to olTer exce])tional oppor-
tunity for
tlie determination
of the solar
parallax, as
at
the veiy
next
opposition,
in Xovemher,
1900,
it would
a])pj“()a(‘h
to
within
30,000,000 miles of the earth.
At the meeting of the Astrographic
Chart Congress in Bails
in July, 1900,
it wtis resol vtal to seize this
opportunity
and
oi'gaiiize
an
international
parallax
(‘ampaign.
Fifty-eight observatories took jiart in the various observations called
for by the general plan.
The meridian insiiaimeiits determined the
absolute
position
of Eros from
night
to
night
as
it
crosscnl
tlie
meridians of the various observatories; the
large
visual
refi’actoi’S
measured the distance of Eros from the faint stars near
it, at times
continuing the measures throughout the entire night; and the photo-
graphic
e(|uatorijils obtained ])ermanent records of
the.
position of
Eros among the surrounding stars.
In addition long seiaes of obser-
vations had
to be made to determine the positions of the
stars to
which Eros was referred.
When several years had elapsed after the conijiletion of the obser-
vations, and no
general
discussion
of
all
the
material
had
been
provided for. Prof. Arthur R. Ilinks, of (Cambridge, England, vol-
unteered
for the work.
The undertaking was
truly monumental.
He first formed a catalogue of the G71 stars which had been seh‘cted
by the Paris congress for observation
ns marking out the path of
Eros from
a
discii&sion
of
the
results
obtained by
the meildian
instruments and from
the photograjAic
i)lates.
This
done,
with
these results as a basis, a larger catalogue of about G,000 stars had
to be formed from measures on the photographic
plates.
He was
then ready to commence the discussion of the observations of Eros
itself.
From 1901 to 1910 there appeared in the Monthly Notices of
DISTANCES OP HEAVENLY BODIES—EICHELBERGER.
173
the Koyal Astronomical
Society eight
articles covering
135 pages
giving the results of his labors.
From a discussion of all the photographic observations he obtained
a solar parallax of
8".807±:0".0027
a probable error e(jiiivaleiit to an uiu'ertainty of al)out 30,000 miles
ih the distance to tlie sun.
From a discussion of all
llie micromctric* o])servations lie obtained
8".80(‘)±0".004
The observations with tlie inei-ldian instriiinenls gave
8".837±0".018r>
a deteT'mination
ndalivcly mucli weaker
tlian
eitlier
of the
others.
A parallax of 8'hSO,
tlie value a(lo])ted for
all the national alma-
nacs 20 years ago, corresponds to a distance
(»f 02,000,000 miles.
At
])resent
it seems improbable that anotlier
})ai'allax
(‘ani])aig]i
will be
undertaken
befon.‘
1031, when Eros a])proaches
still
nearer to
the
earth, its least distance at that time being al)out 15,000,000 miles.
Tai-si.k L
Apftro.rhndft’ distancf' fnan
((trth
to sim
f/.s*
(icct jth d
<if
rnrioufi
t'nneft.
Ihiiv.
275 B. C. to 1620 A. D
1<)20 Ivoplor
1672 Flatasteod
1910
ni,s<,a?ioe.
Miks.
‘1,500,000
13,500,OOC
S1,5(W.(K)(
92,‘XX),00t
When Copernicus projxised that the sun
is tlie center of the solar
system and that all the planets, including the earth, revolve around
the sim, it was at once seen that such a motion of the earth must
produce an annual parallax of the stai's.
Tycho Brahe rejected the
Copernicaii system because he could not find from his observations
any such parallax.
However, the system was generally accepted as
the true one, and the determination of stellar parallax or the
dis-
tance of the stars became a live subject.
Picard
in the latter half of
the seventeenth century, using a telescope and a micrometer in con-
nection with his divided
circle, showed an annual variation in the
declination
of
the
pole
star* amounting
to
40".
In
1674 Hooke
announced a parallax of 15" for y Hraconis.
About this same time
Flamsteed announced
a
parallax of 20"
for
a TTrsae Minoris, but
J.
Caasini showed
that
the
variations
in
the
declination
did
not
follow the law of the parallax.
174
A^TNIJAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, m6.
The period which we have now reached
is so admirably treated
by Sir Frank W. Dyson, Astronomer Koyal,
in his Halley lecture
delivered at Oxford on May 20,
1915, that I ask your indulgence
while I quote rather freely from that source
Thus
in Halley’s time
it was fairly well
established
that the stars were
at
least 20,000 or 30.000 times as distant as the sun.
Halley did not succeed
in
hiuliiif,"
their
range, hut he made an important discovery
whicli showed
that
three of
the stars were
at
sensible distances.
In
1718 he contributed
to
the
Royal
Society a paper entitled “ (’oiisiderations of the Uhange of the Latitinie
of Some of the Principal Bright Stars.”
While pursuing researches on another
subject be found that the tiircv briglit stars—Aldcharan,
Sirius, and Arctiiriis—
occnipied
positions among
the
other
stars
diffeinng
(‘onsiderably
from
those
assigned
to them
in the Almagest of Ptolemy.
Ib' sliowial
that the possibility
of an error
in the transcription of the
nianns<.*ri]tt
('ould
bc^ safely excluded, and
that the southward movement of these stars to tlie extend of 37', 12', and 33'--
i.
e.,
anglers
larger
than
the apparent diameter
of
the sun
in
the sky—were
('stablished.
*
*
*
Tills
is
the
lirst
good evidence— i.
e.,
evidence*
wlilcli we now know
to he
true—that the so-called lixed stars are not tixed relatively
to one another.
It
Is the
first positive proof that the distances of the stars are sensibly
lc*ss than
Infinite.
At the time of th(‘ appearance of
TTallc‘v's pajier there was coming
into notice a young astronoine]’, James Bradley, then 26
yeai^s old.
He wa.s admitted to menibership in the Hoval Society the same year
that
Halley’s paper was
presented.
He was exceedingly
eager
to
attack
the problem
of the
distances
of
the
stars.
At
lengtli
tlie
opportunity
presented
itself.
To
quote
again
from
Sir
Ih’anlv
Dyson
Bradley designed an instrumeid for measuring the angnhir distance from the
zenith,
at which
a
certain
star, 7
Hrac'onis.
crossed
1li(‘
meridian.
This
In-
strument
is caium a zemdh
senior.
Tlic' dinvtion of the vmfical
Is given by a
plumb
line,
and
bc^ measured
from day
lo day
tlie
angnhir
distance
of
the
star from the direction of
tlie vertical.
Prom Hecenibm*,
1725,
to March,
172(5,
the
star
gradually
movcnl
farther
south;
then
it
rcunained
stationary
for
a
little time,
then
ihovcmI northwards
until,
by
the* middle
of June,
it was
In
the same position as
in December.
It conliiuied
to mcAa* northwarcls until the
be.ginning
of
S(‘ptem])er,
tlien
turned
again
and
rc'uched
its
old
position
in
December.
The movement was
very
regular and
evidently
not
due
to any
errors in Bradley’s observations.
But
it was most nnexp(*cted.
The
effect of
parallax—which
Bradkw
was
looking
foi^would
have
brought
tlie
star
farthest south
in Decembei*, not
in March.
The times were
all three months
wrong.
Bradley examin(*d other
star.s, thinking
first that this might be due to
a movement of
the, earth’s
polo.
But
this would not explain the phenomena
The true explanation,
it
is said, although
I do not know liow
truly, occurrwi
to Bradley when he was sailing on the Thames and uotieed that the direction
of the wind, as indicated
liy a vane
<»n the masthead, varied slightly with the
course ou which the boat was sailing,
Au uccount
of the observutlons In the
BISTANOKS OF IIKAVKNLY BODIES^—EICHET-BERGEK.
175
form
of
a
letter
from Bradley
to
Halley
is
published
in
the
Philosophical
Transactions for December, 1728:
When the year was completed,
I
b(‘gan
to examine and compare my obser-
vations, and having pretty well
satisfied myself as
to the general laws of the
phenomena,
1 then endeavored
to lind out
the cause of them.
I was already
convinced that the api»areut motion of the stars was not owing to the nutation
of the earth’s axis.
The next thing that offered
itself was an aUa'ratioii in the
direction of the plumb line with wliich the instrument was constantly rectified;
but
this upon
trial
proved
insnllicienl.
Tlien
1
considered
what
refraction
might do, but tlaaa^ als(> nothing satisfactory occurred.
At lengtli T conjectured
that
all
the
phrnonKita
liitherto
mentioned,
laax-eeded
from
the
progressive
motion
of
light and
the
<‘arlh’s annual motion
in
its
oi-hit.
For
1
perceived
that,
If light was pi'opagated
in time, the apparent i)lace of a
lixed object would
not be the
saint* when the
(*ye
is at
rest,
as when
it
is moving
in any other
direction than
tlial of the line passing tlirongh the eye and
tlu* object; and that,
when the eye
is moving in diffenait dirtHdions, the api)arenl
place
(»f the object
would be different.
When
Bradley's
oliservations
of
v
Dracoiiis were
corrected
for
abemitioii. tliey showed, acconliiig to
hiinself, that
the parallax of
that star could not he as iiiucli as
or tliat the star was more than
200,000 times as distant i'rom the earth as the smi.
On December
G, 1781, there 'was read before Ihe Koval
Society a
paper
l>y Mr. Herseheh afterwards
Sir William,
on
the Parallax
of the Fixed Stars.
We read
:
The method point(*d out
i>y
Ojilileo. and
first
attmnptr'd
)»y Hook. Flainstead,
Moliucaiix. and
Hr;nlk‘y, of taking distanc(*s of stars from
llu* zenith
that pass
very near
it, though
it failed with
regard
t<> ]»anUlax,
has heen productive of
the most noble
dis(‘overii‘.s of anotlier
nature.
At
the same time
it
has given
ns a mucli
justt-r
idt'U of
Hit' immense distance of
tlie stars, ami furnished ns
with an approxiimition
to the knowletige of
ilit'ir parallax that
is much neart'r
tlie trutli thau we ever had befort'
lu
gericvid,
the
mtffliod
of
ztmitli dislama's laimrs \indm’
tlu* ftdiowiug
con-
siderable ditUenllies.
In
tht' iirsi
jilaet*,
all these distances, though they should
not exceeti a few degret's, are iiabh*
to relVuetions
;
inul
1
Imiie
to be pardoned
wiien
I say
tliat the
real
(inantlties of
tlusst* refractions, and
tlieii* ditTerences,
are very
fur from being jierfectly known.
SeeoiuUv,
tlie tdiange
tif position of
tlie earth’s axis arising from mitation,
tirect'ssitm of the
tHpiinoxt's,
anti other
causes,
is so far
rroni being
eom|)lt‘tt*ly
settletl,
tiial
it wonhl
not
bt*
vt*ry easy
to say what
it exactly
is at any given
tinu*.
In
(lie third place, the aberration
of
light, though
best
Iviiown
tif
all, may
akso be
liable
to some small
errors,
since
the
obst'ivatlons
frtmi
whit'h
it was
deduced
labored
under
all
the
foregtdng dilUciilties.
1 do not mean
tt) say, that tmr theories of all these causes
of error are dt'fective
; ou tlie ctmtrary, I grant that we are ftir most astronomical
purposes suffieic'utly furnished with excellent tallies
to correct our observations
from the
iiliove meiitioued errors.
Ibit when we are upon so delicate a point
as the parallax of
tlu* stars; when we are investigating angles that may, per-
haps, not amount to a single
se('<ind, we innsi endeavor
to koe]) clear of every
possibility
of being
invadved
in
uneertalntles
;
even
tlie
hundredth
part
of
a
second become:; a quantity to be taken into consideration.
Herschel then proceeds to advocate selecting- pairs of stars of very
unequal magnitude and
wliose
distance apart
is
less than 5" and
making very
uccurate microiuetric measures of this distance from
176
ANNUAL BRPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
IMfi.
time to time.
The first condition should give, in general, stars very
unequally distant from the earth, so that the changing perspective
as the earth
revolves
in her
orbit would
give a variation
of the
apparent distance between the stars, while the small
distance,
less
than
5", would
eliminate from
consideration
entirely
any
effect
upon
this
distance
of
the
uncertainties
in
refraction,
precession,
nutation,
abenaition,
etc.
Hcr.schel
had
already
commenced
the
cataloguing of such double stars and in January, 1782, submitted to
the Royal
So(.uety
a
catalogue of
2G1).
Tliis work did not enable
Herschel
to
determine
the
distances
of
the
stars but did
enable
him to demonstrate that there exist pairs of stars in which tlie two
components revolve the one around the
otlier.
In 20 years he had
found 50 such pairs.
Coming forward another generation—tliat
is, to a time a
little less
than a hundred years ago—we
find Pond,
(hen
astronomer
royal,
writing;
Tlie history of aiiiUKil
i)arallax
.oiiiH'ars
lo me
to bo
lliis:
In
jiroiMirtion as
instruinent.s have boon
imporreet
in
llioir
eonslnu-tion
they
have
niisiod
oli-
servers into the belief of tlio exisloiico of sensible parallax.
This
lias liappenoil
In
Italy
to ustronoiuers of the
very
lirsl
r(‘p'italion.
U'lio
Unlilin
insirumont
is
stijHM'ior to any of a similar const I'lioi ion on the (lonlineni, ami aocordinKly
it sliow’s a nuicli
loss iiurallax
tlian
tlie
ilali.in astronomers
ini:i;;inod
tlioy
liad
detected.
Conceivinf;
lliat
I
liavo esialdishod beyond
a donbi
Ibat
llie (Ireen-
vvich instrument apiiroaelie.s
still
iiean'r
lo perfection,
1 can come to no oilier
conclusion tlian tbat this is Ihc reason wliy
it discovers no iiarallax at all.
Within
15 years after this statement by Pond
observations had
been obtained which .showed a mea.siirable ])arallax of three different
star.s.
The
announcements
of
these
results,
each
liy
a
diffei'cnt
astronomer, wei'e practically .simultaneous.
W. Struve, using
a
filar micrometer,
detei'inined
the distance of
a Lyrae from a small star about 40"
di.staut on 00
diffei-ent day.s
over
a
itcriod of nearly
three
yeai-s.
He obtained
a
])arallax of
0".2C2±0".025.
Bessel,
using his heliometer, determined the
dis-
tances of Cl Cygni from two small stars distant about 500" and 700",
respectively. He obtained foi- this star a parallax of 0".314±0".020.
Henderson, using determinations of the
jiosition of a Centauri by
meridian
instruments,
deduced
a
parallax
of
1".1G+0".11.
All
three of these results were announci'd in the
m’ inter of 1838-89 and
indicate that the three stai's are distant fi-om the earth about 750,000,
650,000, and 200,000 times the distance of the sun from the earth.
DISTANCBB OF HEAVENLY BODIES—EICHELBEBGEH.
177
Talu.k II .—rarallax of 61 Cyf/nL
August 23
Beptpunhor
1
\
October
3 2 ...
Novorn))cr 22.
December 21
Janujiry 34...
February A.
May 14
Jmie r.)
July 13
August 19
.
.
September 19
O])sorvo(l
clis[)Iaco-
meut.
1 Conipulod
i
from
1
0".314.
f-0.20
4-0.18
+0. 10
+0.08
4-0. 04
-0. 05
-0. 21
-0.22
-0.32
i
-0. 27
-0,3S
-0. 27
-0. 22
-0. 23
-4-0.21
+0.20
4-0.36
+0.28
4-0.22
1
+0. 28
4
1). 15
+0.
4-0.04
+0.06
Talilc
II
exhibits
the
observed
displacement
of
Gi
Cygni
l»y
monthly means as given by Main from
BesvsePs observations.
The
last column
gives
the
computttd
displacement
on
the
assumption
of M parallax of 0".314.
The reality of the parallax
is seen
at a
glance.
In
1888, 50 years
after
the
first determination of what we now
know to be a true stellar parallax, Young, in his General Astronomy,
gives, in a
list of knoAvn stellar parallaxes, 28 stars and 55 separate
determinations.
Within the next 10 years the numlier of stars whose
parallaxes had been determined about doubled, due
principally
to
the work of Gill and Elkin.
Probably
the most
exiensive
piece
of
stellar
parallax work
in
existence
is
that
with
the
Yale
heliometer.
The
results
to
date
were published
in
1012, and contained
the parallaxes of 245
stars,
the observations extending
oaxu’
a quarter of
a
century, the entire
work having been
done by
three men—Elkin,
Chase, and
Smith.
In selecting
a
list of stars for parallax work, an
elfort
is made to
obtain stars which give promise of being nearer than
the mass of
stars.
At first the blighter stai\s were selected, and then those with
large proper motions.
The Yale
list of 245 stars contains
all stars
in the northern heavens whose annual proper motion
is known
to
be as much
as
0''.5.
Of
these- 215
stars, 54 are given
a negative
parallax.
A
negative
parallax
does not mean,
as some
one
has
expressed
it,
that
the
star
is “somewhere
on
the
other
side
of
nowhere,”
but
such
a
result may
he
attributed
to
the
errors
of
observation or to the fact thnt the comparison stars are nearer than
the one under investigation.
It is safe to say, however, that some-
what more than half of the 245 stars have a measurable parallax.
Another
series
of
stellar
parallax
observations,
comparable
in
extent with the one just mentioned, is that of Flint, at the Washburn
Observatory.
This series includes 20S stars and extended from 1893
to 1905.
These observations were made with
a meridian
circle, but
1V8
ANKUAL RKPORT SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION,
1916.
not
after
the method
of
a
century
ago.
The
observations were
strictly
diffei'ential, the general plan being to select two faint com-
parison stars, one immediately preceding and the other immediately
following tlic i)arallax star, and to determine the difference in right
ascension, the observation of the three
stars occupying about
five
minutes.
Here, as in the case of the Yale heliometer Avork, a large
proportion of the resulting pai’allaxcs are negative; somewhat more
than half, however, Avere found to have a measurable parallax.
The
average probable error of a parallax Avas the same in each of these
tAvo pieces of Avork—about ()'b08.
The progress of tlie work during
the last tAVo or three generations
is given
in Table III,
Avhicli con-
tains
also
a
brief
statement
of
the
discoveries made
during
the
preceding century, due chiefly to efforts to measure stellar parallaxes.
Tabli:
\li. —Aiiproximaic
uumher
of
liioirn
sidlar
parallnxf'H.
1718
172S
1751)
1790
1838
1888
1898
3916
Dfite.
Afdronomer.
Number of
stars with
known
parallaxes.
Uiscoveries.
ITalli^y
!
f)
Proper motion.
A l:>erration.
Bradley
(^ 0 .
!
(U
Nutation.
Herschel
1
U)
Tme bintiry systems.
1
3
28
50 to 00
1.
200 to 300
L.,
1 No parallax.
A generation ago photography entered the field of stellar parallax
work, and has outdistanced
all the previously employed metliods for
efficiency.
In 1911 two ]>uhli(*ations appeared giving the
results of
photographic stellar parallax work, one by Kussell, giving the paral-
laxes of 40 stars from photographs taken by Hinks and himself at
Cambridge, England, the other by Schlesinger, giving the parallaxes
of 25 stars from photographs taken mostly by liimself at the Yerkes
Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis.
In speaking of these
tAvo
series
of observations. Sir David Gill said:
On the whole, the Cambridge results, when a sufTicient number of plates have
been taken and when
the comparison
stars an* symmetrically
arranged,
give
results
of an accuracy which, hut for the wonderful
pro(*ision
of
the Yerkes
observations, would have been regarded as of the highest class,
Schlesinger has shown that with a telescope of the size and char-
acter of the Yerkes instrument “the number of
stellar parallaxes
that can be determined per annum, with an aA'erage provable error
of 0".013, will in the long run be about equal to the number of clear
nights available for the work.”
DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES—KICHELBERGER.
179
In other words, the Yerkes 40-inch equatorial used photographi-
cally determines stellar parallaxes with one-tenth the labor required
with a helioineter and with twice the accuracy.
In
July,
1913,
stellar
parallax work was undertaken
with
the
60-inch reflector of tlie Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, and at the
meeting of the American Astronomical Society at San Francisco in
August, 1915,
a report on that wanic was made.
The parallaxes of
13 stars liave been determined, with a maximum probable error of
0".010 and an average
probable error of
less than
0".006, giving
twice the accuracy of the Schlesinger results with the Yerkes 40-inch
and from three to
five times that obtained 15 years ago.
What may
we not
(expect when the 100-inch
reflector gets to work on Mount
Wilson ?
At the meeting of the American Astronomical
Society, to which
reference has just been made, two other observatories reported upon
their stellar parallax work.
Lee and Joy, of the Yerkes Observatory,
reported the parallaxes of
9
stars Avith
a maximum ]U’obable error
of 0".014 and an avei'age probable error of 0".()10: and Mitehclb of
Leander McCormick Observatory, reported the parallaxes of 11 stars
Avith a maximum probable error of 0".012 and an average probable
error of 0".009.
The progress made in the accuracy of parallax results is shoAvn at
a glance in Table IV.
Taeiao
1\.— 7V/r avrurarp
of
stolUir parallax
del (iiniaff turns.
Date.
Instrument.
1838
Micrometric:
Dorpat refractor
Kdiiigsberg helioineter
.
.
1838
1
1880-1898
Cape heliometer
1888-1912
Ysue hel iomotor
1893-1905
I
AVashbum meridian circle
1910
Photographic:
A^erkes refractor
1915
do
1915
1
Leander McCormlrk refractor .
.
1915
1
Mount WUlson GO-iuch reflector.
1
Probable
error.
0".025
.02
.017
.03
. 03
.013
.010
.009
.006
Observers.
I Struve.
,
Bessel.
Gill and assistants.
Elldn, Chase, and Smith.
Flint.
Schlesinger.
Leo and Joy.
Mitchell
Van Maanan.
From these results it appears that any star whose parallax
is as
much
as
e".02,
i.
e., whose
distance from
the earth
is
less than
10,000,000 times that from the earth to the sun, should give a positive
result when subjected to the treatment now employed
in parallax
investigations, and as 8 or 10 observatories are devoting their ener-
gies
to
stellar parallax work
at
present,
the combined programs
containing over 1,000 different stars, we ought soon to have lists of
at least a few thousand
stars whose parallaxes are known, where
our present lists contain but a few hundred.
A CENSUS OF THE SKY.^
By
U. A. Sampson, M.
A.,
F.
R,
S.,
AHlmnomrr Uoi/al for Scotland.
[With
fJ plates,
1
Jt
seem
to
call
for some remark, even some apology, that
at a period
like the
])reseiit one, wlien
all the ordinary interests of
life disappear or
tire transformed, that we should meet as wc had
arranged
to
meet,
tiiid exchange
with
one
another
tlie
different
truisms of science.
There occurs to me a passage in a book by a celebrated private in
the French Army, Anatole France's ^‘Isle of Penguins'’; one of his
characters, deepl}^ dei)ressed by the pervei’sity of the world, reflects
someAvhat as follows:
Since riches and civilization bring as many
occasions for wtir as barbtirism and poverty, since the folly and
ill
will of mankind
are incurable, there remains one good deed to do,
some Avise man shall collect enough dynamite to bhnv this planet up.
Then when
it whirls in fragments across space some imperceptible
alleviation
Avill be felt in the universe and some satisfaction will
given to the universal conscience, which, indeed, does not exist.”
While we
feel
as much
as any
this same savage indignation
Swift’s swva indiijnatio—that folly and
ill will have still the power
to throAv the v hole world
off
its bearings, and while we are
all of
us busily engaged in collect ing enough dynamite to blow some parts
of it to pieces, it is wise to remind ourselves that there are other things
besides folly and
ill will that are indestructible, and among these is
the
desire
to
increase natural knowledge.
We
are
at no
loss for
precedents.
Our Royal Society was initiated in the midst of civil
war.
The
Principia ” was
published
a
year
before
the
Great
Revolution.
Kepler found in the Thirty Years’ War no reason to
^Evening dlRcourse doHverod before the British Assoclatlou Sept. 11, 1915.
Reprinted,
by author’H permission, from The Observatory, a monthly review of astronomy,
vol.
38,
No. 498, Nov.,
1915.
73830'^— BM 1010-
1.3
181
182
AKKITAL "TI^PORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
11)16 .
interrupt
liis study of the planetary motions, nor did (jauss in the
invasion
of
Napoleon.
Successive
volumes
of
IVlecanique
Celeste
came
out. and
bear
evidence
in
their
title-pages
of
the
political
changes of
the French Kevolution.
ITevelius and Gassendi
corre-
sponded across a Eui’ope in turmoil, and Newcomb worked with De-
launay
at the theory of the moon while the Pai’is Commune raged
almost to the doors of the observatory.
Had science always Availed
to advance
till times Avere quiet,
it would have remained to this day
uncommonl v near to its starting point.
^
The subject to which
I. ask your attention for an hour to-night
is not
a. small
one.
It
is nothing
less than
the
simplest compre-
hensive vicAv of the Avhole iiuivei-se.
Indeed,
it
is
a
subject so vast
that some have
felt that
in the study of
it human
interests would
shrivel away and that as we looked steadily upon
its extension
Ave
should bo gripped Avith a kind of nightmare and
fe(‘l ourselves shrink-
ing and shrinking, and
unless by
violent
eifort we could
throAv
it
off Ave should seem
in
risk of vanishing altogether.
But somehow
that
is not the
case,
^liose
avIio most study
matter and
those
Avho have
lately
contributed most
to our
Icnowhslgi'
are men
Avell
known to
us,
s ery human beings.
Certainly a correct conception of
the universe must govern the scale of ultimate values of
all
avc do;
but in the history of ideas it is remarkal)](' that interest in
it ims for
the most part of the time been satisfied w ith obvious fairy tales, has,
in fact, l)een limited to the very narrow’ outlook of what we might
immediately
exjiect to accom[)lish, and has often combined
in
indi-
viduals an intense interest in the (jiiestion, Avith
a
total disregard of
any but the individuars point of view, as
if even
tlie
lasty halls'’
of cosmogony Avere an arena of spoii, where the attenq>i was not so
much to reach the goal
as to gain a
place
for self-expression.
As
president for the time being of the Koval Astronomical
Society, I
keep a certain amount of involuntary touch
Avitli such people.
I
should like to know, sir." one of these Avrote to me severely the other
day,
what stejis are being taken to spread the true chronology and
the truth about the deluge.”
Well, perhaps that gentleman Avas a jiaradoxer; but it is interest-
ing to bestow a side glance upon the way astronomy has been viewed
by acute and catholic minds l)efore the era Avhen the commonplaces
of diffused education had blunted a good many first-hand judgments.
I shall not take you on a long excursion into history.
Thvo or three
pregnant examples will
suffice.
Take Bacon’s Ncav Atlantis.
In that remarkable country, Avhich
had flying men and submarines and scientific stockbreeding for the
production of definite variations,
it is true that they had a statue to
‘‘ the iiiATiitor of observations of astronomy,” but the systematic con-
CENSUS OK Tine SKY—SAMPSON*
183
ternplation of the heavens does not appear to have formed a part of
their national scheme of study:
We have high towers, the highest about half a mile in
iH'ight; and some of
them likewise set U]»on high mountains, so that the vantage of tlie
tiill with the
tower is in the iUgluiSt of them 8 miles at least.
*
*
We use these towers,
a.(*(‘or(lir)g to their sevcTal Inlghts ami
situations,
for
insolation,
refrigeration,
eonservation, ami
fur
tla^ view of divers meteors; as winds,
rain, snow,
bail,
and some of the tu‘ry ni<*|eors also.
And uixai them in some places are dwellings
of hermits, wliom we visit sometimes and instruct what to observe.
This ])assa^c
is very disn|)])ointijig to an astronomer.
These
lier-
mits, with
their
ma^Tiilicent e(piipment,
state support, and boards
of visitors, were nothing more than meteorologists.
Or, again, take Shakespeare.
It
is admittedly dinieiilt to make out
what views,
if any, Shakespeare held on any
subject, and
I
sliall
have
to (juote words put into the mouth of the light-minded Biron
in order to make my point; but we know
that the farcical
figures
of his plays aie
chiefly pedants and
})o]icemeu;
in
pailicular, the
pedant moved liim
to a
s(*lu)ol-boy ribaldry, and from two or three
references
1 surmise that astroiiomy, as a
sci('Ti(‘e and a]>art from
its
jxadic
incriislatioiis, struck
liiiii
as yet
aiiothei'
field
for the preci-
osities of his inell'able ])edants.
'"Study/' says Jkiroii
Study
is
lilv(‘
I lie bcavcn’s glorious sun,
Tlmt
will
not. be dee]) scmtcIumI with saucy imiks.
Small
liavi* (‘ontinual iilodders (‘ver won.
Save base
aiilliority from others’ books.
Those (*nrtlily godfatlu'rs of hcaviaVs iiglits
Thai, give a nam(‘ to eviaw lixed star
Have no more profit of tlaur shining nights
Tliaii those that walk and wot
not whai thi'v are.
Too mucli to know' is to know naught but fauu';
Ami
(*v(‘ry godfatlier can give a name.
Tliat
is
all
tliere
is
in
it—giving names:
science
is nominalism.
We nmy brush
it aside,
l)ut, after
jill,
it
is
a
ptiin fully shrewd hit
against scieiu'e.
Now, there was
a. very
considerable and exteuded astronomy
in
Slnikespearo’s and
Bacon's
days.
Copernicus's work Do
Ilevolu-
lionihus wjis 50 yettrs old.
11
wtts perhaps not much read, but for a
century before devious voyages, lasting for months or yeare, to North
and South America, to South Africa, and to India had made indis-
pensable
a working knowledge and command
of
its
])ractice, and
with tlie j^ractice grew np a scientific interevSt.
In 1578 Mr. John Wiiifer passed through the Straits of Magellan
‘^in a good and newe shi])pe called (he ‘Elizabeth,’ of 80 tonnes in
burthen,” as one of Sir Francis Drake’s consorts.
Neither the ])lace
nor the vessel can have been favorable to scientific abstraction, yet he
determined his longitude there from an eclipse of the moon.
The
184
ANNUAL KEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
l>iussage (Hakluyt, Vol. A^lIT)
is a gem of accurate astronomy, and
I shall read it to you, for every point mentioned is relevant and the
conclusion quite justified and near the truth
The 15 of September the moone was there cKilipsed, and began to be darkened
Iiresently after the setting of the siinne, about slxe of the elocke at night, being
then
Ikininoetlai
vernal
in
that
country.
Tlie
^ald
eclipse
ha{)i)ened
the
16 day
in
the morning InTore one
of the
cltn-ke
in
England, which
Is about
sixe honros difference, agrt?eing to one qiiarttT of the World from the Meridian
of England, towards the West.
Now, take a long step from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century.
Passing by a fastidious and academic writer like Tennyson, we find
a mind as careless of fact and nntrammeled by convention as Mark
Twain deriving perpetual deliglit from the mere scope and scale of
things astronomical
in
its revelation of the very
size of the world
as measured in millions u]K)n millions of any units we can
tell
off.
It may Ixi hard to say e-xactly what this ])ro^'es, but we may allow
it
to sufTuse the continual
ploddei’ with
a gentle glow of satisfaction,
for without his continual plodding it ivonld never have come to pass.
Undoubtedly the last word of astronorn\' must be beard before wo
can solve the problem of the philosophers upon
its material side and
])lace man in true relation to the universe.
I suppose
it is evolution that has made us feel responsil>le for the
universe,
incurring
thereby,
it must
be
e(>nfos8(‘d,
a
very
hea\\y
responsibility with
fate—a
debt that would
cause
serious anxiety
liad not philosophy long since beeoruc reconciled to permanent bank-
ruptcy.
I mean that before evolution hceame one of ()ur fixed ideas
‘‘man’s place in nature” was an expie>ssion to whidi only an arbi-
trary meaning could be attached.
There was no obligation to con-
nect the phenomena of the univei^e
in one long chain.
Nothing
is
more illuminating as to our change of vicAv than to read the words
of one of the
lessor lights of the eighteenth century— for example,
Thomas Wright, of Durham,
is an author wlio
is often mentioned
alongside Immanuel Kant
as liaving foresight of
(he nebula r hy-
pothesis,
the
great
evolutionary
scheme
of
astTonomy.
Without
depreciating the insight and
tlie breadth of Wright’s views on ex-
tended stellar systems the defect—^the perfect defect of any evolu-
tionary
glimpse
in them—strikes one now
as
an
almost
painful
incompetence.
We are sensible of the necessity of connecting all the
parts of our system.
That is the general inteT-est in
a survey of the
sky, outside of professional
interest in a
difficulty overcome and of
curiosity—which,
indeed,
is soon bored by mere
magnitude
and
that is the reason why Ave come back to it again and again, especially
now that we are beginning from more than one avenue to approach
some reliable, and one hopes some permanent, point of view.
CENSUS OF THE SKY—SAMPSON.
186
That avemie which T would ask you to follow this evening is the
most direct, tlie least artificial, and one would say the driest of all—
mere enumeration, a census of the sky.
But
it
is not dull.
As
I
shall show you in a few minutes, the material dealt with
is of com-
pelling beauty, and, as scientific people, I hope
it may interest you
to have in brief review the consideralde difficultiei^, instrumental and
of organization; tlie many collateral questions that must be answered
before any confident, or even approximate, reply cun be given to the
main
(luestion of Iiow many
stai*s there
a]*e and how they are
dis-
tributed.
And,
finally, as British j)eople, I think you
feel
a
legiti-
mate pride to know that this great and unobtrusive work, of central
interest to astronomy, that I wish specially to describe to
5^011
is all
British
(including
tlierein
the Transvaal
Colony)
in
design
and
execution;
the plans made,
cost provided, and veiy many
of the
pliotograplis taken by an amateur, the late Mr. Franklin-Adams, a
business man of London;
the instrument designed by Mr. Dennis
Taylor, and constructed by him at Cooke’s works at York; the series
of photographs comi)leted
at the Union Ol^servatoiy
at Johannes-
burg; and the counts performed and discussion made at Greenwich
01)servatoi'y by Mr. Chapman and Mr. Melotte, two members of the
stall*.
[Specimens of the Franklin-Adams chart were shown
(pis.
1-G).]
You now
see, more or
less, the problem before you.
To “give a
name to every fixed star” is a task that we are not likely to under-
take.
The Arabs gave many of them pro])er names, which no doubt
had some meaning, more or less substantial, but now passed on to the
west('rns with meaning, pronunciation, and accent alike
in corrup-
tion, uncertainty, and
disrepair, form a somewhat trying detail to
the conscientious astronomer.
Ptolemy adopted
in his
list
a crude
and pictures(iue description with reference to the asterism.
Thus, in
Leo: ^‘The one on his muzzle,” “the one in his throat,” “the one at
the tip of his front right claw,” “the western one of the three on
his belly,” “ the one at his heart named Regulus.”
It is a tnSublesome
plan, e-ven for the
1,0(X) stars of which he gives the places.
Tycho,
who was only incidentally a sUdlar obs’erver, using the stars to
fix
his planets, canned on the method of Ptolemy.
Not
till the middle
of the seventeenth century did Bayer in his IJranometria, introduce
the device of attaching the Greek letters to stars in each
asterism.
The advent of the teles<’ope, with Hevelius and our own Flamsteed,
utterly
outran any method
except
that
of numbering.
Lalande’s
Histoire Celeste
in
1801
contained 50,000; Argelander’s Durchmus-
terung in
1847, upward of 300,000
in zones from the pole to Dec.
-' 10 '=*.
At each effort the object, if completeness Avas its aim, showed
more mountainlike.
In 1879, at the instance of the Astronomische
Gesellschaft, Argelander’s zones were revised by the cooperation of
186
A-NKIJAL himwv SMITIXSO^N'TAN INSTITUTION,
1910 .
many observatories in iipwai-d of 20 years.
It hardly requires x>’"oof
that* with
sncli
resources as astronomy has ever coimnancled, or
is
likely to command,
a
complete enumeration upon
these lines
will
never be attained.
If we are to attain a conspectus of the Avhole, now or ever, we must
make a radical reduction
in the demands of our ])rob]em.
Now, in
all these catalogues the
])la(!es of the stars are recorded
in their two
coordinates, and the calculations made in eacli individual case whi(*li
are
n(‘(‘(>ssa ry
to allow
ior pia^cessiomd change
in
the a\(\s of
retei*-
ence.
We
(*an not disj)ense with
Icnowin^’
whei*e the stars are, but
if our intei'est
is
in
th(‘ir numbers and
regional
distriluition, we can
dis])ense with ]*ecordini>* it ])recis(‘ly.
And
if we can lake an elevated
standpoint and eliminab* the earth, 1ik(‘ th(‘ Blesst'd Damozel, leaning
on the gold bar of hea\di, and see Tar below
this earth
Sniii like a
fretful
why, Hum, we may dis|>ense with
tlu' tronblesonu^ (ailculation of pre-
cession.
dlicre
is almost nothing left then except to eount.
But let iiobody tiiink lightly of the importaiK'e or the dillicidty of
mere counting.
When the White (iueen put to Alice the (juestion:
How many are one and one and
oik* nnd one and one and
oik* and one and
one and one and one?
Alice
does
not
ajipear
to have been
able
to
answer.
Counting
correctly
is very
ditlicult, becatne, so to put
it,
it retpiires from the
mind a simultaneous hold ujxm the ])ast, p]*esent, and future.
CV)unt-
ing, on the other hand, done carefully
is
tlu‘ only region of knowl-
edge, even of nialhcmaties, in which Ave can
1 h‘ ])e]‘fee(iy sure we are
not talking nonsimse.
Much that was foinuMly
(dasAsed
as geometry
is now
cIusschI
as
iionsimse.
A
circle has no
pi(>])(‘rties
until
we
say how
it
is generated, and we can
not say how
it
is generated
until we make up our minds about eoutinuilv; and
continuity,
to
make
it
intelligible,
is now
ex])laiiied
in
Uaans of
disccmtiiiuity
-
that
is, of (‘(dinting.
By counting inhnity
is made comprehensible,
like an
infinite perspe(*tive colh'cted
ii])()n
tli(‘ nai’row
s]>aee of the
retina,
as a
seijiience of converging inerements—camntless
in
their
number but eountahle in thinr sum or effect.
Counting by samples is another name for the theory of statistics,
of averages, Avith their ramifications of probability, without
Avliicdi
matters so disparate as life insurance and the kinetii^ theory of gases
would be equally unmanageable.
I need not labor my point.
In counting the
stars you have
to
count a sum of which you can not
tell
in advance Avhether
it
will
prove
infinite or
finite; you have to count by
snin|)]es; you have
to count by receding
stei)s or grades as far
as you can and then
CKNSUB OF THE SKV-—SAMFSON.
187
infer the continuation; and, if these grades are incorrectly or debat-
ably demarcated from one another, your results are
liable
to such
enormous uncertainties that they can hardly be held to add anything
to knowledge.
To have
])erf()rmed
this counting,
as
I
believe
it
has been
effectively and
securely performed,
is,
in my
judgment,
a very great feat, one that would appropi'iately be taken as a land-
mark
in
the history
of
(he mind; and
I do not think
I
deti*act
from this at all
if T say that those who have actually done the work
would not lay (daim to moi*e than to have well and truly ])erformed
a
straightfoj'ward
task by
established
methods.
None
tlie
less,
it
marks a stagt\ a
fact among many surmises, an achienTuneni among
many attempts.
Counting the stars
i-^ nothing else than the method of Herschel’s
star gauges su])phun(‘nted
by
a
<lue
(‘onsideration
of
all
the
diffi-
(‘ulties which he
o\'erste])])(‘d by intrepid
assum})tions.
When Iler-
S(diel set up his tiO-foot reflector of IH-ineh a])erture
it was mounted
vertically
iii
the meridian with
a
sweej) of
a
little moi’e than 2y-\
and he surveyed the sky
in zones of deedination, taking everything
that came
l)y, amh
in particular, counting the density of the
fields.
These counts were the bases of his papers on the ‘‘Construction of
the heavens,” which sliowed that the sun was roughly
in the center
of an irregular disk-shaped universe of stars, researches that I have
heard Sir David
(Jill
d(\sci-ibe as
almost inspired.”
But, if he was
inspired, like other
pro])hetic
writei*s, we have to
re])ose ujxrn
his
genius, for criticism
spoils him.
It
will not do now to tell us that
a seventh-magnitude star may be genei-ally taken
as seven tunes as
distant as
a
first-magnitude
star.
Tn
the
first
place, calculation
is
astray—25
times
woidd
be
more
defensible—^l:mt,
in
the
second,
though we know that distamv must raise magnitude, generally speak-
ing, we
are quite unable
to
verify
the
connection.
But, most of
all, though
IIei*sch(d
“looked
farther
into heaven than any man
before him,”
for
this purpose he
did
not look nearly
far enough.
His statement
tliat
in
a
field of
15' diameter he counted some 70
or 80 stars, with occasional
fields very much denser, would indicate
that he
reached
to
the
thirteenth
or
fourteenth
magnitude.
The
fifteenth magnitude mor(‘ than doul)Ies the fourteenth, the sixteenth
nearly doubles) the fifteenth, the s^nnmteenth neaidy doubles
tlie six-
teenth.
How does the jirogression continue
^
Does
it go on forever?
Does it go on even as far as we can see?
No
real advance upon Herschel’s gauges could
be made without
photograpliy, both because
the
record
is permanent and
so
leaves
you time to count and
also because
the
faintness of the stars that
you can reach is almost unlimited.
Let me now leave generalities and give you, as succinctly as pos-
sible, some details of the work 1 am describing.
188
ANNUAL
K1- PORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
The instrument consisted of a 10-inch lens of 45-inch focus, with
a 6-inch lens of 27-inch focus, mounted, together with guiding tele-
scopes, upon an equatorial mounting of the English pattern.
With the 10-inch lens, 17° by 17° upon the sky arc depicted upon a
plate 15 inches square, and to cover the whole sky upon this scale 206
plates were recpiisite.
The exposure of each plate was 2 hours or 2
hours 20 minutes, so as to reach the faint stars.
Noi-thern
jilates
were taken at Mervel Hill, near London
; the southern at the Cavpe
and afterwards retaken at Johannesburg.
There are certain defects in every lens which are practically in-
curable when a wide-angle field is desired, namely, curvature of the
field and astigmatism or replacement of a ])olnt-image by two line
condensations at dilFerent distances from the
huis.
It
is the art of
the lens maker and of the lens user to split the residual errors in the
least harmful manner.
I show two slides taken from the same plate.
The first shows the
center, with images perfectly rounil, small, and defined.
The. second
shows the corner.
You see the elongations in two ])erpendicular di-
rections succeeding one another separated by
foi-ms
that suggest
flights of beetles.
That these forms are so little pronounced at some
10° from the center is the proof of the excellence of lens, focussing,
and guiding.
It is the practice to supi>rcKs them somewhat by sac-
rificing almost imperceptibly the definition at the c(>nter, so that the
smallest images are actually not at the center, but half or two-third
the radius away.
But this enlargement of image means diffusion of light, so that the
instrument is less sensitive and the stars I’ccorded are less numerous
at the margin of the field than at the best focus.
I n matters of count-
ing this is very important, betaiuse
it would produce a systematic
deviation.
Accordingly, the average amount of this deviation was
determined and allowed
for.
It was proposed to count a sufficient numbei' of plates to determine
the number of stars, zone by zone, in each of eight zones of galactic
latitude.
Actually 30 plates were einjiloyed.
They are
all in the
northern hemisphere, but
lie both north and south of the galactic
equator.
In each count it was proposed to detennine the number of
sters of each separate magnitude, and here arose one of the most cru-
cial, as well as difficult, points.
The magnitudes recorded ranged down
to the seventeenth, or nearly to the ten-millionth of the brightness of
a first magnitude star.
It was necessary to have the scale of magni-
tude correct over this wide space, because any deviation would here
again become systematic, and, altering the number of stars in each
grade, would altogether distort the estimated total of the vast num-
ber of those beyond the reach of counting.
You will understand how
difficult
it was to establish an absolute magnitude
scale when the
CENSUS OF THE SKY—SAMPSON.
189
liiriiting brightness of stai's recorded varies upon each plate with the
purity of sky and the elevation above the horizon.
I will only allude
to this difficulty and say that a scale was determined and was applied
to each plate in a way that is pr actically beyond criticism.
Standard
specimens of the
i*esults were jrhotographed within the eyepiece of
the measuring microscope
for* comparison with the plates and wei*e
used for the estimation of tlri^ magnitudes of all the stars.
The count-
ing then pi‘oceed(‘d.
Two computer's were emi)Ioyed on the work and
it occupied them
for* two
year-s.
Success depended very much on
skill.
After* the counting had
jrr oceeded for a
few* weeks one of the
earlier* plates was recounted and the number ot star's detected w^as in-
cr'eased by 50
per* cent.
The wdiole of these early [dates were there-
fore r*epeated and, fortunaU'ly for hnality, subsequent practice did
not increase the numbei*s any mor*e.
Only the magnitudes from the
twelfth to the seventeenth were counted, as the mater'ial wnis already
available
for*
star's
brigiiter* than
tire
twelfth.
These
w'er’e found
partly in some counts made at Ilar'vai'd of stars fi*om magnitude 2 to
4.5,par*tly in some counts of Sclnvai'zschild for magnitude 5 to 7.5, but
chiefly fr*om the Gr‘eeriw'i<*h Astr’ogr*a))hic Catalogue from magnitude
9 to
12.5, and
a
special Greenwich photometj*y with
the Franklin-
Adams 6-inch lens for magnitude 6.5 to
9.0.
The standar‘d bases of
all these, I need har-dly say, wer'e most cai’efully br'ought into adjust-
ment.
The
i*esults of this labor*i(Mis wor’k are contained in a
table.
(A diagram representing the table was shown on the screen.)
Bm is
the number of star's of magnitude m and
l)i'ighter in each zone;
its
logarithm is char’ted her(‘ in ])lace of the number in order to make the
diagram
rnor'e compact.
In
this diagr'am
is contained the net
out-
come of the counts, the distribution of star's, zone by zone, for ev^ery
magnitude.
AH the eight curves, repi’cstmting the eight zones, are independent,
and
their similarity, which strikes us at once,
is convincing proof
of their reliability.
They
tell us that in ever’y zone the proportion
of stars of the various magnitudes is the same, as far as the eye can
follow.
If we look closely
into the numlrei’s
it apjrears that there
is
perce])tible
a
slight gradual
increase
of
the
proportion
of the
fainter stars as the galaxy
is airproached.
Beyond
this there is a
gradual increase in density in the whole number of stars in the zones,
so tliat at the equator of the galaxy it is three times as dense as at the
poles.
The
progress
is
quite
gradual
over
the
whole
sky.
The
galaxy does not produce a sudden
i‘ise in the numbers, and simply
drops into the statistical register of the wdiole.
Statistically, in spite
of the striking contrasts you liave seen, the
divine disorder” of the
heavens, there are no other features than this, a gradual condensation
amounting at the limit to threefold toward the galaxy accompanied
190
AN^^UAL KCPOET SMITHSONIAN TNSTlTtTTION,
1916.
by a slight relative increase of the proportion
of the fainter stars.
That
is, the
statistical description of the distribution of the stars
when attention is diverted from their random features.
Passing now
fi'oin the distribution in zones to the question of the
total n umber of stars, the table beloAV exhibits the data before us:
We see (hat as we take in successively the second, third, down to
the seventeenth magnitude,
tlie proportionate
in(*rease of numbers,
which
is at first three per magnitude, falls progressively until at the
seventeentli
it is less tl\an two.
Beyond
this
it
is
tilmost wholly
a
matter of
inference, but
the
progression
is so steady that
^Ir. (''hapman and Mr.
Melotte have
reduced
it to
a fornnda wdiich, within
tlie as<*ertained range, adiuits
of very
little latitude, and shows that at about the twentydhird or
twenty-fourth magnitude we should have
reached
<me-half
of
the
total, and that this total would
lie between one and two thousand
millions.
1 say
it
is a matter of inference, because liardly any material wuis
availalde to carry on
(he counts.
Two
})lates, howtuer, were forth-
coming, one by
that
keen
observer,
Mr.
l)'Ksteri-e. and
one from
Mount AVilson, and these when counted confirmed the forecast num-
bers
in
reassuring fashion beyond
the
twentieth
magnitude—tliat
is to
say, down
to stars 100 million times as
faint as
those, of the
first magnitude.
NionbcvH nvd
efiitirah^ut
lujht of
fJio
~ U)
- 0.9
0.0
o.a- 1.0
1.0-
2.0
2.0- 3.0
3.0- 4.0
4.0- 5.0
6 . 0- 6.0
6.0- 7.0
7.0- a 0
8.0- 9.0
9.0-
10.0
10.0-11.0
11.0-
12.0
12.0-
13.0
13.0-
14.0
14.0-
16.0
15.
0-
16,0
16.0-
17*0
17.0-
18.0
la 0-19.0
19.0-
20.0
All stars fainter than 20. 0
.\'iiriil>er.
Ivciuivalont
iinnitH^r
of first
Sirius.
[
.stars.
11
.1 Curiiur.
6
M r«mlauri.
i
2
8
14
i
27
17
73
18
189
19
650
2(J
2, 200
35
6, (iOO
42
22, 5.50
56
65, (XXI
65
174,000
69
426, 000
68
miJXHt
60
2, 020, (XK)
51
3, 960, 000
40
7, 820. 000
31
11,040,m
22
25,400,000
16
38, 400, 000
10
51,6(X),0(K)
6
76, 000, 000
3
3
'('ut.uls to
TnaKiiitude
w.
33
.50
68
87
113
148
190
246
311
380
448
508
659
599
630
662
668
678
684
687
690
There is the result, between one and two thousand millions—I sup-
pose somewhere about as many as the people on the globe.
I confess
CENSUS OP THE SKY—SAMPSON.
191
to a feeling of a kind of relief in finding that the total is measurable
and, comparatively speaking, moderate.
It may be
well
to add
a few
sentences
in
consideration
of the
validity of the conclusion, which is and must remain, an extrapola-
tion beyond knowledge, a summation to infinity of a series not com-
pletely known.
We begin by admitting that we are dealing only with the sensible
universe.
There may bo dark stars; in fact, we know that there are,
because some of them have been detected in occulting the bright ones,
as in the case of Algol.
Natui*ally these are not counted.
Nor do we
reckon with the
j)ossible ])iesence of a])Sorbent matter in space, by
whicli the magnitudes of all the stars seen wotild recede progressively,
so that at the end
of the series their light would be extinguished.
Nor do we profess to unravel the details of globular clusters—we
can not do everything.
For that matter, there
is infinite detail in a
drop of blood or an atom of gas. We take the stars as we find them,
"llie relevant question is the ]Kvssibility of a sudden break or a gradual
cluinge
in the progression after tlie 20 terms that have been so care-
fully examined.
There would seem to he a certain kind of control in the total light
received, but this proves illusory.
The total of starlight
is a sensible amount, but
it
is very small.
Idle table shown above is taken from a ])aper by Mr. Chapman.
It
shows that
for the
ascertained magnitude up to the twentieth
tlie
total light emitted
is e(iuivalent to
(kS 7 first-magnitude stars, which
again has been ])ut as e(|ual to the hundredth part of full moonlight.
If we include
all
the remaining
stars, following the formula, the
cfjui valent addition would be only three more first-magnitude stars.
Ihit
this
tells us very
little,
for
if the progression were so altered
that the total numlier w(‘re infinite the total light could easily
still
he finite, owing to the reducing effect of liigher luagnitude.
We leave off our summation at a point where each additional mag-
nitude is adding more stars than the last.
If tins went on the number
would be infinite.
But, according to the formula, between the twenty-
third and twenty-fourth magnit\ides thei’e
is a turning point, after
which each new magnitude adds less than before.
The actual counts
have been carried so near this turning point that there is no reasoii-
Jible doubt of
its existence.
Gi\en its existence, the number of stars
is at least finite.
That
is a conclusion that I regard as open to very
little doubt.
As to the value of the sum, naturally we can be less
positive.
But
all
tlie indications of the earlier terms must be mis-
leading if the margin between one and two thousand millions is not
enough to cover the whole.
It
is
sometimes
said
that
the
British
amateur
astronomer,
to
whom
in the past so much enterprising construction and so much
192
ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
sound and brilliant observation is due, has disappeared.
No doubt
the growth of organization continues to add strength proportionately
to the great observatories.
I imagine that the number of excellent
amateurs to be found at any one time was never large.
While we can
produce mesi like Mr. George Higgs or Mr. Franklin-Adams, whom
unhappily we have lately lost, or Mr. D’Esterre, who happily is with
us, we need not be anxious.
Prof. Hale—^liimself, like Herschel and
Gill, an amateur turned professional—once defined an amateur as a
man
M'ho pursued astronomy because he
could not help
it.
Mr.
Franklin-Adams
satisfied
this
test.
Sir David
Gill
tells how,
in
1903, he came to tlie Cape with the “incongruous double purpose”
of curing the rheumatism and
neuritis, which
at that time almost
incapacitated
him,
and
of
jdiotogra piling
the
southern
heavens.
While the moon shone he retired to the sanatorium at Caledon, and
at the end of a fortnight, against the best adi ice, he would emerge
to sit up at nights and expose his plates.
He has left the world a
great gift and happily has placed
it in trust with the best possible
hands, those of Greenwich Observatory, and
it has been dealt with
there as
it deserves, with the unassuming mastery that so well be-
comes that great house, by the astronomer royal, Mr. Chapman, and
Mr. Melotte.
We can not dispense with discussion and with theory,
and I would be the last to depreciate them, Init I think you will
feel
we always owe a special debt of gratitude and aifection to the inde-
fatigable, the truth-loving race of observers.
GUN KEPOET NOISFU—ACTION OF THE MAXIM
SI-
LENCER AND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REPORT
NOISE AND BULLET-FLIGHT NOISE EXPLAINED.
By IIiKAM Berc^y Maxim.
[With 7 platos.J
AVhen
a gun
is discluirged
it
is the conmioii idea that there
is a
single noise heard—the rei)ort noise.
That such
is not the case, and
that
there arc two entirely
se])arate and
distinct
noises has been
proved
in
a very interesting manner by the advent of the Maxim
silencer.
The
history
of
the research work which
led np to this
device is very instructive and well worth recording.
When the work was undertaken, at the beginning the object was
to annul report noise so tliat concealment of ])osition, partly attained
by smokeless powder, would be completed.
When the firing line be-
came
invisible there was only
loft the report noise
to indicate
its
position and also its strength or number of guns.
To attain this object,
it was thought only necessary to check the
suddenness of the release of the high pressure powder gases into the
atmosphere.
This pressure, in the caliber 30 United States service
Springfield
rifle, was approximately 10,000 pounds per square inch,
when the base of the bullet emerged from the ban*el muzzle. A de-
vice must be found which would present an unobstructed path for the
bullet, but this path must not be available to the gas, at least easily.
The search for a path which would give a bullet an absolutely un-
impaired passage, and yet would check gas at 10,000 pounds pressure
per square inch, was a long one.
For a year
it persisted without
results.
Its
successful
ending came
in
a
very
interesting though
extremely prosaic manner.
The essential element was a hole which
would be pervious to
a,
rifle bullet but impervious to high-pressure
gas.
One morning, after taking a bath and pulling the plug in the
tub drain
hole, the water was given an
accidental twist and the*
* Eqprinted by permission from Science Conspectns, vol,
6, No.
2, 1016.
193
194
annual KEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITITTION,
1916.
familiar
little
whirlpool
^vas
created.
It
attracted
the
eye and
finally the mind, since there was a hole through wliich water was
passing but
slowly, notwithstanding the
fact that the drain plug
was removed.
In
a
flash the analogy was apparent.
It was obvious
that centrifugal foi*ce prevented the water from passing thi*ough the
hole rapidly.
If
tlie i)owder
gasc^s in
a gun were given the same
vigorous whirling action, they would also
ac(iiiire centrifugal
force,
and,
if their outlet hole were located
at or approximately
at the
center, they would exit relatively gradually.
They simi)ly could not
exit
until they had slowed down at least a
little.
The search was
ended.
A little gas whirling device was (prickly made and adjusted to the
bari'el of a
rifle and the
fii‘st shot fired was the first (priet
rifle shot
ever dischai'ged from a high-power rifle.
When shooting was done
in several
different
places,
it began
to
be apparent that the nois(^ depended upon the
jflace, at least when a
high-power rifle was used.
It seemed to be impossible to eliminate a
certain sharp ‘‘crack.’’'
The character of this crack was similar to a
Avhiplash crack.
It was entirely different from the more dull b(X)iu
of the report.
By accident
it was found one day that this “crack”
noise existed
a long way down the range.
A
listener locaited at the
r)00-ynrd mark on
a
1,000-yard
I’ange, detected
the crack
nois(^ ap-
I)arently
overhead.
This
indicated
immediately
that
it was
con-
nected with the bullet flight in some manner and was entirely sepa-
rate and apart from the report noise.
Tests were made to bring out additional
facts, and some of these
are
instructive.
It was suspected
that the
bullet
flight
ci’cated
a
bow Avave, creating a
little zone of com})i*essed air which mo\ed out
from the trajectory, and that this Avave Avas heard l)y reflection.
The
person shooting the gun ahvays heard a different noise from the per-
son located at a distant point doAvri the range.
A terrain Avas selected
on
the
extensive meadoAvs on
the
Connecticut Biver bank
beloAv
Hartford, whei’e a sei'ies of clumps of bushes and small trees existed.
There were three separate clumj)s in front of Avhich the bullet from
a Springfield service rifle could be made to pass.
When the gun was
fired, the listener at the gun heard three separate sharp cracks, and
a low rattle of many minor cracks.
This pointed fairly coimliisively
to the fact that the boAv Avave aauis reflected back from each of these
clumps, and separate noises were heard from each, because they were
separated by enough distance to give a distinguishable interval.
It was then thought that firing doAvn
a railroad track which ran
along the open meadoAv, and had telegraph poles at regilar intervals,
would give a good test.
This was done, and the result was a rapid
succession of cracks, just as had been anticipated.
GUN REPORT NOISE—MAXIM.
195
Then
it occurred
to the writer that
if he could find a place to
shoot where there would be no object from which
reflection could
occur, he ought to secure (juiet shooting.
It seemed a difficult condi-
tion to find until he bethought himself of getting up on a knoll away
from trees and other objects and shooting stiaiglit up into the air.
There would be no objects up in the air to reflect back the bow waive,
and, if the theory were correct, such shooting should be almost en-
tirely
quiet.
It was with much
interest that
a
suitable
])lace
wais
searched out.
One was finally found, and tlie first firings w^ere felt to
be of great moment.
The first shot told the story, for the only noise
W'as the puff of gas fi*om the silencer, which sounded very soft and
low\
There w’as absolutely no bullet flight sound heard.
The bow^
wave went on and on and never returned.
The next tiling was to locate the limits of this bullet flight noise.
It evidently
persisted
in certain guns while
in
others
it never
oc-
curred,
wdiile
in
still others
it occasionally
occun-ed.
Bullets from
various cartridges were fired and
it very soon develofied that when
the bullet
velo(‘ity reached the velocity of
a sound wave, the crack
became noticeable.
When the bullet velocity
fell
beloW' the velocity
of sound, there w^as no crack noise.
The velocity of sound then ap-
peared to be the critical point above Avhich the ordinary bullet could
never be
fired
quietly.
It developed that the
.22 caliber smokeless
cartridges,
exce])t in the case of the long, gave
(|uiet shooting, be-
cause
their
iclocity
was
below'
1,085
feet
per
second.
The
long
(‘artridge appeared
in some cases to be above
this
Nclocity though
not
ahvays.
There was
evidently
un-uniforinity.
The
long
rifle
cartridge was always beautifully
quiet,
as was of course
also the
short
cartridge.
The
.22 W.
It.
F.
cartridge, which
is
a
special
high power, seemed
to be just
oji the critical
line.
For example,
in
a. box of 50 cartridges, about half would shoot w ithout bullet flight
noise, wdiereas the other half would make a loud ci’ack.
lATth all the
larger
caliber
regular cartridges
bullet
flight
noise
occurred.
By
using
special
loads, they
all
gave
quiet
shooting.
In some
cases
very heavy bullets wore used, and the sti*iking energy maintained in
spite of the lowor velocity.
The rediuod velocity of course reduced
the distance at which accurate shooting could be accomplished.
Two
hundred yards always w^as possible, howover, wdth bullet velocity of
1,000 feet per second, wdiich is woll inside of the critical iioint.
Before the question w^as considered settled,
it was thought neces-
sary to make various shaped bullets.
Some were made of approxi-
mately perfect stream line shape.
Others were made with a central
hole all the way through the bullet.
A copper gas check was used
over the base when firing, and this fell off as soon as a bullet left the
gun barrel.
There never Avas a single piece of evidence upon w^hich
to hang a theory that the noise w^as in the slightest degree altered.
196
AKNDAL mPom SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTIOK, 1916.
Then came the desire to actually see this peculiar manifestation
and, incidentally, to conclusively prove the silencer.
It was always
a bit difficult to prove to the ordinary mind that the noise heard when
shooting a
rifle equipped with a silencer was made out in the air
beyond the silencer and tliat the latter should not be held accountable.
The United
StJites Navy, through
their Ordnance Department,
produced the best photograidis which have been taken.
These were
made by mounting the gun in a dark room and setting up the camera
with an open shutter along the line of bullet flight. Two vdres lead-
ing from an electric condenser were dropped down direcily beside
the trajectory so that the bullet would short circuit these wires when
it x^assed and create a sx)ark, the duration of which was of radio
frequency,
possibly
something
approximately
one
five
hundred
thousandths of a second.
This almost inlinitely short exposure gave
a clear x>hotograph of the bullet and the variation in density of the
air in the bow wave caused a variation in the refnuition of the light,
causing less light to fall where the ])ressure was high and more light
where the pressure was low.
Beautiful
[)ietures of the noises made
when the gun is discharged woi'C obtained.
Some of these are sliown
herewith.
A series were taken showing the noises when the service
rifle without silencer was fired and another series with the silencer.
In the former, the report noise is shown, the birth of the bullet flight
noise, and the bullet itself.
In tlie latter the eutii'e absence of report
noise
is shown and the
very high
efficiency
of the
silencer dem-
ontrated.
Plate 1
(photo I)
represents the condition existing immediately
following the emerging of the bullet at the muzzle of the Springfield
rifle without silencer.
The two vertical wires are shown and the
bullet is enveloped in the mass of powder gases and can not be seen.
The
first wave appears to be made from a rush of
air out of the
muzzle and the main report noise w^ave
is shown
just back of
it,
being the broad dark line, irregular in places.
Plate 2 (photo J) represents conditions just a bit later.
The bullet
lias emerged from a cloud of powder gases and has just begun the
creation of its bow wave.
It
is shown puncturing the main report
noise which shows particularly strong in this picture.
By looking
Ca^’efully the noise waves
set up by
flying particles of nnburned
OTiokeless powder can be seen.
Plate 3 (photo N) represents conditions still later and out beyond
the disturbance of the blast of gas from the muzzle.
The bullet flight
bow wave has developed
further and the
greater
velocity
of the
bullet over the report noise wave is very well shown.
It is not plain
at* this time why the main report warve should be divided at the rear
bf tb
bullet.
This completes the series of photographs taken with<^
GUN KEPORT NOISE—MAXIM.
197
Plate 4 (photo A) represents the fii^st picture with silencer on the
rifle.
The bullet is shown emerging from the muzzle of the silencer,
the bow wave of bullet flight noise is shown and there is absolutely
no sign of any report noise.
Indeed, there seems to be no disturbance
created at all except the bow wave from the bullet.
Plate 5 (photo B)
re]^resents the conditions just a bit later.
The
bow wave and also a stern wave from the bullet is shown, the dis-
charge from the silencer, bnt absolutely no report wave.
Plate 6
(photo E)
represents a
still
later period, the bow wave
being distinctly shown and the wake of the bullet.
The stern wave
has begun to disappear, for what reason it is not quite plain.
Plate 7
(photo F)
represents a
still
later time and the wake of
the bullet is the principle point of interest.
This seems to partake
of a spiral motion.
Tlic bow wave and the remnants of
tlie stern
wave are shown, but no report wave.
Having now shown the conditions existing at the muzzle of a
fire-
arm, equipped with a Maxim silencer, and proving as conclusively as
seems possible that the noise of the gun
is eliminated and that the
only noise remaining
is the bullet
flight, we may ask the practical
results.
These have been very carefully studied from every imagin-
able angle,
t'ield
tesis, accuracy tests, and tests at night have been
conducted
oflicially
by
war
departments
with
bodies
of
troops
equipped with
silencers.
Briefly summarized, these amount to the
following
1. The most important advantage on a shoulder rifle seems to be
the diminution
of sound on
one’s own
firing
line, which
permits
oflicers’s commands to lie heard during periods of the most rapid and
concentrated
fire.
Without the silencer the human voice can not bo
heard.
2. The concealment of position of the firing line and the conceal-
ment of the number of guns comprising it.
This is a natural advan-
tage which might be imagined.
3. Improvement in marksmanship because of reducing the tend-
ency to flinch.
The elimination of the concussion
entirely and the
reduction of the
recoil by 50 per cent makes the modern military
rifle a much more gentle gun. and the rank and
file in innumerable
military tests always make higher scores than with the bare
rifle.
4. Elimination
of muzzle
flash
at
night makes
location
of
the
shooter invisible.
This is supposed to constitute an important mili-
tary advantage.
The aspects of a quiet shooting firearm in the case of assassins is
of
interest.
We have seen that we can not secure quiet shooting
unless we have bullet velocity below 1,085 feet per second.
Except
in 22-caliber this requires specially loaded cartridges for all calibers.
73830^—sm 1016
14
l98
annual BS!t>OET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
furthermore, the silencer, being a gas check device purely and sim-
ply and applicable only to the muzzle, the ordinary revolver can not
be silenced because of the joint between the cylinder and the barrel
allowing the gas to escape
if
it
is checked
at the muzzle by the
silencer.
Thus the assassin’s favorite arm is unsilenceable, to coin a
word.
In the case of the automatic pistol
it is almost an impossibility to
attach the silencer and moreover the almost instantaneous opening
of the breech permits a back blow and usually upsets the ejection of
the empty shell enough to cause a jam.
So we can not expect to see
the automatic pistol silenced as things stand to-day.
The assassin
will have to design a small arm with a breech mechanism constructed
on the lines of a
rifle
if he
is to take advantage of any silencing
device.
Such a weapon does not exi.st at the present time.
Photograph
Taken
Directly
at
Muzzle
of
Rifle
without
Silencer.
Photograph
Taken
about
4
Inches
from
Muzzle
of
Rifle
without
Silencer,
•'thsor.ian
Report,
1916.
—
Maxinn.
PLATE
Note
little
grains
of
burning
sntoku
les'^
f>fnv<ler,
cacU
ere
it
Lug
small
bi
Smithsonian
Report.
191
Photograph
Taken
Directly
at
Muzzle
of
Rifl
Plate
'HOTOGRAFH
TaKEN
ABOUT
2
INCHES
FROM
MuZZLE
OF
R:FLE
WITH
SILENCER.
SILENCER
IS
1
INCH
DIAMETER:
BULLET
IS
.300
DIAMETER.
son'ian
Report,
'',916
Photograph
Taken
about
6
Inches
from
Muzzle
of
eport,
191
6.
—
Maxi
Photograph
Taken
about
8
Inches
from
Muzzle
of
Rifle
with
Silencer.
MOI.KdTLAR STRIT(’TFKE AND LIFE.*
I>y Amk JNctet,
of Chcniii^tr]/
<t1 the l‘nircrHit}i of (U orva.
Of
}iJI
Ihf* problems of nut lire
tlu* one deserving the most intense
iiderest
is undoubtedly
that of
life.
Its solution
concerns
at
tlie
same time the whole range of natural and physical
sciences, and
it
des('rves to
l>ecoine the objective of
all the exhaustive methods of
lesearch now
at
their
disposal.
And
yet among the
sciences
bio-
chennstry
is the ])rincipal one upon which
falls the task of this re-
search.
In
fact,
it
is not at
all doubtful that,
if not life itself, at
least the phenomena that
it manifests in living things may be en-
tirely of chemical origin.
But
hiocluuuistiy
itself
is based on pure organic chemistry.
In
fact
th('.
fundamental
condition
for
intelligently
interpreting
a
phenomenon
is to have exact knowledge of the agency by which
it
is unfolded.
Now,
it is the function of organic chemistry to supply
us in
this particular case with
this knowledge by establishing the
nature of the materials of which living things are composed.
To
separate, to purify, to characterize, to analyze the innumer-
able compounds derived from animals and plants have been the pri-
mary
objects of organic chemistry.
But
it has not stopped there;
it has pushed on further to learn what may be called the constitution
of these bodies; that is to say, the actual architecture of their mole-
cuh^s, the exact place that each of their atoms occupies, and the rela-
tions that those atoms bear to one anothei*.
It has succeeded in the
great majority of cases, thereby accomplishing an immense task that
may rightly be regarded as one of the most remarkable achievements
of human intelligence up to the present time.
I hasten to add that the enormous amount of labor that these
researches have required has not had its source alone in that specu-
lative
interest connected with
all new
loiowledge.
Chemists who
^Address at the opening meeting of the ninety-seventh session of tlm
helv^tlque
dcs
Sciences
naturellcfi,
held at Geneva, September 12
to
If),
11)15.
Translated,
by
per-
miesion, from Revue Sclentiflque, Paris, November 13-20, 1915, and from author’s revised
pamphlet
i
Extralt des Archives des Sciences physiques et naturelles, Geneva, 1916.”
109
200
ANNUAL REFOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
have broken up
all the organic molecules, who have
identified the
constructive plan of these minute edifices, have been urged on by two
other motives of a far more immediate import.
The first motive is the attractiveness of synthesis.
It is acknowl-
edged
that the
artificial re[>roduction
of a natural compound can
be brouglit about only wlien the composition of that natural com-
pound
is known in
its minutest
details.
Whenever an attempt
is
made to proceed in any other way, to put the cart before the horse,
as they say, and to work haphazard, the i-esiilt
is invariably a failure.
The latest example of this is the fruitless attempts to make artificial
rubber.
In the second
place cliemists have given
their
close
attention
to
questions of composition because they are not. slow to lecognize the
fundamental
fact that
all
the
])ropei-ties
of organic c()m|U)unds
physical,
chemical,
and
physiological—stand
in
intimate
relation
to this composition.
It
is not the (juantity nor
the nature of
tlie
materials emj^loyed
in the construction of a building that makes of
it a church, a
theater, or
a railway station.
In
the same way
it
is
neither the specific kind nor the number of the atoms of a molecule
that makes of an
organics comi>oimd
a
coloring material, an
anti-
septic, or a perfume;
it
is simply the way
in which
tlie atonrs are
grouped one with the other.
To know this method of gi'ouping will
be to possess the means of propar-ing at will and
ai one stroke any
given new compound with predctermiiual
j)roperties.
A mass of relations of the highest
interest
between
tlie composi-
tion and certain )iroj)erties of substan(‘(‘s have thus Uam established,
such as their color, their staining quality, their density, their flavoi-,
their polanzation, their therapeutic action,
etc.
But
all branches
of this study have not been explored:
in
])articidai. no attempt has
yet been made to connect their biological
projiei'ties with the struc-
ture of molecules.
This is the subject that I should like to discuas at this time, and I
begin by limiting it to the three following questions:
(1)
Is there
a
relation between
the chemical
composition
of
a
substance and the part it plays in the interior of a living organism?
(2)
Is there
a condition of molecular
structure
Avhich makes
a
substance
useful,
inactive,
or harmfid
in
sustaining
life,
which
makes it a food or a poison ?
(3)
Is there a
like condition by which the material
of a living
cell is distinguished from that of the same cell when dead
; in other
words, does death result in changing the architecture of the mole-
cules?
Before answering these
questions
it seems
desirable
to
specify
clearly with what particular phase of the theory of constitution my
discussion
will have to do and be assured I
shall limit myself to
MOLEOULAB STBUOTOEE AND LIFE—PICTET.
201
what
is strictly necessary.
It will be sufficient for the purpose of
my demonstration to bring to your attention the principle of organic
classification.
As the result of 50 years of patient researches
it has been ascer-
tained
that
the
approximately
200,000
organic
compounds now
known, however great their diversity, belong, from the viewpoint
of their molecular structure, to only two types.
In the
first type, the atoms of which they are formed, whether
saturated or unsaturated compounds, are joined
in a nearly
recti-
linear chain of greater or less length.
The central part of the mole-
cule forms a sort of vertebral column to which in turn other atomic
groups are joined laterally.
In the second type these same atoms are joined under the influence
of similar attractive
forces, but form closed chains.
The structure
of the molecule is now not a string of atoms but a ring.
And on this
ring similar circular groups are applied just as the tissues of a fruit
are built up on its stone or kernel.
Hence we
have
the
distinction
between compounds
with open
chains and those with cyclic radicals.
This distinction
lies at the
very foundation of organic
classification.
It corresponds, for ex-
ample, to what
in zoology
is the division between vertebrates and
invertebrates, and
is not without analogy to
it, for it is founded on
the conformation of the structure and on the symineti’y of the being,
whether it l)e an animal or a molecule.
From a theoretic point of view the two gj*eat classes of organic
compounds are separated by a great gap.
But this is not insupera-
ble.
In many cases, by suitable reactions,
it
is possible to act on the
molecules of substances
in such
a way
as
to
close an open chain
(cyclisation) or to break a closed chain (cyclolyse)
.
Thus it is possi-
ble to pass experimentally from one type to the other.
It
is true that this transition
is incomparably easier in one case
than in the other.
One of the characteristics of the closed chains is
their stability, considerable chemical energy being always required
to disorganize them.
On the other hand, cyclisation
is more easily
effected, although
it demands a certain degree
of energy, required
for the bending of the rectilinear chain and the welding of its ter-
minal atoma
What are the forms of energy needed to produce this
reeult?
In the
fii'st place is heat.
Berthelot &rst shelved this by passing
through
red-hot
tubes an
entire
series
of
open-chain
substances.
He thus obtained numerous cyclic compounds, and in patiiculat the
gipcater part of those that in combination constitute coal tary a by-
product of gas manufacture from which the modem chemist has obt
tained so inany valuable derivatives.
On the basis of the^ experi-
ments,
Berthelot
likewise
founded
his well-known
theory
of
the
202
AKKtTAT. REPOBT SMITHSONIAN
TNSOytTXTTION,
19X6.
formation of coal tar.
According to this theory, coal in course of
distillation
is decomposed into very simple gaseous products with
open-chain molecules, and these products by impact with the sides
of the heated retort undergo cyclisation. We shall see hereafter what
estimate should be given to this explanation.
But the cyclic compounds are found nbt in coal tar alone; they
are met witli in substances which luive never been subjected to the
action of great heat, su(‘h as petroleum.
They are found above all
in abundance in living organisms and, in particulai*, in plants.
Here
the agent causing the
cyclisation
is no longer heat
ejiergy, and
a
further search will be ne(‘essary to determine what it
is.
Firsf, however, permit me to make an observation.
From what I
said awhile ago it might appear that the properties of an organic
compound must
differ completely according to whether that com-
pound belongs to the class of bodies with open chains or to those of
cyclic form.
But
investigations so far recorded show
this
is not
always the case.
In both groups are found alcoliols, acids and bases,
substances having taste or odor and others not. substances that arc
poisons, and others that are harmless.
Chemical industry draws in-
diflPerently from either group
its }>erfumes and
its explosives, and
also
its thei-apeutic medicines.
Color alone seems
to
be found
in
connection with cyclic structure, and yet on]y to a limited extent.
It might be concluded that these properties are but slightly or not
fit all influenced by the architectural structure of the molecule; that
they depend
essentially on the nature
of
the
external groupings
which encircle this structure and which appear to be the same in both
cases.
This would be a strange fact.
It is hard to understand how
so essential a thing, from the theoretic viewpoint, as the structure of
the molecule
is not reflected in the fundamental properties of the
material.
But according to my personal observations this anomaly,
which would be inexplicable, does not really exist.
I believe I may,
in a measure, affirm, on the conti'ary, that there is always a harmony
in the fundamental properties of the material which are regulated
by the nature, either
cyclic or
linear,
of
the molecular
structure.
These properties are the ones which come into play in all manifesta,-
tions of life.
It is this which I shall try to prove.
In order
to study
vital phenomena
in
their greatest
simplicity,
they must be observed not only in animals but also in plants.
Con-
sider then the green plant, the organism upon which devolves the
task of transforming the mineral substances it contains into organic
materials, and finally into living matter, which the animal needs only
to decompose and oxidize in order to utilize the energy that they
contain in a potential state.
Wihat is the mechanism of this marvelous synthesis?
Our present
knowledge is very imperfect; but we do know the intermediary prod-
MOUECULAE STKUCTOEE AND LIFE—PICTET.
203
ucts through which
this
takes
place.
These
are
the
formic and
glycolic
aldehydes,
sugars and
starch, numerous
vegetable
acids,
asparagin,
glycerin,
fats,
lecithins.
These
substances
exist
in
all
plants.
They are found in each living cell, together with the pro-
teins which are essential constituents of protoplasm.
They rightly
appear then as the foods of this cell.
However, if the constitution of these bodies be considered, the fact
is striking that their molecules are made up only of open chains of
atoms.
None of them shows the cyclic structure.
There is thus ob-
served a fundamental relation between the constitution and the role
of vegetable substances.
All those that may be legitimately consid-
ered as the direct and successive products of assimilation,
all those
that contribute to the building up and nourishment of living proto-
plasms, belong to the
first class of organic compounds.
But these substances
ai-e far from being the only ones that the
vegetable kingdom furnishes us.
Besides these the plant produces
an
infinite
variety
of
others
which human
industry
constantly
searches for, not only to utilize them as foods, but also to profit by
any of their other propeidies.
Thus, for example, the great group
of essential oils, turpentines, and camphors, many representatives of
which
constitute our perfumes or our
highest prized condiments.
There
is
also the long series of colorants and
vegetable pigments,
from chlorophyl to that interesting group of anthocyaiiins, or flower-
pigments, the systematic study of which
is being taken up by our
former
colleague,
Willstiitter.
There
are
the
various
resins,
the
rubbers, the tannins, the glucosides, the various bitter or astringent
principles.
Finally, there arc
all those numerous nitrogenous and
basic compounds grouped under the name of alkaloids and which,
chiefly, because of their remarkable physiological action in the ani-
mal
organism,
have
furnished
our
most
valuable
medicines.
Is
the part that these substances play
in the plant the same as that
of compounds of the first category?
It
is generally believed other-
wise.
And yet many physiologists still accept
it to-day and see in
these substances reserve food
materials that the plant
wall
utilize
when the time comes to build up its tissues.
I do not
at
all
share
this view and
for the following reasons:
These substances seem to me not at
all like the
first, that is, indis-
pensable to the development of plants, since many plants do not have
them.
They are not found, as are the others, inclosed in the seeds
or in the roots.
They are never met with in the living
cell, from
which they seem to be excluded, but are mainly in the tissues or in
special receptacles where they are localized and stored separate from
the great tract of protein formation.
They do not disappear but
on the contrary are accumulated during the life of the plant
They
204
ANNUAL KEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1&16,
are, then, certainly not intermediary products in the building up of
the living protoplasm.
Search must be made elsewhere than in a
process of
assimilation for the
origin of
these compounds which,
without nutritive value for the plant
ai'e, however, often produced
by it in considerable quantities.
What then is their origin and their
signification ?
Some years ago
in
connection with
this subject I advanced an
hypothesis relating specially to alkaloids.
This hypothesis luwing been accepted with some favor, I extend
it to-day to all compounds of the same character.
I admit that, far
from being products of assimilation, they are products of denutri-
tion.
They rei)resent the losses of vegetal metabolism.
They
cor-
respond to what among animals are urea, inic acid, glycocoll, biliary
pigments, etc.
It
is, in fact, not conceivable that the biological syn-
thesis of proteins, any moi'e than synthetic operations in vitro gen-
erally, could be made with a theoretical yield, witluait leaving some
secondary products, some residues which could no longer be utilized.
Conversely, using the tissues, all the phenomena of assimilation and
of combustion must produce in plants as well
as in animals some
corresponding losses, nitrogenous
oi* otherwise.
All these j)roducts are not simply useless, hut they are injurious
to the maintenance of
life.
They represent poisons from which the
organisms of both kingdoms must be freed at any cost under penalty
of toxication.
The animal can do this by expelling them; but the
plant, deprived of excretory organs, can do
this only
very imper-
fectly.
It must be content to retain tliem and
is restricted to render-
ing them inofinnsive by keeping them outside of the vital circulation
and preventing them from reentering the living cell from which they
have been expelled and from exercising their toxic influence on the
protoplasm.
And we
find that
it does
tliis,
for the compounds in
question are never found actually present in the interior of such cells.
The cell wall thus becomes a sorting place of useful and poisonous
substances;
it
is permeable to the
fii*st, impermeable to the second.
Can an explanation be given of the mechanism that regulates this
sorting?
No physical characteristic
(such as solubility, ionization, the col-
loidal or crystalline state)
distinguishes the two kinds of substances
from each other.
No difference in chemical composition exists be-
tween them
; they are formed of the same elements, which are those of
protoplasm itself.
It clearly follows, then, in my opinion, that only
ft difference of molecular structure can
explain
their
opposite
be-
havior.
Let us now see what is known of their constitution.
Besearches in this subject have led to the remarkable result, the
fiqal consequences of which are not yet known, tluit all these products
cyclic
The carbon atoms of the
turpentines,
of
MOLKOITLAR BTRCTCTURE AND LIFE—PICTET.
206
camphors, and
of
tannins,
the carbon and
oxygen atoms
of
the
anthoeyanins, the carbon and nitrogen atoms of chlorophyll and of
all the alkaloids, are uniformly joined in closed chains.
We have seen that
it
is exactly the reverse with the nutritive sub-
stances of the cell.
1
see plainly in this dilferent disposition of the
atoms the reason why the molecules of one group should penetrate
the living cell, and why those of another group would be excluded.
A straight wire will penetrate a narrow o])ening if introduced end-
wise, but
will
not
pass
if made
into
a
ring.
Likewise the
inter-
molecular passages of the cellular walls permit the passage of the
flexible strings of open chains while they oppose the entrance of the
massive and rigid rings which form the cyclic molecules.
Moreover the waste products of metabolism
ai*e
pi'iniarily bodies
with open chains, like the substances from which they are derived.
It
is therefore only after an impact that they acquire the cyclic structure
which
renders them
inoffensive.
There
is here
a
reaction
of the
living plant against the toxic, substances that
it produces, and
this
1‘eaction consists in a niodilication of the internal structure of these
substances; the plant
is defended against these poisons by cyclising
them.
There
are
therefore
in
the
vegetal
organism two
])arallel
processes
of
synthesis,
one which,
reuniting
the
atoms by
simple
juxtaposition, forms the long open
chains that
will
result
in
the
formation of the conqffex molecule of the proteins, the other, carrying
on a veritable street inspectiom cleans the organism of all the detritus
left over from the
first synthesis,
isolating
all
particles no longer
available for constructive mettibolism as well as those thrown off hy
destructive metabolism.
This hypothesis, being announced,
it remains to verify
it by ex-
periment and to show how cyclisation operates in the plant.
This
is what 1 now proceed to do, at least so far as it applies to the alka-
loids.
Starting
Avith the
idea
that,
in organic
s3mthesis,
the
best
way to attain the end
is to imitate nature,
I have ahvays sought in
my attempts to
artificially
reproduce vegetable alkaloids to work
under conditions
as nearly
as possible
identical with
those
of the
living
plant.
This
idea has been
followed
in
recent
Avork
in my
laboratory by MM. (lams, Spengler, Kay, and Malinowski, and by
Mile. Finkelstein work has been carried on upon the synthesis of
berberine and a number of the alkaloids of opium.
We have uniformly chosen as the starting point of our operations,
on the one hand, such
substances as
are knoAvn
to be formed
in
plants by the decomposition of the proteins, and, on the other hand,
compounds, such as formaldehyde, which are derived in part from
the carbonic acid of the air.
In the condensation of these with each
other we obtain certain
cyclic
alkaloids
identical with
those pro-
duced in vegetable tissues.
I have thus succeeded, in collaboration
206
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916,
with M. Chou, in directly obtaining certain alkaloids, hydrolyzing
in vitro the albumens themseh^es in the presence of formaldehyde.
It therefore seems well proved that the alkaloids have their origin
in the plant by eyclisation of the products of decomposition of the
proteins;
and, by
analogy,
it
is
justifiable
to
attribute
the same
origin to all similar com])oimds.
In resume, we obser\e
a complete parallelism
in the two grand
divisions of organic compounds, between tlie form of their molecular
structure and the role they play
in the plant or-ganism.
Only com-
pounds with open chains
are capable
of maintaining
life
in
this
organism, while compounds with closed chains, found in abundance
in
certain
plants,
are
merely
waste
products,
without
nutritive
value, rendered inactive by the fact of their eyclisation.
An ideal
plant ought
to contain none
at
all.
But
a
serious objection
is
at
once raised to this conclusion.
Any chemist oi* botanist will make
it.
He will say: In the
list of substances which,
in the
plant, do not
contribute to the formation of its proto})lasm,
3-011 have omitted the
most important, cellulose, that material, morphologically
indispen-
sable, which, in all plants, forms the cell walls and ducts and plays
a fundamental role in the mechanical protection of the pj*otoplasm
by affording the covering needed for
its organization
into more or
less rigid and resistant tissues.
It seems indispensable, continues my opponent , that the substance
upon which
this function de^olves should
possess
a
chemical
sta-
bility sufficient to resist tlie multiple activities carried on within the
plant.
It must be independent of the general action of metabolism.
If
the
ideas
that you have developed
are
correct,
they
say,
this
independence would result from
its molecular structure, and
cellu-
lose,
like
ever}^ other compound
that
the
plant excludes from
its
vital activities, would possess the cyclic structure.
But all chemical
treatises
place
cellulose,
as
w(‘ll
as
starch, among
the
open-chain
compounds; and this fact alone
is enough
to overthrow the entire
basis of your theory.
I recognize that this objection would be unanswerable
if
it rested
on solid ground; that
is to say, on an exact knowledge of the con-
stitution
of
cellulose.
But
this constitution
has
not
yet been
de-
termined, and the analogy with starch
is not enough
to establish
it.
I believe, on the contrary, that cellulose should be far removed
from starch
in
the
classification and be
placed among
the com-
pounds of
cyclic
structure.
A
series of experiments that
I have
carried on with MM. Kamseyer and Bouvier
offer
iiroof of what
I
advance.
These experiments bring out
the
following
consider-
ations :
The chemical phenomena which cause the decomposition
of the
plant
after
its
death
vary
according
to
the
conditions
in which
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND LIFE—PTOTET.
207
they take
place.
If the plant be
left to
itself
in
the open air
its
nitrogenous materials at once undergo rapid putrefaction with the
formation of ammonia, which
is restored
to the
soil, and carbonic
acid, which returns to
tlie atmosphere.
Tlie nonnitrogenous mate-
rials, and in particular cellulose,
resist much longer, but they also
finally
disappear, due
to
a slow
combustion
of which the
agent,
either direct or indirect, is the oxygen of the air.
If the dead plant, instead of l)eing
left in the open
air,
is more
or
less covered with
earth, this action of the oxygen
is retarded,
and the formation of earth molds are aided, substances very
little
known from
the viewpoint of chemistry
but
(*on(*erning which we
do know they
are products of
the
incomplete
oxidation
of
cellu-
lose and
present some
characteristic's of
phenol,
that
is, of
cyclic
compounds.
If,
finally, these same vegetable materials are
entirely
protected
from the action of the air, either by submersion in water or by being
buried deep in the earth, as occurs in great geological displacements,
they undergo none
tlie
less
a slow transformation.
But this is no
longer an oxidation,
it
is a decomposition of a special character, the
principles and ag(mcies of which we do not know, although we do
know
perfectly
the
final
products.
These
are our
fossil
fuels
of
various ages, as lignite and bituminous and anthiacite coals.
There
is no doubt that in this instainc
it
is cellulose which furnishes the
essential
material
of
coals.
In
this transformation
the
cellulose
loses a part of its oxygen and liydrogen, and
is consequently enriched
in carbon.
But this decomposition taking place at low temperature,
affects only the periphery of the molecule; the carbon nucleus
is not
affected.
It must therefore be admitted that the fundamental struc-
ture is the same in coal as in cellulose, and that determining it in the
former establishes
it at
tlie same time in the latter.
Unfortunately, though coal has been used
for two centuries as a
fuel, though for a hundred yeai’s there have been obtained from
it by
distillation thiee products of such
great
industrial importance
txs
illuminating gas, coal tar, and coke, yet there remains an almost total
ignorance of
its chemical nature.
Can you infer its nature from the
products of this distillation ?
It
is known, as I have said, that coal
tar is formed exclusively of cyclic compounds.
It is the same with
coke.
The fact that
it furnishes aromatic acids by distillation as-
sures us that the atoms of carbon which compose
it are united
in
closed chains.
Can
it be said that the same structure may be at-
tributed to the materials as to their derivatives?
Such an inference
would seem to be absolutely unjustified, ba'RUse during the distilla-
tion of coal these materials have been subjected to temperatures of
800^ to 1,000°, and wo are told by BertheloCs experiments that these
temperatures are the cause of the cyclisation of all the open chains*
208
ANNITAI. BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
To avoid the force of this objection, it would be necessary to elimi-
nate the cyclising action of heat during the decomposition of coal.
This is what I have attempted to do with the assistance of my two
expert collaborators.
In operating the distillation of coal in vacuo,
so as not to admit of an increase in temperature above ISO®, we ob-
tained
a
special coal tar and a new kind of coke.
But in studying
this vacuum coal tar and coke we have assured ourselves that each
of them,
like oi-dinary
coal tar and coke, are exclusively of cyclic
nature.
We
conclude from
this that
the
cyclic compounds
pre-
exist
in coal and
certainly form
its majoj*
[)art.
From
these
ex-
perimental
results there follow,
in our opinion, the three following
conclusions
(1)
Berthelot's tlieory of the formation of coal tar can not be con-
sidered as accurately intci’preting the facts.
All
the derivatives of
coal tar which chemical industry has utilized in such a brilliant man-
ner, are no longer believed, as formerly, products of heat action.
It
is not at all to the heat of the gas jets that
is due their well-known
aromatic
radical
so
ri(;h
in
valuable
pi'operties.
This
radical
al-
ready
existed
though
in
a
more
hydrogenated
condition,
in
the
plants of the cai'boniferous age.
All chemistry of the aromatic com-
pounds thus owes
a dependence on plant chemistry.
(2) Vacuum
coal tar
is in
reality nothing more than petroleum,
having its odor, density, fluoi'escence, and weak rotatory power.
All
the definite compounds that we have derived from
it are found to be
identical with those other compounds isolated from the petroleums
of Canada, California, and Galicia. We therefme verify for the first
time, a relation of a chemical order between these two natural prod-
ucts of such
higli importance, coal and petroleum.
Does this rela-
tion imply a common origin, and can it serve as an argument for those
who claim that petroleum, like coal, is of plant origin?
For my part
I believe so, but to enter into a discussion of that point would be too
far from my subject.
(3)
If coal, as we believe we have demonsti*ated,
is formed of a
mixture of cyclic substances, one could hardly
fail to attribute the
same structure to cellulose, which, of all the substances contained in
plants,
is the one that plays the greatest part in the formation of
coal.
The objection that my opponents would make in this respect
therefore falls and my liypothesis conversely finds a new example for
its support.
With one span we will now bridge the entire distance separating
the
first
products
of
plant
assimilation
from
its
final
product,
namely, living matter.
And
it should be understood at the outset
that I employ this tei*m
living matter ” only as an abbreviation,
and to avoid long circumlocution.
You should not, in reality, attribute
MOLECULAB STRUCTURE AND LIFE—PICTET.
209
life to the matter itself; it has not, it can not have both living mole-
cules and dead molecules.
Life requires an
organization, which
is
that of cellular structure, but
it remains, in contradistinction to
it,
outside the domain of strict chemistry.
It is none the less true that the content of a living cell must differ
in its chemical natui*e from the content of a dead cell.
It is entirely
from this point of view that the phenomenon of life pertains to my
subject.
It is therefore from this view point that
it remains for me
to examine whether the ideas I have presented can be used for
its
interpretation.
A living cell, both in its chemical composition and in
its morpho-
logical structure,
is
;ni oiganism of exti-aordinary eomplexity.
The
proto])lasm that
it
incloses
is a mixtiii'c of very diverse substances.
But if there be set aside on the one hand those substances wliich are
in process of aasimilation and on the other those
wliich are the by-
products of nutrition, and which are in process of elimination, there
remains oidy the protein or albuminous substances, and these must
be considcM'cd, if not the essential
factoi-
(d'
life, at least the theater
of
its manifestations.
These alone, in
fact, possess those two emi-
nently
vital
faculties of building up
tlu'ir molecules within the
cell
itself and of reacting to the slightest innnenecs of a physical, chemi-
cal, or mechani(‘al nature.
They are therefore classified among the
most reactive organic compounds that we know, and
it
is their very
reactivity
which makes them the
supporters
of
vital
phenomena.
During ihe life of the cell they am in
a state of perpetual ti’ansfor-
mation, and are found
in a state of stable eqnilihrinm only upon the
death of the cell
; or, better to say, tliis death is only the result of the
stabilization of the
[irotein molecules.
•
Is tliis stabilization
a chemical process, in the sense that
it brings
about
a
modification
of the inolccnlar
structure?
To
ascertain
if
such be the
case, and what this modification
is,
it
is necessary
to
know the
constitution of both
living albumen and dead
albumen.
Chemistry, however,
is totally ignorant, or nearly
so, of the consti-
tution of living albumen, for chemical methods of investigation at
the very outset kill the living cell.
The slightest rise in temperature,
contact with the solvent, the vci*y powerful effect of even the mildest
reactions cause the transformation that needs to be prevented, and
the chemist has nothing left bt^t dead albumen.
It is therefore only dead albumen that chemistry has been able to
siudy.
Thanks to the investigations of
a
host of eminent men of
science, we now know, if not in
all its details, at least in great part,
the constitution of the albumens.
It is known in particular from the
special point of view that occupies our attention, that the extremely
complex molecule of these bodies
is formed of an assemblage of a
210
ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
very great number of cliains, some of whicli
arc formed wholly of
carbon atoms, others of atoms of carbon and of nitrogen, but which
for the most part are of closed chains.
The albumens obtained from
dead tissues are therefore of cyclic structure.
Is
it the same with those albumens which
still fonn an integral
part of living proto])lasm
; and liow do we know this?
A very inter-
esting observation
of Loew
will
be
oll'ered
as
a beginning of my
answer to these questions.
Loew has stated that
all
those, chemical
rejictions wliich
in vitro arc susceptible of attacking the aldehydes
and the primary l)ases, or which act on the aldehyde and aminogen
groups which characterize them, that
all
these
rcactioris, are inva-
riably
]joisonous to
living protoplasm.
Idiese same
reactions
are,
on the other hand, witlumt any
inllueiu'c on dead albumen.
Loew
logically concludes from this that the molecule
of
livijig albumen
incloses the
said
groups, while
the molecule
of
dead
albumen no
longer possesses them.
These two groups of atoms, throughout the whole extent of
or-
ganic chemistry, posses?; some very active though o]>posite character-
istics which tend
to react upon one
anotluM* by an interchange
of
their elements.
This exchange does not take place in living albumen,
since the two groups
arc
here
in
a
coexistent
stale;
this
bex'ornes
effective on the death of the
cell, for neither of the two groups can
any longer he discovered in dead albumen.
The stabilization of the protein molecule Avould therefore be due,
according to Loew, to the saturation of the one by the other of these
two groups.
Tliis obsei'vation appears capital to me: hut
its author
has not at all,
it seems to me, followed the conclusions to their end.
I wMl try to do this for him.
On acxxmnt of their very nature these grou})s of atoms of which
I speak could not in any
case form an
integral
part
of
a
closed
chain.
Both lieing monovalents they could form
jiart only of open
chains.
Their
existence
in
living
albumen,
ther’efore,
necessaril}^
implies the presence of these chains.
But the union of two atomic
groupings forming part of an open chain could not be made unless
there was a closing of this chain
; at the same time the disappearance
of two active groups necessarily also involves the
loss of a part of
the activity of the resultant complex, just as a man who joins his
hands or crosses his arms loses to a great extent his means of action.
The stabilization of living albumen, therefore, involves a cyclisa-
tion.
In closing the open chains in themselves the albumen of the
cellular protoplasm enters into equilibrium and repose.
Its period
of activity
is ended in the same way as that of
all the substances
which have
contributed
to
its
maintenance.
For
those
and
the
others cyclisation
is death.
MOLEOULAK STRUCTURE AND LIFE—PICTET.
211
In this case it is a moinenhiry death, understand, and destined to
be followed after more or less delay by a resurrection which brings
back into
circulation
tlie
tcmj')orarily
inert atoms.
It
is clear, in
fact, that if all cycliscd molecules should indefinitely persist in that
state
all
life would soon disappear from the surface of our globe,
but then
all
that
1 have
said
applies only
to organic compounds
which
form
])art
of
the
living
plant.
When
a
plant
dies other
agents intervene which proceed more
oi’
lcs.s rapidly to the destruc-
tion of
all the jnolecules and to a
geiiei-al
decyclisation.
The dead
plant forthwith becomes
a
pi'ize
of
the microbes
of
jnitrefaction,
which
attack
its albumens, and
of
the oxydizing
ferments which
bum
its cellulost'.
Or we may substitute the digestixe ferments of
herbiverous
animals, which
are
expially
cyclolitic.
Here,
as
else-
where, the
vegetable and animal kingdoms arc complements one of
the other and interdependent, and these same atoms, passing from
one to the other in the aggregate of diverse
structure.s, sustain the
eternal existence of both.
Such are the considerations that
1 proposed
to sulmiit
to you on
the relations existing between molecular stiaicture and
life.
1 have
raised only
a
small
corner of the
veil that hides the mystery, but
1
belicA'e
1 have answered the three (juestions with xvhich
I began,
by showing:
(ll That the phenomena
of
life are deixendent upon
a special
.structure of the organic Jiiolecule;
(2)
that only the dis-
position of atoms in open chains permits the maintenance and the
manifestations of
life;
(It)
that the
cyclic structure
is that of the
substances which have
lost this faculty; and
(4)
finally that death
results, from the chemical
i)oint of
view, by
a
cyclisation of the
elements of
the protoplasm.
The serpent which
bites
its
tail, the
symbol of eternity among the ancients, might well
become, to the
modern biological chemist, the symbol of death.
I have spoken only of plant chemistry.
It remains to examine
whether my
interpretation
can
ap])ly
likewise
to
the
ixhenomena
which take place in the animal organism.
But I can
not, nor do
I wdsh
to, longer tax your
patience, for
I have already taken too
long a time in testing it.
IDEALS OF (llEMlOATv INVESTIO AT10N.‘
By Theodoke William
Btciiahds.
In the present address
I
shall try to put before yon some of the
ideals of chemical investigation.
Our present elVorts and our hopes
for the future are founded upon past acapiisitions; therefore I shall
call your attention
first to the gradual develoi)ment of chemistry.
Less than three centuries ago an outspoken student of nature some-
times faced tlje grim alternatives of excommunication, imprisonment,
or
death.
To-day he no
longer needs
to
conceal
Ids
thoughts
in
cryptic speech or mystic symbolism.
Although the shadow of in-
comprehensibility may
still darken the langauge of science, mystery
is no longer necessary to protect the scientihc investigator from per-
secution.
The generally
recognized value of the truth within
his
domain gives him the right to exist.
The courage needful for the task of addressing this august assem-
bly on a to})ic concerning chemistry
is, therefore, of a different order
from the courage required for such a task
in the days of Galileo.
The problem to-day
is not how to obscure the thought, but, rather,
how to elucidate its inevitable complications.
Modern chemistry has had a manifold origin and tends toward
a
many-sided destiny.
Into the fabric of this science men have woven
the thought
of
ancient Greek philosophers, the magic
of Arabian
alchemists, the practical discoveries of artisans and ingenious chemi-
cal experimenters, the doctrine of physicists, the stern and uncompro-
mising
logic
of
mathematicians,
and
the
vision
of metaphysical
dreamers seeking
to grasp truths far beyond the reach
of mortal
sense.
The complex fabric enfolds the earth—indeed, the universe
with its far-reaching threads.
The
history
of
the
complicated
evolution
of
chemistry
is
pro-
foundly significant to the student of human thought.
Long ago, at
the very dawn of civilization, Hindu and Greek philosophers were
deeply interested in the problems presented by the nature of the uni-
1 Oi*ation delivered before the Harvard Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa In Sanders The-
ater, Cambrids?o, Mass., on June 19, 1916.
Reprinted from Science, N. S., vol. 44, pp. 37-45,
July
14, 1916, and Harvard Graduates’ Magazine,
vol.
25, pp.
1-10,
Sept.,
1910.
73839°—-SM 1916
15
213
214
ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
verse.
They speculated
intelligently, although often with childlike
naivete, concerning energy and
the
structure of matter, but
tliey
forebore
to
test
their
speculations by
experiment.
They
builded
better than they knew
; their ancient atomic hypothesis, ardently sup-
ported but inade(iuate]y applied two thousand years ago, now finds
itself installed
in the innermost recesses of chemical theory.
Inde-
pendently, ancient artisans and medieval alchemists, dealing with the
mysterious actual behavior of things, acquired valuable acquaintance
with simple chemical processes.
After much chemical knowledge of
facts had been gained alchemy sought the aid of philosophy.
Thus
little by
little order was brouglit into the chaos of scattered expe-
rience.
But
strictly chemical knowledge
alone was
inadecpiate
to
solve the cosmic riddle;
it had to be supplemented by knowledge of
heat and electricity—agencies which produce profound alterations in
the chemical nature of substances.
Thus the study of pliysics was
combined with that of chemistry.
Again, since mathematical gen-
eralization
is essential
to the study of physics,
this disci])line
also
was of necessity added to the others.
All tluvsc po^verful tools taken
together having failed to penetrate to the ultimate essence of things,
imagination
is invoked, and physiochemical dreams to-day conceive
a mechanism of infinitesimal entities far beyond our most searching
powers of direct observation.
Chemistry has not grown si)ontaneously to its present estate;
it is
a product of humau mentality.
The science which we know to-day
is but an echo of the eternal and incomprehensible “music of the
spheres ” as heard and recorded by the minds of individual men.
Im-
personal and
objective although matter and energy may
be, their
appreciation by man involves much that
is subjective.
The history
of science, like
all the rest of human history,
is, as Emerson said,
“ the biography of a few stout and earnest persons.”
Robert Boyle, self-styled “ the skeptical chymist,”
a
gentle spirit
skepticalonly of the false and vain, pure-minded
aristocrat
in an age
of corruption; Mikhail Lomonosoff,
poet,
philosopher,
philologist,
and
scientific
seer,
far
outstripping contemporary understanding;
Antoine Lavoisier, whose clear mind
first taught man
to compre-
hend, after thousands of years, the mighty
stolen
gift of Prome-
theus; John Dalton, Quaker peasant, who found convincing chemical
evidence
for
the
ancient
atomic
hypothesis;
Michael
Faraday,
a
blacksmith’s son, whose
peerless insight and extraordinary genius
in experiment yielded
theoretical and
practical
fruits beyond
the
world’s most daring dreams—^these men and a few score others are
the basis of the history of chemistry.
The science has not come into
being,
Minerva-like,
full-grown from the brain of Jove;
she has
been bora of human travail, nursed and nourished from feeble
in-
CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—EICHARDS.
215
fancy by human caretakers, and she sees the universe to-day through
human eyes.
The
diversified
origin of chemistry has shaped
the
varied
con-
temporary application of the science and
its many-sided destiny in
the years to come.
Chemistry has wide theoretical bearings, but at
the same time is concerned with the crudest and most obvious affairs
of manufacture and everyday
life.
Chemical knowledge must form
an essential part of any intelligent philosophy of the nature of the
universe, and alone can satisfy one manifestation of that intense in-
tellectual
curiosity which
to-day, no
less than
of
old,
yearns
to
understand more of the fundamental nature of things.
On the other
hand, rational applied science to-day must follow in the footsteps of
the swiftly advaruung strides of theory.
The law's of chemistry can
not be adequately applied until they have been discovered.
Chemi-
cal insight, concerned
wdtli the intimate changes of the substances
w^hich are all about us as wxdl as Avithiii our bodies, furnishes us with
the only means for employing material things to the In^st advantage.
Chemical processes appertain
in large degree to medicine, hygiene,
agriculture, and manufacture; these
i)r(x*esses depend
iiix)n law^s of
w^hich the perfect understanding is essential to the full development
of most of the activities of civilized life.
However oblivious we may be of the inexorable law^s of chemistry,
we are ever under their
swuiy.
Our consciousness
is housed
in
a
mortal
shell, consisting primarily of compounds of less than a score
of chemical elements.
The physiological behavior of our bodies
is
inevitably associated with the chemical changes or reactions among
highly intricate chemical unions of these few^ elements.
The driving
tendency or immediate cause of the reactions which support life
is
to be found
in the chemical
affinities and respective concentrations
of the several substances.
Our bodies are chemical machines, from
which Ave can not escape except by quitting our earthly
life.
The
nature of the chemical elements and
tlieir compounds therefore pre-
sents one of the most interesting and important of all problems of-
fered to mankind.
Tliat the study of chemical problems of
life
is
consistent Avith the study of man in a biological, a psychological, or
a spiritual sense, is obvious.
To-day the epigram
‘‘ The proper study
of mankind
is man” must be greatly broadened in order to corre-
spond with modem knoAvledge.
These words regarding the origin and significance of chemistry
serve as an introduction.
Your committee has honored me by the
request that I should
tell you something about the object and out-
come of my oAvn endeavors, and these could be made clear only by
reAdewing the
peculiar nature
of
chemistry.
In my
case
the
in-
centive to the pursuit of science was primarily that intense curiosity
216
ANA^^tJAL RKI'ORT SMITHSOJ^IAN IKSTITUTION,
1016.
m
'
concerning the nature of things Avhich echoes down the ages from
the time of the ancient philosophei’S.
To tlie feeling of curiosity, as
time went on, was added the perception that only through
a knowl-
edge
of the
fuiidainencal
laws
of chemistry
can men
use
the
re-
sources
of the world to the
best advantage.
Any
further gain
in
this
knowleilge must,
sooner
or
later,
directly
or
indirectly,
give
mankind more
power.
Even
an
abstract
clieniical
generalization,
must ultimately be of ])riceless seiwice to humanity, beiaiuse of the
extraordinarily intimate relation between theory and ]n-actice.
The field
is w ide and
it is traversed l>y many paths.
Among these
one must be chosen and persistently
follownnl
if
])rogress
is to be
made; and
in my
(‘ase that one was the study of the fundamental
attributes or properties of the chemical elements and the relation of
these projierties to one another.
The work w as undertaken w ith the
hope of helping
a
little to lay
a
solid foundation
foi- our
under-
standing of the human environment.
What, nowy are the fundamenlal attributes (d the ('hanents
?
Eii*st
and foremost among these stands v/vvV/A;^— t lu* manifestation of the
all-pervading and mysterious force of gravitation
possi'ssed by
all
forms of matter.
Hand
in hand with this attribute of weigdit goes
the
equally
inscrutable
property
of
inertia—that tendency
wdiicli
causes a bod}^ once in motion to keep on moving forevcT in the same
straight
line,
if not acted upon by some new
force.
Tthe idea
of
inertia, conceiv^ed by (lalileo and amplified by Newton,
wnis one of
the starting points of both modern philosophy and modern
])hysi(‘s.
So far as wx^ know weight and inertia run })arallel to each other.
Of
any two adjacent bodies, that having greater weight has also greater
inertia.
Hence they may be determined at one and the same time,
and
this
Siamese-twdnlike
conjunction
of
|)roj)erties
establishes
itself at once as perhaps the most fundamental of
all the attributes
of matter.
Next porba])s comes volume, the attril)ute which enables
matter to occupy space, w ith the coi*ollaries dealing with the changes
of volume caused by clianges of temperature and
pressure.
Other
fundamental
properties are the tendency to cohere
(which has to
do with
the
freezing and
boiling points
of
the
liquids)
and
the
mutual tendency of the elements to combine, almost
infinite
in
its
diversity, which may be measured by the energy changes manifest-
ing themselves during the reaction of one substance with another.
These are only a few^ of the important properties of the elements,
but they present an endless prospect of further investigation, in spite
of
all that has been done during the past hundred years.
For
as
yet we know only the surface of these things, and comprehend but
little as to the underlying connections between them and the reasons
for their several magnitudes.
Why, for example, should oxygen be
a gas, having an atomic weight just four times as great as that of
CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIOKS—RICHAEDS.
217
helium, and why should it have an intense affinity for sodium and no
affinity whatever for argon or fluorine?
No man can answer these
questions; he can
discover the
facts, but can not yet account for
them.
Tlie reasons are as obscure and elusive as the mechanism of
gravitation.
But we shall not really understand the material basis
upon which our life is built until we have found answers to questions
of this sort.
In order to correlate the properties of the elements, and to attain
any comprehension of their significance, one must first exactly ascer-
tain
the
facts.
Therefore, my endeavor has been
to
institute
sys-
tematic series of experiments to
fill the gaps in our knowledge of the
actual plienoinena.
In much of this work I have had the invaluable
aid of efficient collaborators, for which I am grateful.
The atomic weights were the first of the fundamental properties of
the elements to receive attention in carrying out this plan.
These,
as eveiwone who has studied elementary chemistry knows, represent
the relative weights in which substances combine with one another.
They are called atomic weights rather than merely combining pro-
portions, because they can be explained
satisfactorily only by the
assumption
of
definite
particles which
remain
indivisible
during
chemical
change.
Even
if
some
of
these
particles
or
so-called
'•'atoms” suffer disintegration
in the mysterious processes of radio-
active transformation, the atomic theory remains tlie best interpre-
tation of the weight-relations of all ordinary chemical reaction.
In-
deed, it is entrenched to-day ns never before in man’s history.
The determination of atomic weights
is primarily
a question of
analytical
chemistry—a
question
of
weighing
the amount
of
one
substance combined with another in
a
definite compound—but
its
successful prosecution involves a much wider
field.
First, the sub-
stances must be prepared and weighed in the pure state, and, next,
they must be subjected to suitable reactions and again weighed with
proof that
in the process nothing has been
lost and nothing acci-
dentally garnered
into the material to be placed on the
scale pan.
The.se,
rexjuirements
involve many
of
the
principles
of
the new
]:)hysical
chemisti-y,
so
that
the
accurate determination
of atomic
weights really belongs as much in that
field as in the field of ana-
lytical
chemistry.
At Harvard during the last thirty years the values of the atomic
weights of thii-ty of the most frequently occurring among the eighty
or more
chemical
elements have
been
redetei’inined.
From
data
secured
here and elsewhere
is compiled
an
international
table
of
atomic weights, revised from year to year by an authoritative com-
mittee composed of representatives of various nations.
The values
thus recorded are in daily use in every chemical laboratory through-
out the woild, serving
as the basis for the computation of count-
218
ANNUAL REUOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1D16.
less analyses performed by the analytical chemist, whether for tech-
nical or for scientific purposes.
This practical
utility of atomic weights, although not
fcn^gotten,
was not
tlie prime
incentive
in
the work under
discussion.
The
real
inspiration
leading to the protracted labor
of
revising these
fundamental
quantities was the hope
of
finding some
clue
as
to
the reasons for
their several magnitudes and
for the manifest but
incomprehensible
relationships of
tlie elements to one another.
The unsolved cosmic riddle of the meaning of the atomic weights
may have far-reaching significance in another direction, because the
atomic weights may be supposed to hold one of the keys to the dis-
covery of the mechanism of gravitation.
The mutual attraction of
the earth and sun, for example, must be due to the countless myriads
of atoms which compose them, ea(*h atom
poss(^ssing, because of
its
own appointed I'elative atomic weight, a definite if infinitesimal gravi-
tational force attracting other atoms.
If we could
discovcu’ the rea-
sons for the individual atomic weights we should probably gain a
far better understanding of the all-embracing force built up of the
infinitesimal
effects
repi-esented by
their
individual
magnitudes.
Among
the
striking
facts
to be
(‘onsidered
is
the constancy
of
gravity (and therefoi’e of the sum total of the weights of all the atoms
concerned)
as shown in many ways.
Moreover, not only
is the sum
total of the weights of the atoms remarkal)ly constant, but also in
many cases the values for the individual elements are found to be
numbers of amazing constancy.
Silver from
all parts of the world
and from many different ores yields always the same value; copper
from Europe has the same atomic weight as the native metal mined
under the bottom of Lake Superior; and yet more wonderful, the
iron which
falls from the sky in meteorites having their birth far
beyond the terrestrial
orbit has precisely the same atomic weight
as that smelted
in Norway.
Many atomic weights therefore must
be supposed to be constant, whatever the source of the elements.
Although thus
w^e laiow^ only one kind of copper and iron and
silver, evidence has recently been discovered which points toward
the existence of at least two kinds of metallic lead.
Every sample
of ordinary lead always has exactly the same atomic weight as every
other sample; but lead from radioactive minerals—lead which seems
to have come from the decomposition of radium—has neither the
same atomic weight nor the same density as ordinary lead, although
in many properties, including their spectra, they seem to be iden-
tical.
This recent conclusion, reached only two years ago at Har-
vard, has been confirmed
in other
laboratories, and
it now seems
to be beyond question.
Whatever may be the ultimate interpretation
of the anomaly, the solution of this cosmic conundrum must surely
give us a new idea of the essential nature of matter.
Indeed, the
CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—RICHAEDS.
219
fascinating subject of radioactivity bids
fair
to give us
in many
ways an
entirely new
insight into the innermost structure
of
the
atom.
During the progress of the study of the combining proportions of
the elements, it became more and more evident to me that the atomic
weights should be considered not only
in
relation to one another
but also in relation to many other essential distinguishing properties
of the elements.
This wider problem involved a great extension of
the experimental
field.
Among other attributes of the various forms of mattei', compressi-
bilities, surface tensions, densities, dielectric constants, heats of
re-
action, and elect^*omoti^e forces have begun to receive attention, and
already many new
data
liave been accumulated.
The explanation
of the nature of these researches would take us
fai’ beyond the scope
of
this present address,
l)ut their object deserves
attention.
This
object
is the correlation of the various properties into a
consistent
whole, in the hope of ti'acing the unknown physical influences which
determine the nature of the elements.
The rigorous science of thermodynamics enables us to predict in
logical and precise fashion some of the relations between physical
properties.
My hope is not only to aid in providing accurate experi-
mental basis for calculations of this kind, but also to achieve the
cori’clation of
different
properties, apparently independent
of one
another from a thermodynamic point of view, thus, perhaps, enabling
one by
inductive
reasoning
to
penetrate
further
into
the
causes
whicli lie back of all the attributes of matter.
In attempting to follow
this inductive path comparisons of the
properties of the elements have been made in two different ways.
On the one hand, a given property of one clement has been com-
pared with the same property of another.
For example, the ques-
tion,
Which of the two elements, cobalt or nickel, has the heavier
utomr’ was answered by
parallel
determinations, using
the same
methods,
conducted
side by
side
in
the
laboratory.
Cobalt
was
found to possess the higher atomic weight.
On the other hand, the attempt has been made to discover a rela-
tion between the different, apparently quite distinct, properties of a
single element.
For example, one may ask: “ Have the low melting
and
boiling
points
of phosphorus any
connection
with
its
small
density and its large compressibility?”
Here one compares various
properties of the same element, and one seeks to discover
if
all are
based upon some common, ultimate characteristic of phosphorus, of
which the properties are mei*ely symptoms.
The inductive methods used
in comparisons of this sort can not
be explained here.
They are partly statistical, partly mathematical,
220
ANNUAL KEPPKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
and partly graphical.
From the nature of the problem, which in-
volves many unknown variables, perfect mathematical exactness
is
not to be expected.
Nevertheless,
little by
little, one may hope to
trace the conflicting tendencies and ascribe them to a few common
causes.
With the help of these methods the tentative conclusion has been
reached that the space occupied by the atom and molecule in solids
and liquids
is highly significant.
The actual atomic bulk or volume
is diminished but
slightly by moderate mechanical
pressures and
by cooling even to the absolute zero; but it is very greatly
a fleeted,
apparently, by the mutual attractions of the atoms, called cohesion
and chemical
affinity.
Usually the less volatile a substance
(that is
to say, the more firmly
it is held together by cohesion)
the greater
is
its density and the
less
is
its compix^ssibility, other things being
equal.
Greater
cohesion
is
associated
with
greater
compactness.
Likewise,
the existence
of powerful chemical
allinitv between
ele-
ments forming a compound is usually associated with great decrease
in volume during the act of combination, and conseipient increase in
the density of the product in relation to the average density of the
constituents.
Thus, we can hardly escape the inference that both
cohesion and
affinity, by pulling the atoms together with enormous
pressure, actually exert
a compi^essing eflect upon the atoms, or at
least upon the space which they demand for their occupation.
The
result of each of these compressing agencies
is found to be greater
the greater the compressibility of the substances concerned— a new
evidence
of
the
i-easonableness
of the
inferen(‘e.
Not always
are
these efliects easily traced, because the situation
is often complicated,
and the
several
elTects are
siqierposed.
Nevertheless, enough
evi-
dence
has
been
obtained
to
leave
but
little
doubt,
at
least
in
my mind,
as to the manner of working
of the
essential
agencies
concerned.
But we need
not
dwell upon
this
tentative
hypothesis.
Many
more data and much more thought are necessary to establish it in an
impregnable position, although no important inconsistency has thus
far Ixicn
i)ointed out in
it.
At pi-esent
it may be
looked upon
as
valuable because
it,
like other hypotheses of this type, has stimu-
lated thought
and
experiment
concerning
the
fundamental
facts
with which it deals.
As the years go on, the recent contributions to the study of atomic
weights and volumes and other properties will be sifted and tested;
and such contributions as may stand the test of time will take their
places among
the
multifarious array
of
accepted
chemical
facts,
laws, and interpretations accumulated by many workers all over the
world.
CHEMICAL INVE^TICtATIONS—RICHARDS.
221
But we may well ask: What use in the years to come will man-
kind make of this knowledge gained step by step through the eager
study of many investigatoi‘s?
Chemistry has, indeed, a many-sided destiny.
A. mere catalogue
of the countless applications of the science, whicli
underlies many
other sciences and arts, would demand time far exceeding the limits
of this brief discours(‘..
Some of the more obvious uses of chemistry
have become daily topics in the public press.
America
is gradually
awakening
to the consciousness that, because every material object
is com])osed
of chemical
elements and
pcvssesses
its
])roperties by
virtue of the natui’e of these elements, chemistry enters more or less
into everything.
We })erceivc that chemical
maruifactui’cs must be
fostered, and also that chemical knowledge must be applied in many
other
industries
not
primarily
of
a
chemical
nature.
Although
chemistry j)lays so prominent and ghastly a role in war, her greatest
and most
significant
contributions
are toward
the
arts
of
peace.
Even explosives may be highly beneficent; they may open tunnels
and destroy reefs, furthering friendly communication between men;
dig
ditches
for
irrigation;
helj)
the farmer
in
his
planting; and
in many other ways advance the constructive activities of mankind.
Again, poisonous gases, confined and
liarnessed within
safe
limits,
may
render
valuahh^
aid
to humanity
in
preparing
precious
sub-
stances otherwise unattainable.
Such
obvious
and
well-recognized
offices
of
chemistry
need no
further
presentation
to
this
intelligent
company.
Neither
is
it
necessary for me to call your attention to the services which science
may render to agriculture through the chemical study and enrich-
ment of the soil in ]me])aring
it for the development of those subtle
chemical mechanisms called ]dants, upon which Ave depend
for our
very existence.
There
is a further beneficent ])ossibility worthy of more than pass-
ing mention—namely, that which arises from the relation of modern
chemistry to hygiene and medicine.
Already your attention has been
called to the indisputable fact that the human body
is, physiologi-
cally considered, a chemi(*al machine.
For this reason, future knowl-
edge
of
chemical
structure and
of organic
reaction may
perhaps
revolutionize
medicine
as
completely
as
it was
revolutionized by
the devoted
laboi-s of Pasteur—not by doing away with his price-
less
acquisitions
of
knowledge,
but
rather
by
amplifying
them.
Chemistry inay show how germs
of
disease do
their deadly work
through
the production
of
subtle organic
poisons, and how
these
poisons may be combated by antitoxins; for both
|)oisons and
anti-
toxins are complex chemical substances of
a
natui*e not beyond the
possible reach of chemical methods already known.
In that far-off
222
ANNUAL MFOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
but not inconceivable day when the human body may be understood
from a chemical standpoint we shall no longer be unable to solve
the inscrutable problems which to-day puzzle eA^en the most learned
hygienist and physician.
Is not a part, at least, of the tragedy of
disease a relic of barbarism? A race which could have put as much
energy and ingenuity into the study of physiological chemistry
as
mankind
has
put
into
aggressive
Avarfare
might
have
long
ago
banished many
diseases by
discoA^ering the chemical abnormalities
Avhich cause them.
May not the study
of
subtler
questions, such
as the nature
of
heredity, also lead us finally into the field of chemistry in our search
for the ultimate answer?
Even psychology may some time need
chemical assistance, since the process of thinking and the transmis-
sion of nervous impulse are both inextricably associated
Avitli chemi-
cal changes in nervous tissue; and CA^eii memory may be due to some
subtle chemical
effect.
In the realm of thought there can be no
question of the blessed service already performed by science in
dis-
pelling grim
superstitions which
haunted
older
generations with
deadly fear.
In brief, more power
is given mankind througli the discoveries of
chemistry.
This poAver has many beneficent possibilities, but it may
be used for ill as Avell as for good.
Science has recently been blamed
by superficial critics, but she is not at fault if her great potentialities
are
distorted
to
serwe malignant
ends.
Is not
this calamity due
rather to the fact that the spiritual enlightenment of humanity has
not kept pace
Avith the progress of science?
The study of nature
can lead an upright and humane civilization ever higher and higher
to greater health and comfort and
a sounder philosophy, but that
same study can teach the ruthless and
selfish hoAV to destroy more
efficiently than
to
create.
The false attitude toAvard
Avar,
fostered
by tradition and by the glamor of ancient strife, is doubtless one of
the influences which have held back mankind from a wider applica-
tion of the Golden Rule.
There
is, in truth, no conflict between the ideals of science and
other high ideals of human life.
With deep insight, a poetic thinker
on life’s problems, in the opening lines of a sonnet, has said:
Fear not to go where fearless Science leads,
Who
holds
the keys of God.
What
reigning
light
Thine eyes discern
in that surrounding night
Whence we have come,
,
.
.
Thy soul will never find that Wrong is Right
Our limited minds are confined in a limited world, with immeasur-
able space on
all sides of us.
Our brief days are as nothing com-
pared with the inconceivable aeons of the past and the prospect of
illimitable ages to come.
Both infinity and eternity are beyond our
CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—RICHARDS.
223
mental grasp. We know that we can not hope to understand all the
wonders of the universe; but, nevertheless, we may be full of hope
for the future.
Step by step we gain in knowledge, and with each
step we acquire better opportunity for improving the
lot of man-
kind and
for illuminating the dark
places in our philosophy
of
nature.
Although we shall none of us live
to see the full develop-
ment of the help which science may render to the world, we rejoice
in the belief that chemistry has boundless service still in reserve for
the good of the human race.
THE EAETII: ITS FIGURE, DIMENSIONS, AND THE
CONSTITUTION OF ITS INTERIOR.^
By T. 0. OjiAAiHEiiTjN, Hakky Fieij)ing
IIkid, John
K. JIayfoiiu, and Fuank
ScniJOHINGElt.
I.
THE INTEHTOll OF THE EARTH FROM THE VIEWIH)INT OF GEOLOGY.
]5y T.
( /.
C' II a AI BERLIN.
For some time
i)ast
tliere
lias been
a marked
drift
of
geologic
opinion from the older tenet of a molten earth toward the conviction
that the earth is essentially solid.
This trend has been quite as much
due to the
contributions
of kindred
sciences
as to the growth of
geologic evidence, but geology has made its important and concurrent
contributions to
it.
The
great
granitic embossments
that
constitute
the
most
dis-
tinctive feature of tjie oldest known terranes were formerly regarded
as solidified portions of a primitive molten earth and tluis seemed to
serve as witnesses to the verity of the former liquid state.
A few
jT.ars
ago, however,
it was determined—almost
simultaneously
in
several countries wliere critical studies on these formations were in
progress—that these granitic masses are intrusive in older formations
that had previously been formed at the mrface of the earth.
These
surface formations have thus come to stand as the most ancient ter-
ranes now Imown.
These earliest accessible deposits imply the pre-
existence
of
a
suitable foundation formed
at
a
still
earlier
date.
Neither
the
surface
sediments nor the
intrusives
give any
clear
intimation that formations beneath them are different in origin from
themselves.
So far, then, as the record runs, it testifies to substantial
solidity in the outer part of the globe.
The record implies, indeed, that some molten matter was present,
but gives no certain measure of the ratio of the molten to the solid
part.
At po stage covered by the lithographic record, indeed, is there
^Eeprinted, by
permission, from
Proceedings
of
the American
Philosophical
Society,
September and October-December,
1916.
225
226
AKNTJAL REPOBT SMITnSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
determinate
evidence
that
a
molten
condition
was
preponderant
even in the interior.
The interior conditions of the earliest as well
as the later stages are to be reached only by
indirect rather than
immediate
inference.
Under the
influence
of
inherited
presump-
tions,
it may seem to many
still probable that the interior of the
mature earth was once dominated by a molten condition
at some
remote stage, but the evidence of powerful inthrusting of the igneous
element into even the earliest terranes, so often shown in the oldest
intrusions, seems to imply that the molten element was ever in the
strong gi asp of stresses of the type normal to
a
rigid globe.
This
harmonizes with the belief that the liquid matter was then only a
minor and passive factor, not a controlling one.
If the earth were once wholly molten, the material
for
all the
stratified rocks of later ages must have l)een derived from the primi-
tive crust after it was formed and forced into positions of erosion,
or
else from matter extruded through
it.
Tliis primitive
feeding
ground should, it would seem, be a notable feature on the geological
map.
The absence, according to present knowledge, of any great area
of rocks bearing the distinctive characteristics of the supposed con-
gealed surface greatly weakens the assumption that the postulated
molten state ever obtained, at least in the mature earth.
A study of the stress conditions of the interior of the earth seems
to call for a similar reversal of the inferences once drawn from the
igneous rocks.
From the earliest well-recorded ages,
tlie exterior of
the earth has given evidence of broad topographic reliefs taking the
form of great embossments and broad basins.
These surface con-
figurations must have conditioned the localization of extrusions and
the deployment of the effusive material.
If the lavas arose from a
general and abundant source of supply wdiich was responsive to gen-
eral and powerful
stresses,
vestiges of these
conditions should be
found
in vast volumes and broad deployments of the lava
floods.
If, on the other hand, the molten material formed but a fraction of
the whole mass, and was variously distributed through
it, the result
should be a multitude of driblets squeezed out here and there in such
special situations as the controlling stresses required, or else a multi-
tude of limited intrusions forced into weak portions of the earth
body where the stresses were less imperative.
The latter rather than
the former seems to accord with the testimony of the record.
Now there
is abundant geological evidence that the earth body
has
been
subjected
at
repeated
intervals
to
strong
compressive
stresses, by which its outer portion has been folded into mountainous
ranges
or pushed up
into
great
plateaus,
while
masses
of
con-
tinental dimensions have been raised, relatively, to notable heights,
and the bottoms of basins and deeps have sunk reciprocally to even
greater relative depths.
The internal stresses which these deforma-
THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH.
227
tions imply should have made themselves
felt proportionately on
any great mass of
liquid
in
the
interior,
if
it were
in
existence,
and extrusions proportionate to the greatness of the deformations
should have accompanied such diastrophism.
But, while liquid ex-
trusions took
place somewhat
freely
at
the
times
of
great
dias-
trophism,
it was not, at least in my judgment, at
all commensurate
with
the
deformativc
stresses
implied
by
tlie
diastrophic
results
shown in the solid material.
Nor was the topographical concentration of the extrusions indica-
tive of
their
origin from
a molten
interior
or from
really
great
residual reservoirs of liquid rock.
If such ample sources of liquid had
existed, they might naturally have iK'en expected to have given forth,
under the great stresses then seeking easement, correspondingly great
floods of lava which would have gone far to fill the great basins into
which they must chiefly
luiva‘. flowed.
-Yet no single lava flood seems
to have attained more than an extremely small fraction of the mass of
the earth, or even of the known solid matter of the immediate region
of tlie outflow.
Even when the sum total of the most massive series
of successive floods in a given region are taken together—though the
successive
issues stretched
over
a
considerable period—the]^
rarely
rise above a most insignificant fraction of earth mass, or even of the
regional segment of
it with which' they are associated.
Instead of
really massive
flows, implying ample sources of supply and great
forces of extrusion, the record shows
ratlier
a multitude of
little
ejections or injections of more or
less sporadic
distribution.
The
logical
implication
of
these
is the
preexistence
of
a
multitude of
small liquid spots, or liquifiable spots, scattered widely through the
stressed earth masses and yielding to stress as local
conditions
re-
quired and where local conditions required.
This inference
is pointedl}^ supported by the great variations in
altitude at which lavas are now given forth and seem to have always
been given forth so
far as the record
goes.
The most impressive
illustrations of this are found in current volcanic action where the
relations in altitude are precisely known.
So far as ancient condi-
tions can be restored, they appear to fall into the same general class
as existing conditions.
Current outpourings of lava range from the
sea bottom to altitudes of many thousands of feet above sea level, a
vertical range of several
miles.
Extrusions occur
at these
signifi-
cantly diverse altitudes simultaneously or alternately or in almost
any time relations, and sometimes in the most marked independence
of one another, in spite of the natural sympathy wdiich such events
might naturally manifest in a common stressed body.
A multitude
of facts of detail, some of which are singularly cogent, imply that
the lava sources of present volcanoes are disconnected from one an-
other in the interior, and are hence independent in action, as a rule,
228
ANNUAL KEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916,
though sometimes they show sympathy without showing evidence of
liquid connection.
The sources of lava seem to be meager in general,
and the eruptive agencies seem to be controlled by narrowly
local
conditions.
There
is an absence of evidence that the lavas in the
craters or in the necks of volcanoes are parts of great liquid masses
below, responsive to the common stresses of a large region.
Thus geological eAudence, wlien critically scrutinized, seems to be
distinctly adverse to the existence of even large reservoirs of molten
matter within the earth
;
it points rather to the ])resence of scattered
spots, very small relatively, on the verge of liquefaction, which pass
by stages into the liquid form and are then forced out by
the dif-
ferential stresses that abound in the earth laxly, or are embodied
in
the liquid
itself, each such local liquefying center commonly giving
forth driblets of lava and gas at intervals, nom^ of which often rise
to moi’e than an extremely minute fraction of the earth mass or even
of the subterranean mass contiguous to the volcano.
A revised view of the nature and location of earth stresses seems
also to be required by what is now knoAv of earth conditions.
Under
the former dominance of tlie tenet of a molten globe
it was natural
to assign to the stress differences of the earth a distinctly superficial
localization and
limitation;
they were thought
to
be
affections
of
“the
crust”
almost
solely.
IIy<lrostatic
pressures
were
of
course
recognized as affecting the deep
interior, but these were obviously
balanced stresses, and Avere ineifectiA^e in deformation.
The stresses
supposed to give rise to the great reliefs of the eartlfs surface Avere
thought to be very superficial.
But the stresses imposed by known
deformative agencies are not all superficial, nor are their
intensities
always greatest
at the surface.
According to Sir George Darwin,
the stress differences generated in the
eartli by the
tidal
forces of
the moon are from three to eight times as great at the center of the
earth as at the surface.
So, also, according to the same authority, the
stresses engendered by changes in the rotation of the earth are from
three to eight times as great at fhe center as at the surface and are
graded betAveen center and surface.
The tidal stress differences are
relatively feeble but are perpetually
reneAviMl
in pulsatory
fashion.
Those that arise from rotation belong to the highest order of com-
petency.
The stress difference that would arise at the center of the
earth from a stoppage of the earth’s rotation would, according to
Darwin, reach 32 tons per square inch.
Changes of the rate of rota-
tion are almost inevitable when great diastrophic readjustments take
place.
Such periods are to be regarded
as
critical times
at which
great floods of lava should be poured forth from the interior if liquid
material were there in great Amlume ready to respond to the changes
of capacity which the deformations of the earth’s sectors and the
chaiiges in the spheroidal form would inevitably impose.
THE INTERIOR OP THE EARTH.
229
Not to detain you with other considerations, the foregoing seem
best to comport with an essentially solid state of the earth’s interior,
if they do not point rather definitely to such a state.
Even if they
stood alone, they would seem to make a prevailing solid
state the
most tenable working hypothesis.
But they are far from standing alone; the geological evidences are
strongly
supported
by
considerations
that
spring
from
several
kindred
lines
of
inquiry.
The
testimony
of
astronomic
evidence
is given below by Dr. Schlesinger.
The import of seismic studies,
the subject of Dr. Reid’s contribution, lends very special support to
the view that the interior of the earth is elastico-rigid at least to the
extent that distortional waves pass through
its
interior.
It seems
certain already that this condition prevails throughout much more
than half the volume of
the earth; concerning the
rest, the deep
interior, the seismic evidence is perhaps still to be regarded as indeter-
minate.
But on the seismic evidence it does not fall to me to dwell.
The
tidal
studies of Hecker,
Orloff, and others lend support to
the
tenet
of
a
rigid
earth but they
fall somewhat
short
of
con-
clusiveness.
The brilliant exi>erimental determinations of Michelson
and Gale, correlated with the computations of Moulton, have carried
the evidence to the point of preliminary demonstration.
They need
only to bo adequately repeated and
verified to become
final, so far
at
least as elastic rigidity can be indicated by the response of the
earth body to solar and lunar attractions.
The special
feature of
most critical value in
tl)^ demonstrations of Michelson and his col-
leagues is the high degree of elasticity shown by the almost instan-
taneous
response
of the earth
to the
distorting
pull
of the tide-
producing bodies.
This cuts at the very base of concepts founded on
the supposed properties of a
viscous earth.
These
tidal
determi-
nations of elasticity are in
close accord with the seismic evidences.
The two
are
happily
complementary
to
one
another.
The
one
deals with the earth
as a whole under a rhytlimical
series of
in-
creasing and diminishing
stress
differences springing from
exter-
nal attractions; the other deals in an intensive vibratory way with
earth substance by sharp short stresses that call into action its most
intimate structural qualities.
While
it is wise, no doubt, to refrain
from resting too much on these early results of relatively new and
radical
lines of
inquiry,
until
their
results
shall be more mature,
their prospective import
is radical and decisive
in favor of a solid
earth not only, but of an elastico-rigid
earth.
Assuming that the
present import of these inquiries will be amply
justified by more
mature
research,
it
is
pertinent
to bring
into
consideration
the
corollary they so distinctly imply, viz, that the molten and viscous
material in the earth, or at least in its outer half, if not throughout
its deep interior,
is a negligible factor in general studies, and enters
73839®—SM 1916
16
280
AKKtTAL BEPOET SMITHSOKIAN IKSTIT0TION,
1916.
into general terrestrial mechanics only as a subsidiary
feature.
It
seems necessary to limit liquid and viscous lacunag—^if there are lacuna)
in any proper sense at all—to such moderate dimensions that they do
not seriously kill out distortional waves passing through the outer
half of the globe in various directions, for seismic instruments show
that
these waves
retain
their
integrity
with
surprising
tenacity
through
long
traverses.
It seems
equally
necessary
to
limit
the
liquid and viscous factor rather severely
if the interior structure is
to be susceptible of so prompt a response to twelve-hour stress pulses
as is implied by its almost complete elastic fidelity.
In the light of thevse determinations, strengthened not a little by
their concurrence with the later geological determinations, the work-
ing hypotheses of the earth student can scarcely
fail to take shape
according to the dynamic tenets implied by a rigid earth.
The limitation of liquid and viscous matter thus imposed
quite
radically conditions all tenable views of magmas and of vulcanism,
and thus bears upon the origin of igneous matter.
No small part
of petrologic effort in past decades has been spent on the differentia-
tion of magmas.
To a notable degree these efforts have proceeded
on the assumption, conscious or unconscious, that differentiation took
its departure from an original homogeneous magma such
as might
arise from residual portions of a molten earth.
Indefinite lapses of
time, and such conditions of quiescence as are naturally assignable
to residual reservoirs of lava, have been freely assumed as working
conditions without much
question
as
to
their
reality.
Under
the
hypothesis of
a molten earth passing slowly
into
a
partially
solid
earth and retaining residual lacuna) of molten matter as an incident
of the change, these assumptions are quite natural.
On the other
hand, under the hypothesis of a pervasively rigid earth, affected by
stress conditions that are constantly varying in intensity and in dis-
tribution—and subject to more radical changes at times of periodic
readjustment—the existence of such residual magmas becomes at least
questionable, perhaps
improbable.
Still more
questionable
is
the
assumption that the multitude of little liquid s})ots supposed to arise
within the elastico-rigid mass always have conformed to one type or
to one set of types.
The inherent probabilities of the case seem to
point strongly to a wide variation in nature of these local bodies due
to selective solution or to differential fusion.
The liquefying action
that brings magmas into being under this view
is presumably con-
^ trolled by the same chemical and physical principles as the solidifying
'phases of the same
cycle.
The logical presumption
is that
at
all
^ages of a magma’s career from
its inception through
its growth,
climax, and decline to its final solidification, selective action will be
ih progress more or
less and that no stage
will be entitled to be
regarded as original or parental in a special sense, such a sense, for
THE INTEBIOR OF THE EARTH.
231
example, as might be appropriate if the lava were the residue of an
inherited original state and were merely differentiated by fractional
crystallization as it passed toward solidification.
While these contrasted views of the history of magmas are nat-
urally connected with views of the genesis of the earth, they are not
limited to this connection.
They are inherent in the very relations of
solid and liquid matter; they have a more or
less important place
irrespective of the earth’s genesis; they would raise even keener ques-
tions than they do if the earth were supi)osed never to have had a
genesis, but to have always existed.
An element of no small importance to a revised concept of the
interior of the earth has arisen from geodetic
studies on the
dis-
tribution of densities within the earth.
As the geodetic point of view
is to be presented by
its foremost exponent, Di*. Ilayford, it is per-
missible for me merely to refer to certain geologic bearings.
On the assumption that the eaifli was once in a molten state, the
inference is unavoidable that a perfect state of isostatic equilibrium
wuis originally assumed by the surface, and that
its primitive con-
figuration was strictly spheroidal.
The material must have been ar-
ranged in concentric layers according to specific gravity, and each
layer should have had the same density at e\ery
point.
All such
reliefs of the earUi’s surface as have since arisen as well as all such
differencCvS of
si)e<‘ific gravity as now exist in the same horizon must
have been superinduced upon this originally perfect isostatic state.
With good reason therefore these inequalities have heretofore been
supposed to be relativTly shallow.
It
is difficult to account for them,
then, even hy])othetically.
On the hypotl)esis that the earth grew up
by heterogeneous accretions,
it
is an equally natural inference that
differences
of
specific
gravity extend
to great
depths.
In an
en-
deavor to find out the bearings of geodetic data on the distribution
of densities, Dr. Ilayford tested four assumptions,
all
of which he
found measurably compatible with liis geodetic data.
From these he
derived the respective compensation dejdhs of 37,
7G.
109, and 179
miles, these being the horizons to which differences of density ex-
tended and below
whicli they vanished or became negligible.
Now
all these depths are notalffy greater than had been assigned as prob-
able depths of differentiation in the traditional molten earth.
On the
other hand, the highest figure. 179 miles, was derived from a curve
drawn specifically to represent the probable distribution of densities
in an earth of platietesimal growth.
The distribution represented by
this highest figure fits the geodetic data quite as well as either of the
other assumptions of distribution, though drawn on a strictly natu-
ralistic basis.
If it could be said that geodetic data demonstrate that
the actual differentiation of
specific gravities extends to depths of
232
ANNtTAL BEFOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
the order named, such considerable depths would distinctly favor an
accretionary origin as against a molten origin.
But the determina-
tion is inconclusive.
While
it
is possible, within the broad terms of the planetesimal
hypothesis, to suppose that the rate of accretion was so
fast as to
give rise to
a molten planet, such a result seems
to me extremely
improbable under the actual conditions of the
case.
The growing
planet should have become capable of holding a considerable atmos-
phere by the time it attained one-tenth of its present mass,
i. e., about
the mass of Mars.
After this the protective cushion of the atmos-
phere should have greatly checked the plunge of the planetesimals
and thus have largely dissipated them into dust in the upper atmos-
phere where the inevitable heat of impact would be promptly radiated
awaj^
The dust presumably floated long and came gently to earth,
so that, while the total heat generated by impact was large, the mean
temperature of the earth body was probably never above the local
solution or fusion point of the more refractory material during the
later stages of growfh, and perhaps not at any stage of growth.
Fol-
lowing out as
ivell as may be the probable rates and conditions of
growth, the most tenable concept of the state of the earth’s interior
under the planetesimal hypothesis is as follows:
The condition of the nuclear portion supposed
be formed from
one of the knots of the parent si)iral nebula and constituting a minor
fraction of the mass of the earth, say 30 or 40 per cent,
is left in-
determinate by present lack of knowledge of the physical
state of
the knots of s]nral nebulae.
If these ai-e gaseous—which is rendered
doubtful by tlieir lack of strict sphericity—the nucleus was doubt-
less originally molten.
If the constituents of the knot were held in
orbital
relations,
their aggregation might have been
slow enough
to permit a solid state of even this portion.
The matter added to
the nucleus
as planetesimal
dust,
or
as
planetesimals reduced
in
mass and speed by the atmosphere, probably retained
its solid con-
dition,
with
negligible
exceptions, throughout
the
proceas
of
ac-
cretion, except as selected portions passed into the liquid state and
became subject to extrusive action.
An intimate heterogeneity nat-
urally prevailed throughout the whole mass so aggregated.
A
se-
lective
process, however, probably brought
in
the
heavier matter
faster and earlier than the lighter matter, for the magnetism of the
earth should have aided gravity in gathering in the magnetic metals,
while
the
inelastic
planetesimals, predominantly
the heavy
basic
Ones, when in collision destroyed the opposing components of their
,mot^
and hence yielded to the earth’s gravity sooner than the
inore elastic ones.
Relatively high specific gravity in the material of
the deep interior is thus thought to have arisen at the outset and to
hay0 been increased by the selective vulcanism that came into action
THE INTERIOR OP THE EARTH.
283
as growth
proceeded.
Special
emphasis
is
laid
on
the
selective
nature of vulcanism under this hypothesis.
The intimate mixture
of planetesimals and planetesimal dust gave rise to
a multitude of
minute contacts between particles of different chemical and physical
properties, and hence there
arose wide
differences
in the
solution
points.
As the tem])erature in the growing planet rose, the more
soluble portions passed
into the liquid
state by
stages long Ixjforc
the remaining larger portion reached the temperature of
solution.
In a stressed glote
certain of whose stresses are more
intense
to-
ward the center than toward the surface, the solutions were forced
to work in the direction of least resistanct^—for them generally out-
ward—carrying out heat of liquefaction and leaving behind the less
soluble larger portion whose temperatures were inadoijuate for fur-
ther liquefaction until there was a renewed accession of heat.
The
mechanism thus automatically tended to remove the most soluble con-
stituents by progressive stages, wdiile
it tended to preserve the solid
condition
of the remaining mass.
The
hy])othesis thus supplies
a
working mechanism whose results fall into full accord with the states
of the interior implied by tidal investigations and by seismic data,
while the distribution of specific gravities naturally assignable under
it accords w^ell with the best geodetic determination thus far made.
The
adaptation
of
such
an
earth
to
isostatic
adjustment
can
scarcely
be more than hinted
at
here.
The
grow’th
of the
earth
should have given it a concentric structure, while its highly distribu-
tive
vulcanism,
together
with some
of
its
deformative
processes,
should have given a vertical or radial structure, the two conjoining
to give a natural tendency to prismatic or pyramidal divisions con-
verging tow'ard the center.
The most powerful of
all the deforma-
tive agencies—rotation—required for the adaptation of the earth to
its changes of rate such divisions of the earth bo(H
as would
re-
spond most readily to depression in the polar and bulging in the
equatorial
tracts
reciprocally
or
their
opposites.
As
urged
else-
where, this accommodation seems best met by three pyramidal sec-
tors in each hemisphere, with apices at the center and bases at the
surface,
the
sectors
in
opposite hemispheres
arranged
alternately
with
one
another.
Very
simple
motions
wdlhin
these
sectors
would satisfy the larger demands of rotational distortion, while the
subsectors into which
these major sectors would
naturally
divide,
as stresses required, would easily accommodate the nicer phases of
adjustment.
This
primitive
segmentation
to meet
rotational
de-
mands—which were most urgent during the stages of
infall—fur-
nished a mechanism suitable for the easement also of a portion of the
deformational
stresses that arose from other sources, among them
gravitative stresses arising from loading and unloading by erosion
284
ANNUAL KEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19W.
and sedimentation. A gravitational adjustment by the wedging up
and down and laterally of such sectors is thus offered tentatively as
a working competitor to theories of adjustment by fluidal or quasi
fluidal undertow.
The necessary brevity
of
this statement
leaves
this new hypothesis little more than a crude suggestion that gravi-
tative adjustment
(=isostasy) may perhaps take place as fully as
the case requires in a highly rigid elastic earth, affected by vertical
schistosity and an adaptability in wedging action, without resort to
flowage or even quasi flow age.
II.
CONSTITUTION OF THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH, AS INDICATED
BY SEISMOT.OGICAU INVESTIGATIONS.
By Hakry
Fikt,i)in(j
Reid.
In 1888 Milne predicted
that earthquake disturbances would be
registered by seismographs at great distances from
their origin, a
prediction
first
verified when
the earthquake
of
April
18,
1889,
whose
origin
lay
off' the
coast
of Japan,
affected
tlie
horizontal
pendulum which von Eebeur-Paschwitz had
set up
at Potsdam to
study the attraction of the moon.
Milne was so convinced of the
correctness of his idea and of the importance of the
results to be
obtained that in 1893 he established an observatory on the Isle of
Wight to record earthquakes from distant regions; and he also suc-
ceeded in having inslimments of similar model set u]) at observatories
very widely scattered in various parts of the world.
Wertheiin
in 1851 showed that
a
disturbance
in the
interior of
an elastic solid would break up into two groups of waves, longitu-
dinal and transversal, which would be propagated at different rates,
and as their velocities are so great that they can not be separated
from each other in the laboratory he suggested with
rare
insight
that their separation might
first be noticed
in connection with the
propagation of earthquake disturbances.^
A few years later Lord
Rayleigh showed that
a third kind
of wave could be propagated
along the surface of the earth.^
Seismologists naturally looked for
indications of these three groups of weaves
in
their seismograms,
but it was not until 1900 that Oldham succeeded in showing definitely
that the seismograms of a number of Milne instriiinents gave clear
evidence of the existenw. of three groups of waves.
Oldham also
published a diagram, which was an extension of Seebach’s so-called
hodograph,” .showing the relation between the time of transmission
of each group and the distance from the earthquake origin, measured
;
la propagation du movement dans les corps solldes et llquldes,” Ann. de Ghlmie
0t
tSM,
vol.
21,
p.
U).
»
Waves Propagated Along the Plane Surface of an
Elastic
Solid,”
Proc. I^ondon
Boo,,
1855,
vols.
47,
50.
THE IKTEEIOB OF THE EAETH*
235
along the surface of the earth.
Milne soon improved these curves
by adding observations of a large number of recorded shocks.^
The
curves of the first and second “ preliminary tremors,” as Milne called
the first two groups of waves, are curved, indicating that the velocity
of transmission increases with the distance from the origin; a conclu-
sion which had already been drawn from earlier, but less accurate,
observations.
Milne attempted to explain this by assuming that the
path of the seismic disturbance lay along the chord and not along the
earth’s surface; this practically shortens the distance to the observing
stations, and
if
tlie
curves
are
plotted, with
distances measured
along the chord, tlie curvature is considerably diminished; but later
and more accurate observations show that even under this assump-
tion the
velocity
still
increases with the
distance.
The conclusion
is unavoidable that as the path of the disturbance sinks deeper into
the eaith the velocity increases.
The interior of the earth then is not
a homogeneous but a refractive medium, and the
patli
of the
dis-
turbance can not be straight but must be curved with the concavity
turned upward.
This condition had been described by A. Schmidt
as early as 1888 .^
Seismologists now believe that the tliree groups
discovered by Oldham are respectively the longitudinal, the trans-
verse, and the surface waves.
The transmission curve of the latter
is
a
straight
line
indicating that the waves
are transmitted with
uniform velocity along the surface of the earth.
They have affected
seismographs after having passed completely around the earth.
It
can not be said that the evidence, that the
first two groups are re-
spectively
longitudinal and transverse,
is complete;
but
it
is
suffi-
cient,
ill connection with theory, to make seismologists
fairly con-
fident that the conclusion
is correct; and the passage of transverse
waves through
the earth
to
gi*eat
depths
is proof
that,
to
those
depths, the earth
is solid;
for transverse waves can not exsit in a
liquid.
Further, since the velocity of transmission depends on the
ratio of the elasticity to the density of the medium, and since both
the longitudinal and transverse waves increase in velocity with the
depth below the surface, both the elasticity of volume and the elas-
ticity of figure of the earth, not only
increase, but
increase more
rapidly than the density
as we penetrate below the surface.
The
earth therefore is not only rigid, but its rigidity increases toward its
center; though seismological evidence does not yet prove that
this
characteristic extends to the very center itself.
The next step was to determine the path of the waves in the earth
and their velocity at different depths; the data for these determi-
nations were the times of arrival of the earthquake waves at various
* Rep, of Com. on Selsmol.
Invefstlg., B, A. A.
S., 1902,
p.
7.
® “ Wellenbewegung und Erdbeben/’ jahreshefte
filr Vatcrlands NaturJeunde in
Wiiri-^
temherg, 1888, p. 248.
236
AKKtAL' RSSPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916*
distances from the origin
; these times are collected in the transmis-
sion curvea
At
first sight
this seems an insoluble problem ;
but,
thanks to a remarkable mathematical theorem of Abel, it is not.
It
is clear that the time of arrival of an earthquake disturbance at a
distant station will depend on the path followed and the velocity in
different parts of the path, and if we make the reasonable assump-
tion, which
is borne out by observation, that the velocity
is every-
where the same at the same depth, then it
is evident, if the velocity
increases continuously with the depth, that the transmission curves
will be continuous without breaks, and
their curvatures
will
no-
where make a sudden change.
The matliematical
solution
of the
problem has been obtained by Wiechert, Bateman, and others; and
concrete results have been obtained by Wiechert and his assistants,
so that we now know the paths of the wuives and their velocities with
a fair degree of accuracy, at least to a considerable distance below
the surface.
But the questions arise, Do the
velocities increase con-
tinuously with
tlie deptli; and
if
so, How?
questions which could
be answered by the study of perfect transmission curves; but even
imperfect curves yield some information; which, however, may be so
faulty that
it must be received with great caution.
Milne, who has
done such excellent pioneer work in seismology, was the first to pro-
pose and attempt to answer these questions.’
He thought the trans-
mission curve could be satisfied by supposing the earth to consist of
a
solid core having a radius of nineteen twentieths of the earth’s
radius, and surrounded by a thin shell.
The core was of uniform
density and elasticity, so that the velocity of propagation in
it was
uniform, and the paths of the rays would be stiaight
lines.
The
velocity in the shell was much less than in the core.
These condi-
tions satisfied
fairly well the very imperfect transmission curve of
1902, but they may be dismissed without furthei* consideration, for
such an earth could not satisfy the astronomic requirements, which
exact, at the same time, the proper mean density and moment of
inertia.
Benndorff in 1906 thought he found evidence of a
central core
of about
four-fifths the earth’s radius, surrounded by two
shells,
the outer one having the same thickness as Milne’s.^
In the same
year Oldham deduced from the transmission curves
a
central core
of not more than four-tenths the earth’s radius in which the velocity
was distinctly less than in the surrounding shell.®
Neither of these
arrangements have been shown to conform to the astronomic require-
ixients*
Oldham’s
conclusions
are
based
on what he
considers
a
* Rep. of the Com. on Selsmol. Investigation, B. A. A.
S., 1903,
p.
7.
.
»
Ueber die Art der Fortpflanzungsgeschwlndighelt der Krdbebenwellen in Erdlnnern,"
Mitt.
d. Er^hehen Com,
k. Akad,
Wise, in Wien, 1905, Nos. 29 and 31.
•Constitution
of
the
Interior
of
the
Earth,
Quart,
Jour.
Geol.
8oc..
1906,
vol.
62,
1^ 456.
THE IKTEEIOB OF THE EARTH.
237
distinct break in the transmission curve of the transverse waves at
distances between 120"^ and 150"^ from the origin; but when we re-
member that fully 95 per cent of the energy of an earthquake shock
comes to the surface within the hemisphere having the origin as its
pole, we see that the data for great distances must l>e too imperfect
to yield very reliable deductions.
Many years ago Itoche showed that it was quite possible to deter-
mine a distribution of density in the earth which would be discon-
tinuous
at
several
levels, but which would
still
be astronomically
satisfactory.
Weichert,
in
1897,‘ showed that such a system might
consist of a central core of radius about 4,000 km. or three-fourths
of the earth’s radius, consisting of iron with a density of about
8.3,
surrounded by a stony shell about 1,500 km. thick and with density
varying from 3 to 3.4.
It was natural that he should examine the
transmiasion curves to see if they supported his ideas; and at The
Hague meeting of the
International
Seismological
Association
in
1907 he announced that they
did.
At the Manchester meeting of
the same assoiuation in 1911 he announced the existence of two shells
around
the
central
core.
In
1914 Gutenberg
(one! of
Wiechert’s
assistants) amiounced the existence of three shells.^
fin addition to
ordinary times of transmission, Gutenberg also used
the times of
waves
reflected
at
the
earth’s
surface
and
the
variations
in
the
amplitude;
it is evident that a wave which crosses the boundary of
the
core
will
experience
reflection and
refraction; and whichever
part is later observed at the surface of the earth will have a distinctly
smaller
amplitude
than
the
Avave
which
just missed
penetrating
into the core.
The following table shows the positions of the boun-
daries of the shells and of the core, and the velocities of the longi-
tudinal waves P and of the transverse waves S;
it
will be noticed
that
it
is only at the boundary of the central core that any marked
sudden change in velocity occurs.
Depth,
kilome-
ters.
Velocity, kilometer-
seconds.
P.
S.
0
7.17
4.01
1,200
11.80
6.59
1,700
12.22
6.86
2,460
(13.29
113. 15
7.32
7.20
2,900
/13, 15
t 8.50
7.20
4.72
6,370
11.10
6.15
» Ueber die Massonverthellung im Innern der Erde,” T^achr.
k. QeselU. WUft.
OiJttinaen,
1807
; Math,-phys.
Kl.,
p. 221.
»Ueber Erdbebenwellen,”
VIIA.
Nach,
k,
Oeaelh.
Wisa,
Odttingen; MatK-phya, KL,
1914, p.
1
; references to the earlier numbers of the series are given in this paper.
288
ANTOAL BSPOM SMITHSOKIAK IKSTITUTIOK, im
The remark regarding Oldham’s results applies also here, namely
that
it is questionable whether the observations at distances greater
than 100® or 120®
are
sufficiently accurate to justify such
definite
conclusions.
Gutenberg had the advantage, however, of more accu-
rate observations than Oldham, and also of measures of amplitudes.
There is no a priori reason why the earth might not be made up of
a number of shells, but there should be satisfactory evidence for any
proposed system; and
it must be shown to satisfy the astronomic
requirements;
or,
at
least,
not
to
contradict
them.
Gutenberg’s
system dot's not correspond with AViechert’s system of 1897.
In the
latter a marked change in physical properties occurs at a depth of
1,500 km.
; in the former, at a depth of 2,900 km.; and in crossing
into the core, the ratio of the elasticity to the density, according to
Gutenberg,. rapidly loses six-tenths of its value.
This change might
be. the
result of
a
great increase in density or a great decrease in
elasticity;
it may be questioned whether the former
is compatible
wdth the astronomic
re(iiiirements, and whether the
latter
is com-
patible wuth the high rigidity Avhich we know the earth, as a whole,
has.
So far no answ^er has been given to these (questions.
In 1879 George and Horace Darwin attempted to determine the
rigidity of the earth by measuring the deviation of the vertical under
the
attraction of the mexm.
If the earth yielded
like a
fluid,
its
surface w^ould always remain at right angles to the vertical, and a
pendulum would remain relatively stationary for all positions of the
moon; if the earth w’ere absolutely rigid, the moon’s attraction would
deflect the pendiilmn an extremely small amount, but an amount
capable of being measured.
The Darwins did not obtain
definite
results because the disturbances of their pendulum w^ere greater than
the deflections they attempted to determine.
A
little
later von Eebeur-Paschwitz
attacked the same problem
with better success, using a horizontal pendulum.
Hecker,
in Potsdam, and
Orloff,
in Dorpat, have repeated von
Eebeur-Paschwutz’s
experiment;
and
both
found
values
for
the
average rigidity of the earth comparable
wdtli that of
steel.
But,
what was most remarkable, and what is still unexplained, the rigidity
was apparently greater
in an east-west than in a north-south direc-
tion.
Orloff, experimenting at a
gi’eater distance from the ocean,
found a smaller difference than Ilecker did, and
it has been sug-
gested that the tides of the ocean are the cause of the
difference.
The
International
Seismological
Association,
at
its
Manchester
inb^tin
in 1911, made plans to repeat the experiments in Paris, in
central Canada, in the middle of Southern Africa, and in the middle
of Russia; but no reports have yet come from these stations.
In the autumn of 1913 Michelson attacked the same problem by
a new
method,
which
seems
capable
of
yielding more
accurate
THE INTEBIOB OP THE EABTH.
239
results than the horizontal pendulum*
He measured the deflection
of the vertical under the influence of the moon by what was prac-
tically a water level 500 feet long, sunk 6 feet in the earth.^
Michel-
son’s results for the east-west
rigidity do not
differ greatly from
those of Orloff
; but his north-south rigidity
is somewhat less than
Oi'loff’s.
Michelson’s experiments
also show
that the
viscosity
of
the earth must be as great as that of steel.
These experiments are
of great
interest;
they should be repeated
at various
places, and
especially at places symmetrically situated with respect to the great
oceans, and on midoceanic
islands, in order to determine how
far
they are affected by the oceanic tides.
We can
say
in
conclusion
that the
transmission
of
transverse
earthquake waves shows that the earth
is solid, at least to a great
depth below the surface; and that experiments on the deflection of
the
vertical show that
it
is quite as rigid and
as viscous as
steel.
There are
still
difficulties in the interpretation of the observations,
but
their
elucidation
can
not
alter
the
general
character
of
the
conclusions.
III.
THE EARTH FROM THE OICOPHYSICAL STANDPOINT.
By John
F. Hayfoud.
This is a broad topic on which much intensive thinking has been
done by many men.
It is impossible to treat
it adequately or com-
prehensively in the short time available.
In this address an attempt will be made to so concentrate atten-
tion on a certain few points as to tend to clarify existing ideas and to
correlate tliem.
An attempt will also be made to help in locating the
lines of least resistance to future progress in the study of the earth.
The size of the earth, as well as its .shape, is now knowm with such
a high degree of accuracy that the errors are negligible in compari-
son with the errors in other parts of our knowledge of the earth.
The probable error of the equatorial radius is less than 1/300000 pait,
and of the polar semidiameter is about the same.
The three physical constants of the earth, and of its different parts,
on which you are now asked
to concentrate your attention are the
density, the modulus of elasticity, and the strength.
It is important to know as much as possible about the density.
The
more one knows about the density in all parts of the earth the more
surely and safely one may proceed in learning other things about the
earth.
* “ PreUmlnAry
Results
of Measurements
of the
Rigidity of the
Earth,’* The
Astro*
physical Journal,
1014,
vol.
39,
p,
07,
240
ANl^t^AL REFOET SMITHSONIAN INSTlTtmON,
1916.
The modulus of elasticity at each point in the earth controls the
behavior of the earth under relatively small applied forces.
The strength of the earth, at each point, as measured by the stress-
difference at that point necessary to produce either slow continuous
change of shape or rupture, decides the behavior of the earth under
the greater forces applied to it.
As to density we know that the earth’s surface density
is about
2.7, that the density probably increases continuously with increase of
depth, that the density at the center is probably about 11, that the
mean density is about 5.G, and that within a film at the surface of a
thickness of about one
fiftieth of the radius of the earth
there
is
isostatic compensation whicli
is nearly complete and perfect as be-
tween areas of large extent.
The manner of
distribution
of the
isostatic compensation with
respect to depth, and the limiting depth to which
it extends are but
imperfectly known.
Nevertheless
it appeal's tliat above the depth,
122
kilometers, the compensation
is nearly
com})lete even though
there may be some compensation extending beyond that depth.
Two general
lines of evidence are
avaihible
in determining the
modulus of elasticity of the earth, that from earthquake waves, and
that from earth tides.
There are many
inherent and extreme
difficulties
in the way of
securing reliable evidence as to the modulus of elasticity from earth-
quake waves.
To 1013 the accuracy of available observations of tides in the solid
earth was
insufficient
to
furnish
a
basis
fpr
reliable
conclusions.
Nevertheless the estimates of the modulus derived from these early
observations wore a
fair approximation to that given by the very
recent and much more accurate observations.
Dr. Michelson and those associated with him in the observation of
earth tides at the Yerlces Obsen^atory since 1013 have developed a
method of observing which is of a new order of accuracy such that
the minute changes of inclination at a given point due to earth tides
may be determined with an error of less than 1 per cent.
These observations make the modulus of elasticity of the earth as
a whole about like that of solid steel, namely,
(8.G)
(10^^ C.6.S.).
It
is the modulus of elasticity of the earth as a whole which
is
measured in this case.
It
is eminently
desirable
to
determine
if
possible
whether
the
Ipodulus of elasticity varies with increase of depth.
The Michelson
apparatus possibly opens the way to such a determination.
Suppose
thkt the apparatus is used on the shore of the Bay of Fundy.
Twice
a day a large excess load of water is placed in the bay by the tidal
oscillation and as frequently the water load is reduced below normal.
The stresses produced in the body of the earth by these changes of
THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH.
241
load applied over an area only about 80 miles wide are probably con-
fined almost entirely to the first 100 miles of depth.
The magnitude
of changes of inclination produced at an observing station on the
shore by the changing water load would, therefore, be dependent pri-
marily on the modulus of elasticity of the material below and around
the bay to a depth of less than 100 miles.
The observations might
serve, therefore, to determine a modulus of elasticity of the surface
portion of the earth rather tlian of the whole earth.
Turn now to the third of the physical constants, which it was pro-
posed to examine, namely, the strength.
Among the forces which
w^e may consider as furnishing tests of
strength
are:
(1)
The
forces involved
in
earthquakes,
(2)
the
weight of continents, and (8) the weight of mountains.
The forces which produce the more intense earthquakes evidently
cause
stress
differences
locally,
which
are
beyond
the
breaking
strength of the material.
However, from earthquakes we may obtain
but
little information as to the strength of the earth material, be-
cause the intensity of the stress differences can not be relial)ly
de-
termined. We know simply that the intensity exceeds the breaking
strength of the material at the points of rupture.
It is uncertain how great are the maximum stress differences pro-
duced by the weight of continents.
One great difficulty in computing
these stress differences arises from the fact that the
isostatic com-
pensation of continents, now known to exist, reduces the stress differ-
ences much below what they would otherwise be.
Love computed the
maximum stress differences thus reduced as 0.07 ton per square inch.
Darwin computed the greatest stress difference due to the weight of
the continents, without isostatic compensation, as 4 tons per square
inch.
If each of these computations were based upon assumptions,
which cori-espond closely with the facts, one should be warranted in
drawing the conclusion that the maximum stress difference caused by
the actual continents, siqiported in part by the actual isostatic com-
pensation, is between 0.07 and 4 tons per square inch, and that
it is
mucli nearer to the smaller than to the larger value.
But a
close
examination of cither of these computations shows that
it is based
upon assumptions made to simplify and shorten the computations,
which assumptions depart widely from the facts and tend strongly to
make the computed stress differences much smaller than the actual.
For example, both Darwin and
I^ove used
in
their computations
hypothetical continents, represented by regular mathematical forms,
in the place of the actual continents with their many irregularities.
The maximum
stress
difference caused by the
actual
continents
is
necessarily much greater than would be produced by the assumed
smoothed out, regular, symmetrical continents.
242
AKKITAL KEPOKT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTIOK,
1916.
Similarly no adequate computations have been made to determine
the maximum stress difference due to the mountains.
Darwin com-
puted
the maximum
stress
difference
produced
by two
parallel
mountain ranges^ of density 2.8, rising 13,000 feet above the
inter-
mediate valley bottom, to be 2,6 tons per square inch.
Love, for the
same mountain ranges, but with
isostatic compensation taken into
account, computed the maximum stress difference to be 1.6 tons per
square inch.
In this case the computation indicates that the isostatic
compensation reduced
the maximum
stress difference
to but
little
more than one-half what
it would otherw ise be.
Here, again, both
the computed maximum stress differences have l)een greatly reduced
by substituting hypothetical smoothed-out mountains
in the place
of the actual, irregular, unsymmetrical mountains.
To the person who
is trying to get a tnie picture of the i)rescnt
state of stress in the earth, two very important facts are made evi-
dent by a comparison of
tlie Love and the Darwin computations.
Firet, the existence of isostatic computation greatly reduces the stress
differences wdiich would otherwise be produced l)y the w eight of the
continents and mountains.
Second, the depth at which the maximum
stress difference tends to occur is evidently very much less with iso-
static compensation than wdtliout
it.
These two conclusions, based
upon the differences betw^een
tlie Iavo computations, are apparently
reasonably safe even in spite of the same wild assumptions on which
both the computations w ere based.
Note that even a little information as to the distribution of densi-
ties—a little information al)out isostatic compensation—profoundly
modifies the conclusions as to
tlie state of
stress in the
earth.
It
should, therefore, be clear why it wns so emphatically stated
in an
earlier part of this address that information as to the distribution of
density in the earth
is necessary in order to make safe progress in
learning other things about the earth.
Is the earth competent to withstand without slow
yielding the
stress
differences due
to the
w^eight of
continents and
mountains,
the isostatic compensations being considered?
From the computa-
tions by Darwin and Love, considered in the light of the assumptions
made by them
to simplify the computations,
I estimate that
it
is
probable that the
actual mountains and
continents with
all
their
irregularities of shape and elevation possibly produce stress differ-
ences in some few places as great as 4 tons per square inch, and
certainly produce stress differences at many places as great as two-
tenths of a ton per square inch.
The material would certainly yield
Slpwly under such
stress
differences
especially when they
persist
eontihuously over long periods of time and throughout large regions,
it'our tons per inch is the breaking or rupture load for good granite,
THE IKTERIOR OF THE EARTH.
243
one of the strongest materials existing in the earth in large quantities.
Two-tenths of a ton per square inch is the safe working load used by
engineers
for
good
granite.
There
is
abundant
evidence
from
laboratory tests that the so-called yield point on which the engineer
bases his estimate of safe working load for a given material
is a
function of the length of time the load
is applied and the delicacy
of the test.
The longer the time of application and the more refined
the
test to determine the permanent yield the lower the observed
yield point.
In the case of the test in progress in the earth the time
of application
is indefinitely long and the test
is extremely refined
inasmuch
as the minimum rate of yielding which may be detected
is exceedingly small.
If an engineer wishes to know whether a bridge, or foundation,
or building, or railroad rail is yielding under stress differences which
have been brought to bear upon
it he looks for evidence of distress,
for rivet heads popped off, scaling from the surface, settling, cracks,
or even changes in microscopic structure.
The geologists have made
very extensive corresponding examinations of the earth.
Everywhere
they find evidence that the earth has yielded.
On the one-fourth of
the earth’s surface exposed to examination, the land, there is no part
for wliich the evidence does not indicate past uplift, or subsidence,
or horizontal thrust, or cracking under tension, or cracking produced
by shear, or microscopic yielding in detail such
as produces schis-
tosity, for example, or some other form of past yielding to
stress
differences.
The physicist studying the earth must take this over-
whelming mass of evidence into account and must conclude that the
earth habitually yields slowly to the stress differences brought to bear
upon
it.
Please note that I do not assert that the stress differences
are
all due to gravity.
I propose now to state what are in my opinion ])rol)ably the lines
of least resistance to future progress in studying the earth from the
physical standpoint.
I propose to outline what I believe to be the
most effective methods of attack, and to indicate some of the con-
clusions which will probably be reached.
I am led to this procedure
by two considerations.
First, I finddt possible to state certain of my
opinions as to the net outcome of past investigations most clearly
in that form—and time
presses.
Second, I indulge the hope that
such an outline which is frankly an expression of judgment based on
evidence miK’h too weak and conflicting to
l>e proof, may possibly
kindle the imagination of some man or men, and so lead to vigorous
attacks upon the problem and to future pmgress.
In attacking the problems of the earth one should assume at the
outset that the phenomena exhibited are very complicated, that they
are probably due to various simultaneous actions, and that the vari-
ous actions are probably closely interlocked, modifying each other,
244
ANNUAL BE1?0BT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
though some are probably primary in importance and
others
sec-
ondary,
Hence the most effective method of attack is probably one
which includes a general correlation of apparently widely separated
ideas
and
facts
gathered
from
physicists,
engineers,
geologists,
chemists,
etc., and
at the same time
includes intensive
attacks
in
detail on one after the other of single features of the problems which
aidse and an intensive working out of the possible consequences of
said features.
It should be recognized at the outset that no observed behavior
of the earth clearly warrants the assumption that the material of
which
it is composed differs radically in any way from that acces-
sible at the surface.
It should be assumed, therefore, that through-
out the earth the materials are a mixture differing from the mixture
found at the surface only as the extreme pressure and temperature
conditions at great depths directly and indirectly produce differences.
It should be kept clearly in mind that the geodetic evidence from
observations
of
the
direction
and
intensity
of
gravity
indicates
simply the present location of attracting masses, the present distri-
dution of density.
It furnishes no direct evidence whatever
as to
past
distributions of
density or as to changes
in
density now
in
progress.
But
an
understanding
of
the
present
distribution
of
density within the earth, especially near the surface, is so necessary
to a true understanding of the present state of stress and of viscous
flow in the earth that an understanding of the geodetic evidence
is
fundamental to progress.
Computations should be made in extension of those which have
been made by Darwin and Love.
The new computations should,
however, deal with the actual irregular continents and mountains,
not with regular
substitutes.
The computations should
also take
into account the bulk modulus of the materials composing the earth;
that is, these materials should be assumed to be compressible.
Such
computations
will no doubt be both
difficult and
long.
I believe
that even a moderately vigorous attack along this line Avill show’^ con-
clusively that the earth does not behave as an
elastic body under
the large loads superimposed upon
it by the continents and moun-
tains.
I believe that the computed stress differences will be found
to be so large that the computation will be essentially a proof of
viscous yielding.
Next make the contrasting assumption that the material compos-
ing the earth
is competent to withstand but
little shearing
stress,
and that the pressure at any point is that due to gravitation acting
on the mass in the column extending from the point vertically to the
surface.
Let
it be assumed that
isostatic compensation
exists,
is
uniformly distributed with respect to depth, and is complete at depth
123 kilometers.
Consider the actual topography and form a mental
THE INTEKIOE OF THE EARTH.
245
picture as accurately as possible of the viscous flows which would
take place on the assumption that at each level the material would
flow horizontally from regions of greater pressure to regions of less
pressure along lines of maximum
rate of change of pressure, and
that the time rate of such viscous flows would tend
to be propor-
tional to the space rate of change of pressure.
The flows would all
be found to be away from beneath high regions toward low regions,
from continents toward oceans, from mountains toward valleys.
After such
a picture has l)een clearly formed assume that the iso-
static condition is disturbed by long-continued erosion and deposition,
producing changes in tlie surface elevations and surface loads.
On
the same assumptions as to the nature of tlie viscous flows as before,
form a new picture of the viscous flows wdiich W'ould now be in prog-
ress.
It will be found that under the new^ conditions the
viscous
flows near the surface would
still be away from high
areas and
toward low areas, but in general they would
]>e slower than before.
At greater depths, liowever,
it will be found that the viscous flows
would be undertows from regions of recent deposition toward
re-
gions of recent erosion.
These undertow flows would in general tend
to be in the direction
opj^^osite to
recent surface transportation of
material.
This picture would serve as a
first approximation to an
understanding
of
tlie mechanism
of
isostntic
readjustment.
The
underto'svs would be found on these assumj^tions to extend to a con-
siderable depth, certainly more than 122 kilometers.
Next one sliould
picture the changes in density which would be
produced by the viscous flows.
The density should be pictured as
decreasing in regions from which material is being carried away by
the flow and
increasing
in regions to which the material
is being
carried.
It wdll be noticed as soon as such a picture is formed that
every undertow flow at any level tends to equalize pressures at louver
levels.
This
will have a strong tendency to make the prevailing
undertows occur at much higher levels than they otherwise would.
Let it be assumed that the viscous material offers some small re-
sistance to shear and
still have elastic properties to a slight degree.
The condition assumed originally that the pressure at
a point de-
pends simply upon the weight of the material above that point will
be disturbed thereby.
Form as clear a conception as possible of these
disturbances and the modifications of the flows produced by them.
I
believe the modifications will be found to be important and that they
will be found to be such
as tend to confine the
effects of surface
changes of load to a depth which is a small fraction of the mdius.
So much
for
the
direct
effects
of
gravity which
it seems
im-
portant to picture clearly.
Next study other effects, some of which
are indirectly produced by gravity.
73839“--SM 191(b—-17
246
AKKtTAL EEFOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
First
study
the
modifying
effects
of
changes
of
tcmperaturo.
Wherever viscous flow takes place in the quasisolid poidions of the
earth there heat is necessarily developed in amount equivalent to the
mechanical energy expended in overcoming the
resistance to
flow.
This will tend
to increase the volume of the material,
to
increase
the
prevssure, and
to
raise the surface above the
region of viscous
flow.
It is probable also that the iiuu-easc of temperature will tend
to weaken the material, thus emphasizing the weakening produced
by the damaging mechanical effects of tlie (low.
This temperature effect
is probably locally important.
Beneath
areas
of
recent
deposition
the
timq)erature of
a
given
part of the buried material will slowly increase for long periods of
time, on account of heat conducted up from below and prevented by
the new blanket of deposited material from rising to the surface so
freely
as before.
Conversely, beneath
the
areas of
recent erosion
the temperature of a given ]>ortion of material
will
decrease.
The
ultimate limit of change
will tend
to be
in each
case not greater
that
about V
C.
for
each
?>^2
meters
of
depth
of
erosion
or
deposition.
These
tcm]xu’ature
changes
tend
ultimately
to
lower areas of recent erosion and
to
I’aise areas of
re(*ent
dc^posi-
tion, possibly as much as one-thirtieth of the thi(‘kness of the erosion
or deposition, the temperatui-e
effect taking place much
later
tluin
the erosion or deposition which initiated
it.
Study next the
effects which may
be computed from
the bulk
modulus of elasticity.
Beneath ar(‘as of erosion
a given particle of
maiter tends to rise by an amount which may be computed from the
bulk modulus of material, and similarly a
particle tends to fall be-
neath an area of dei)osition.
If the depth to which the elastic. ])he-
nomena extend
is as great as 122 kilometers and
the bulk modulus
is 500,000 kilogi’ams per S(]uare centimeter (corresponding to granite)
the rise or fall of a particle near the surface', will tend to be at least
one-fiftieth part as great as the thickness of tlie material eroded or
deposited.
This
is a cliange so large as to lun e considerable effects
in modifying
or magnifying
the
actions
which
would
otherwise
occur.
Possibly
tliis
elastic change
is imu'h
larger
tlian the
esti-
mate here given.
Of course if the erosion or deijosition takes place
in a small area only, such
elastic res])onse will be largely inhibited
by surrounding material
on which
the
load
lias not
l)eon
directly
changed.
But under large areas of erosion or deposition such action
must
take
place
and
extend
to
depths
jiossibly
as
great
as
122
kilometers.
Study next the modifying effects, on the phenomena already pic-
tured, of chemical changes which are pi’o!)ably produced in the eaAh
by
changes
of
pressui-e.
The
expression
“chemical
changes”
is
here used in the broadest
possible
sense.
A
relief of pressure
at
TUB IKTEBIOB OF THE EAETH.
247
any given point in the eartli necessarily favors such chemical changes
as are accompanied by increase in volume and reduction of density.
Increase of pressure tends to have the reverse effect.
Such changes
tend
to reenforce and extend
in time the
eft'ects
just
referred
to
which may be computed from
tlie bulk modulus of elasticity.
It is
important
to
estimate
such
changes
as
well
as
posvsible from
all
available evidence, such for example as that furnished by chemists,
kv geologists, and by such investigations of rock formation as have
been
conducted
at
the geophysical
laboratory
in
Washington.
I
believe the possible effects of this kind wdll he found to be so largo
as to be of primary imi)ortance.
Evidence
has
accumulated
during
the
past
few
years
wdiich
makes
it reasonably certain that wdth increased
pressure, as at the
great depths
in the eaith, the rigidity and
tl)e viscosity of the ma-
terial
also
necessarily
increases.
This tends
to
cairse
the
viscous
flow^s to take place at higher levels than they otlierwdse Avould.
This
should be taken into account.
Next
a
reexamination
of the conceptions
so
far
former!
should
be made to ascertain to what extent and liow tliey Avould be .modified
if one started Avith some other reasonable assumption as to the limit-
ing depth of present
isostatic compensalion
or some other reason-
able assumption as to the law^ of distribution of the compensation
Avith regard to depth.
Next
full
and
extensive
comparisons
vshoiild
be made
between
the hypothetical phenomena on the one liand pictured
as made up
ju'imarily of viscous
floAvs. modified
l)y some elastic effects, initiated
in part by surface transfers of load, modilied by changes of tempera-
tui*e, modified by chemical
clianges and
in the
otlier Avays, and on
the other hand the facts of the past as to the behavior of the eai'th
recorded in the rocks and read by geologists and others.
This com-
parison should be used to the fullest possible extent to evaluate the
relative importance of the various elements in the actions.
In making this comparison
of
various
hy|)othetical phenomena
Avith
the
gi’cat accumulated mass of
geological
faids
it should
bo
recognized
at once that
it
is
false logic to reason
that
if
a
giA^en
hypothesis does not account for all the observed facts the hypothesis
is necessarily eri’oneous.
On the contrary
it is true logic in dealing
AAuth such
a problem as the earth seen from
a physical standpoint
to reason that tlie more facts arc accounted for by a given hypothesis
the more certain
it
is that said hypothesis
is a statement of a con-
trolling element in the complex phenomena and then to study the
facts which
appear
neutral,
or
conflicting,
Avith
reference
to
tlie
hypothesis, considering them as indicators of other elements of the
248
AKKtJAL RKPOET SMITHBONUN INSTITUTIOK,
1916.
phenomena which one should attempt to embody
in other supple-
mentary hypotheses.
I submit that in studying the earth
it is a mistake to think that
there
is any necessary conflict between the idea that the earth be-
haves as an elastic body and the idea that it is yieldiing in a viscous
manner,
A body may behave in both ways at once.
The earth
is
probably acting largely as an elastic body under small forces which
change rapidly and at the same time is yielding in a viscous manner
to forces of larger intensity which are applied
in one sense
con-
tinuously for long periods.
The object of this address will have been accomplished if it serves
in time to arouse the imagination and
interest of some one and to
guide him to greater eftectiveness in attacking the problems presented
by the earth as seen from the geophysical standpoint.
IV.
VARIATIONS OP LATITUDE: TDEIR BEAUINO UPON OUH KNOWL-
EDGE OP THE INTERIOR OP THE EARTH.
By Frank Schlesingkr.
To review even hastily the contributions that astronomy has made
to our knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the earth and the
constitution of
its interior would consume more time than
I
vaxr
fairly claim as my share.
Let me therefore
pascs over those points
that are on accepted ground and are matters of general agreement
from the different points of view represented
in
this symposium;
and
let me dwell instead upon
certain
recent developments
espe-
cially
in need
of
consideration, concerning which
the astronomer
desires the criticism and help of the geologist, the seismologist, the
physicist, and the meteorologist.
These developments have come to
us directly or indirectly through a study of latitude variations, so
that most of what I shall have to say wdll deal with this subject.
Although variations of latitude are in a sense a very recent addi-
tion to our knowledge, yet, on the theoretical side, at least, we find
the beginning more than a century and a half ago.
In 1755 Euler
considered ‘Hhe rotation of solid and rigid bodies”
in
a memoir
that is now recognized as the foundation stone for our edifice.
He
showed that if such a body is projected into space it will exhibit two
kinds of rotation; the
first of these is the familiar one that corre-
sponds to the day in the case of the earth ; the other is more subtle
and corresponds to the variation of latitude.
By reason of this the
axis of the diurnal rotation is continually changing within the body,
progressing in a regular way, and coming back after a time to its
^rlier positions. An ordinary top gives us a simple example of this
THE INTEBIOB OP THE EARTH.
249
kind of rotation.
The spinner imparts to the top a motion of trans-
lation as well as a rotation, and if we wish to study the rotation we
must arrest the translation in some way.
This we can do by letting
the top fall upon a hard surface, in which the iron peg soon wears a
minute hole for itself, and the effect is to stop the translation of the
top without modifying seriously the rotation.
Then we can see that,
while the top
is turning very rapidly around an
axis, this axis
is
itself rotating in a comparatively leisurely way.
Just the same thing
is occurring with the earth—the point (or pole) at which the axis of
the daily rotation j)ierces the surface of the earth
is continually in
motion.
If we could take to the neighborhood of the pole a modern
instrument and
if we could observe there at leisure and in comfort,
wo should have no j^articular difficulty in finding the position of the
pole within a meter.
But if we should repeat these observations a
few months later, we should find that the pole had wandered away to
some distance.
To be sure, this distance would not be great, and all
the wanderings of the pole that have thus far been observed could
be plotted to true scale on the floor of a room not much larger than
the one we are
in.
Of course, if the pole
is moving, so, too,
is the
earth’s Equator; and thus the latitudes of all points on the earth are
varying.
Such wuinderings as these need not disturb the peace of
mind of those gentlemen w^ho like to discover the Arctic or the Ant-
arctic Pole,
Under the circumstances that the polar explorer must
woi-k and with the meager instruments he can transport, he is glad
to determine his latitude within half a mile of the truth.
We must understand that it is only in our time, and only after the
lapse of many years since Euler published his memoir, that latitude
variations
have
actually
been
observed.
Tliere
was
nothing
in
p]nler’s theoiy to indicate how large a variation to look
for, since
this
is a matter that depends upon the whole complex of “ initial
conditions,” of which our knowledge is the very vaguest.
But this
theory does
tell
us what the peadod of
variation
should
be,
since
this depends upon the shape of the earth and the distribution of the
material within
it, and precisely the information that is here needed
is afforded by
a study
of precession.
Applying this information,
Euler was able to say that the period of the latitude variation should
be 10 months.
Bessel
at Konigsberg,
in
1842, later Peters at Pul-
kova, Nyren also at Pulkova, Downing at Greenwich, and Newcomb
at Washington,
all searched
their observations
for evidence
of a
latitude variation having a
period
of 10 months, but
all
in
vain.
Astronomers concluded that if latitude variations existed at all, their
extent was too sjmall to be detected by instruments of the precision
that had then been attained.
Toward the end of the nineteenth century vague whisperings that
this conclusion might be
incorrect seem
to have been
in
the
air.
250
AlSrNXJAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1910.
But the first clear word to this effect came in 1888 from the lips of
Kiistner, at Berlin. He had invented and applied a method for deter-
mining the amount of tlie aberration of light; but he found that his
observations
gave
well
nigh
impossible
results,
agreeing
neither
among themselves nor with earlier ]*eliable observations.
By a nice
chain of logic he was able to exclude one possible cx])lanation after
another until there was left only the supposition that the latitude of
his
station
liad
changed
while
liis observations were
in
progress.
Next
he examined
nearly
contemporaneous
observations made
at
other places, and when he found that he could account
for certain
puzzling discrepancies he no longer hesitated to announce that
lati-
tudes were variable
after
all.
This announcement awoke the
liveliest
interest and
encountered
no
little skepticism.
Special observations were
at once
set on
foot
at various observatories
in Europe and America,
as
well
as
at
a
station near Honolulu
in the Sandwicli
Islands.
These islands are
about opposite in longitude to the European
stations, and
this was
the reason
for
establishing
a
station
there.
For
obviously
if
the
polo is really changing its ])hice, then the changes in latitude for two
opposite stations will be the reverse of each
other.
When
in 1893
this Avas found
actually to be the case, other possible explanations
for the observed phenomena at once
fell down, and latitude varia-
tions became for the first time a nniversally ac(*epted fact.
Much time and effort have since l)een expended
in attempting to
formulate the “laws”
of
latitude
variations and
to
give them
a
mechanical
interpretation.
But
observation
has shown
that
the
variations are of unexpected
complicity, and
as
a
eonsec|ueuce we
are still very far fi'om having satisfactory knoAvledge of this subject.
By
tlie same token
it
is probable that an
iMtensi\ e study of
these
variations, particularly from points of view
other than the
astro-
nomical,
Avill teach us much concerning the interior of the earth as
well as some of its surface j)henomena.
It was the late Dr. Cdiandler, of Cambridge, Mass., who took the
lead
in
investigating the nature
of
latitude
Auiriations.
By
over-
hauling ancient observations (made of course without any reference
to the present sul)ject) he was able to trace the presence of the varia-
tions back to the time of Bradley in the middle of the eighteenth
century.
Thus
it happens that
at the very time that Euler was
writing the first theoretical paper on the subject, Bradley had already
begun making the observations from which the actual existence of
latitude variations might have been proven at once.
Chandler was
able to gather similar evidence from other miscellaneous
series of
observations and thus to set down a tolerably continuous record of
the variations during a century and a half.
However interesting a
fact this may be from an historical point of view,
it does not help
THE TNTEBIOn OP THE EARTH.
251
very much in a practical study of the subject.
There are two reasons
for tliis: first, it is only for European stations (and for the most part
only for Greenwich)
that we have any knowledge of these earlier
variations;
the
other component
of
the wanderings
of
the
pole,
namely
that
in
the
nuu-idian
at
right
angles
to
the meridian
of
Greenwich, did not })egin to
l)e known
until very
i*e(‘ently.
Again,
these ancient ohserx ations were undeilaken for certain definite pur-
poses that they se]‘\ed as
w’ell as could
l)e expected for their time;
but they wtu'C not intended and are not well suited for precise deter-
minations of
tlie latitude.
Glose ac(juaintance wdth the subject has
tauglit
us that exceedingly
delicate
observations
ai’e
necessary
to
define the variations wdth ade<|uate accuracy,
ff T held in my hands
two plumb lines half a nudin* ai)aii;. they would not be (juite parallel
to each
othei*, though both
are exactly
vertical:
if they
w\n-e pro-
longed
tluw would
meet
somewdiere near
the
center
of
the
earth,
4,000 miles below.
The
angle
hetAveen them
is
little
less than
0".02 and represents approximately the accuracy that
is demanded
and that has recently been
attained
in latitude observations.
This
success is due chiefly to the International Geodetic Association which
has organized an ‘international latitude service” of high
efficiency,
and
to whose
efforts and experience
are due the imi)rovements in
instruments and methods that have made posible this extra oi’d inary
degree of precision.
Since 1800, the association has maintained six
observing stations for this sole purpose, tw’o of these
Ix'ing in our
own country.
One of the minor effects of the w ar that is now’ raging
in
Europe
will
he
tlie
discontinuance
of some
of
these
stations.
One of the American stations has already l)een abandoned, and the
same fate
wn'll overtake the other
in June. lOlH, unless some inde-
pendent means of maintaining
it, at least temporarily, presents itself
soon.^
An interruption of these observations wmnld he a great pity,
for this
is one
of the
cases
whei’e
a
continuous
record
is
highly
desirable.
To return to Chandler and his w’ork on these variations, perhaps,
the most important of his achievements wuis to show^ that the prin-
cipal term in the variations, instead of having a period of 10 months
in accordance wdth
Eulei‘’s theoiy, has
in
reality
a
period
of
14
months.
This difference ex]dains the failure of Bessel and
all the
others, who preceded Kiistner, to find
a
latitude variation in their
observations,
for, relying upon Euler’s
results, they had
all tested
their observations for the lO-month variation and had sought for
no other variation.
For the same reason, Chandler’s announcement
of the longer period was received Avith incredulity in some quarters,
Since
this
sentence was
spoken
the
United
States Coast and
Geodetic
Survey
has
secured
legislation that guarantees the continuation of
this
station.
252
ANNUAL RKPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
and
this feeling did not vanish
until Newcomb pointed out that
Euler had made a certain assumption regarding the interior of the
earth that had in the meantime been
univei*sally
discarded.
His
period of 10 months applies in fact only to a perfectly rigid and
unyielding earth.
Newcomb showed that if the earth yields to defor-
mation to the same extent as though
it were composed throughout of
steel, then Euler’s period would be lengthened to about 14 months.
Here we have the first dependable determination of the rigidity of
the earth, a result that has since been confirmed in several ways, par-
ticularly by a measurement of ‘M)odily tides” in the earth.
The 14-month term
(or the modified Eulerian term as
it
is now
called) has been under accurate observation for a quarter of a cen-
tury.
The period can probably (though not certainly) be regarded
as constant.
This
is what we should expect, for
a change in
this
period would call for a sensible alteration in the distribution of the
material within the earth, or a change in the rigidity of the earth.
The amplitude of this term presents a very puzzling problem.
Its
usual value is about 0".27, but twice in recent years
it has jumped
to about 0".40.
Such a change could be accounted for by supposing
that the earth had received a severe blow or a succession of milder
blows tending
in the same direction.
We are reminded that both
Milne and Helmert have suggested that there might be a direct con-
nection between latitude variations and earthquakes.
This sugges-
tion was originally made by Milne very e^irly in tins century when
the astronomical data necessary to test it were still very meager.
It
is to be hoped that the question will be taken up again in the light
of the information that has been added during the past 10 or
12
years.
Though the Eulerian term is the largest part of the latitude vari-
ation, it is by no means the only important one. We have next an
annual term with a maximum amplitude of about 0".20.
We may
say with some confidence that this term
is seasonal and meteorologi-
cal in its origin, but at present no more definite statement would be
warranted.
It was early suggested that ocean currents might cause
this variation.
These currents w^ould have to vary greatly with the
season, either in the volume
oi‘ the speed of the flow, or in its direc-
tion; for an unvarying current would merely modify the Eulerian
term once for all and would leave the latitude variations otherwise
unchanged. A similar suggestion has been made with regard to air
currents, and appeal has also been made to unequal deposits of snow
aiid ice on two opposite hemispheres of the earth to account for the
annual term.
It seems to me that these explanations have not been
subjected to the critical numerical tests that are possible and desir-
able.
The meteorological data are doubtless competent to enable us
THE INTEIUOR. OF THE EARTH.
253
to compute at least the order of tlie effects in the latitude variations
that we should expect from these various causes.
Furthermore, the
anmial term is probably variable in its amplitude, and it is important
to ascertain how
(if at
all)
these changes are related to the coire-
sponiiing meteorological observations.
One other term must be mentioned in this bi'ief summary. A few
years
ago
Kiinura
of Japan made
the
im])ortant
discovery
(the
most striking contribution to astronomy that has ever come out of
Asia)
that the latitudes of
all stations are affected by
a
variation
that does not depend upon the longitude but which
is the same for
all points in the same latitude.
Tn other words, there
is present a
variation that is not due to the wanderings of the pole.
To ascertain
more closely the nature of this term, the International Geodetic Asso-
ciation
extended
its
latitude
service
temporarily
to
the
Southern
Hemisphere, with the result that the term was found to be of pre-
cisely the kind that would be caused
l)v an annual wandering of the
center of gravity of the earth to and fro along the axis of rotation.
This must be regarded merely as an illustration and not as an ex-
planation, for so great a change (about 3 meters)
in the ])osition of
the
center
of
gravity
is
excluded
on
other
and
very
conclusive
grounds.
No
plausible
explanation
for
the Kimura
term
has
as
yet made its appearance, and as a consequence the i‘eality of the term
has been questioned from every possible point of
A'iew.
Many ex-
planations have been advanced, each of whitdi sought to account for
the term as merely an instrumental effect or the like, just as was the
case 20 years earlier with the whole of the latitude variation
itself.
Against such attempts the Kimura term has held
u}) very
well.
It
is not too much
to say that
at the present time
all
l)ut one of the
numerous
explanations
of
this
class have -been
disposed
of;
this
exception deserves a brief mention, particularly as it calls loudly for
the attention of the meteorologist.
Let us supi)ose that the layers of
equal density in the atmosphere above a station are not horizontal,
but
that
they
are
sensibly
inclined.
If
this occurs without
our
knowledge,
as
it
would
under
ordinary
circumstances,
then we
should apply refraction
to our observations in
a
slightly erroneous
way and we should derive a value for the latitude that is not quite
correct.
Let us suppose further that this
effect were a world-wide
one and that in any given month there would he a pronounced ten-
dency for the inclination to be in the same sense in all latitudes, north
and south, as well as in all longitudes.
Then we should have a set
of circumstances that would
account
for the Kimura term
as an
atmospheric effect, and therefore it would be excluded as a real varia-
tion of latitude.
So far as the astronomer is able to testify, the evi-
dence is against the occurrence of such tilts in the atmosphere.
The
254
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
inclination required to account (inantitatively for the amplitude of
the Kimura term
is over 2 minutes of arc, or a slope of about one
part in fifteen hundred,
rresiimablj, in a few years we shall be able
to say something' more definite as to the possibility of the existence
of such conditions.
My own opinion
is that
this explanation, like
so many others of similai' cliaracter (hat have Iteen suggested
foi’ the
Kimura term, will
lie found untenable.
Furthei', I ventuie to think
that latitude variations as a whole will lind their explanations less on
the surface of the earlh and more in
its interior than seems now to
be the generally acceiiteil opinion.
DKY LAND
IN (JKOLOGY.i
By AKTIfUK B. Coi.EMAN.
IXTU()l>U(Tl<)N.
After
visits to
Soiitli Africa, Australia, and India
to study dry-
land deposits
it has become very evidtmt to the ^vriter
tliat most of
the earth
is covered
^vith
water, and
also that
a
shij)
is
tlu‘ most
tantalizing of all modes of ti*ave] for a
<2:eoIogist, since cai)tains have
a prejudice against anything of geological
interest,
such
as
ivx'k.s
or reefs
oi* shoals.
After lyJOO miles of sheltered voyaging behind
the great Australian bai*rier one may reach »lava without ever seeing
a coral reef at close
(luarters.
Exce])t the oozes dredged from the
d(‘ep sea and the contours of
its bottom revealed by soundings, the
three-quarters
of
the
globe
beneath
the
ocean
have
scarcely
any
message
for the
geologist.
That the waves and
the
tides do im-
portant geological work is true, but to hear the gi’owl of the bi‘eakers
and
to see them ])ounce on their pi’ey, one must travel
in
a
small
boat close to shore and not
in an ocean
liner.
Even to study the
action of the sea on the shore
it
is better to be on land.
The dry
shores of Lake Lonneville, as read by a (iilbert, gi\'e more instiaiction
in regard to wave woi*k than all
tlie foam and tumult of the surf on
the strand.
The geologist
is essentially a land animal, and yet until
recently
most books on geology, esi)ecially textbooks, have had surprisingly
little to say of the land and
its conditions.
The writers seemed
all
to belong to the blue-water school, so
of their space has been
given to the
scai and
its inhabitants.
Tt is true that continents were
mentioned, almost
apologetically, when one came
to
the Cenozoic
mammals, but even the Glacial period did not lift geology above tlie
sea for some of the older writers, who preferred icebergs to glaciers
for the manufacture of bowlder clay.
1 Presldcxitlnl
address
read
before the
society
Dec.
‘2l>,
101 r>.
Reprinted,
by
perrais
Bion, from Bulletin of the Geological
Society
of America,
vol.
27,
pp. 175-102, Mar.
ai,
1916.
*^55
256
ANNUAL RKPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
This concentration on the
sea and
its
life went
to
astonishing
lengths in the more ancient parts of geological history.
Like most
of our older geologists, my first nourishment in the science was drawn
from Dana’s ‘‘Manual.”
Unfortunately that
earliest
of textbooks
has been lost, but curiosity led me to glance over his fourth edition
(1895) to see how tlie dry land fares in its pages.
There is the usual fiery introduction to liistorical geology, dividing
Archean times alliteratively into Astral, Azoic, and Archeozoic eons,
with a lithic era beginning at 2,500^ F. and an oceanic era commenc-
ing w^hen the earth had cooled to 500°, followed by eras of the earliest
plants and the earliest animals as the boiling ocean
cooled
to en-
durable temperatures.
When the streaming waters had i)ermanently
(*ondensed
in the hollows of the original crust there was left a V-
shaped nucleus
of dry
land
about which
the
continent of North
America was to be built up.
After this encouraging start with
a
quite respectable dry-land area as a foundation, historical geology
becomes submerged
in
seas, mostly
shallow,
until
the end
of
the
Silurian.
Out of
11 1
pages devoted
to
this
])art
of
the
world’s
history the total number of lines referring to the land and its inhabi-
tants amount to only one page, while the Devonian land
])lants and
animals are gi^’en only 4 pages out of 40.
It is true that most of the
Carboniferous chapter
is devoted to the rank growths of the coal
swamps, but these amphibious plants have
little to do with actual
dry land.
They never
rise far above
sc^a
level and
are frequently
lowered beneath
it
to get a
fresh
(‘overing of mud
or sand.
The
araucarias of the hills inland are barely mentioned, and
it is not
till
one gets well on into the Mesozoic that the dinosaii rs compel the student
to depart a little from the seashore.
Even then there is a suggestion
that at least some of the clumsy beasts preferred si)lashing along the
mud flats or padvlling in the lagoons.
There is no hint of lean (!reatui*es
hastening with long strides to the shrinking water holes of a semi-
arid region.
Another
stand-by
of
student
days,
this time
in
(lermany, was
Credner’s “(Jeologie,” which
uj) to the end of the Devonian gives 2
pages out of 58 to the land and
its dwellers.
Only 82J pages out
of
300, up to the beginning of the Quaternary, have
to do with
terrestrial things, even the dinosaui’s almost escaping
notice.
Tlie
dry land was evidently of small importance.
It
is not unnatural that in the beginning geology should devote
itself mainly to things marine, for the favored haunts of men are
almost
all founded on
stratified
rocks.
Werner’s idea of a world
deposited layer by
layer from
a primeval
sea seemed
reasonable
when he lectured in Freiberg, though the Bergakademie stands on
©mptive gneiss; and when William Smith began stratigraphic ge-
ology, on an island where one can nei^er get many miles from the
DRY LAND IN GEOLOGY—COLEMAN.
257
sound of the surf, he had
to
collect
sea
shells from the rocks
as
coins with which to date the formations.
The regular
succession of marine faunas
in
the
stratified
rocks
laid the foundation for our clironology, showed the orderly develop-
ment of living beings, and made possible the correlation of the rocks
of different
countries.
The study of marine
fossils was necessary
to the building u]) of histori(*al geology on a sound basis, therefore,
so that the ahnast exclusive attention given to the seas and their
life was not
unjustified.
In
those
earlier days
continents had
a
place in geology mainly as limiting the migrations of marine faunas
or as providing s(Mliments for the shallow
seas.
In other respects
they
were
largely
negative
things, vacuums where
nothing took
])lace, since they provided no fossil-bearing beds, while the waters
around tlicin were swarming with life and activity.
It seemed <|uite the correct thing 35 years ago, wlien the older men
among us were
students, to spend most of our time bending over
rows of braehiopods in museum cases and memorizing lists of type
fossils, so as to fix the age of rocks we might encounter in our field
work.
In those days the wash of the waves and the smell of the
seashore seemed to permeate geology, and dry land was seldom men-
tioned
or thought of by professors or students.
Most of geology
consisted of stratigraphy and
invertebrate ])aleonlology.
Bluff old
(Vedner has some
justification for devoting nine-tentlis of his his-
torical geology to
a
consideration of the doings of the sea and
its
inhabitants.
The
land had
scarcely
been
discovered.
Even
the
‘‘Age of Mammals” was named and subdivided in accordance with
the proportions of extinct to living vshellfish and not from the rapid
evolution of tlie mammals and their differentiation into the highest
forms of animals the world has known.
DISCOVERY OF THE T.AND.
It can not be said that the early geologists entirely ignored the
land.
An unmistakable land surface,
like the “ dirt bed ”
of the
English Purbeck, with its araucarian stumps still r(X>ted in the soil,
was occasionally recognized, though such occurrences are almost un-
known in formations older than the Carboniferous.
It was recog-
nized,
also, that heat and drought best accounted
for the beds of
gypsum and rock salt found
in several of the more ancient forma-
tions, though the materials might have come from the evaporation
of inclosed aims of the sea, and so might not be really continental
deposits.
The most typical land
deposits, those of arid and of glacial
cli-
mates, were seldom recognized as such and were generally included
among the marine stratified rocks, though the absence of fossils was
258
AKNUAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, M6.
disquieting.
Even the red sandstones, with their hot, desert colors,
were often looked on as marine, or else possibly as formed in great
lakes, because they conta ined no marine fossils.
The ancient bowlder
clays were merely
coarst', water-formed
deposits of some peculiar
kind.
In most cases, however, dry-land periods are not represented by
deposits of any sort, but by the gaps in the se^pience of formations,
for normal land conditions mean
erosion and
denudation.
Their
only record
is usually
a discordance, and
a dry-land interval shown
only by an nnconformity naturally ])assed almost unnoticed.
Most
of the cha}:iters of the world's history are written under water and
show a strong l)ias toward
tlie side of the water animals.
The only continental deposits beside those of arid and glacial con-
ditions which have a goral chance of being ])reserved and recognized
are those of the coal swam])s, and they persist mainly because they
are on debatable ground
often invaded
by the
se;i.
During much
the greater ])art of the world’s history happenings on
tlie land are
recorded only in the most accidental way, as by some stray leaf or
tree tnink or carcass drifting down a river to be buried in the mud
at its mouth.
It
is seldom that land formations can be found on a
broad enough scale to reconstruct continental
surfaces and
condi-
tions.
Though
it is certain that lands and their inhabitants liave existed
in unbroken succession from early times, the lands themselves arc in
geology mostly sliadowy things.
Mlietlier they were mountainous
or flat we can only infer from the kind of sediments they sent down
to the sea.
During most of the world’s history the climate scorns to have been
jaiild and moist, even to the poles, and
deau’ts and
ice sheets were
apparently absent. We are living in an excoj^tional time character-
ized by extremes of climate and are apt to think of such extremes as
normal.
AVlien Miocene plane trees grew luxuriantly on
Spitzber-
gen, in latitude
78"", the wlmle circulatory system of air and water
must have been
difl’erent from the one we are accustomed
to.
Ex-
tremes of cold and perhaps also of dryness must have been largely
absent.
TheiT could have been no cold ocean (mrrents flowing beside
warm lands to desiccate the winds blowing over tliem, as in southern
California and nct^thern Chile, at the present time.
The most char-
acteristic land deposits, those of deserts and ice sheets, belong espe-
cially to the short periods of stress and trouble separating the long,
genial, but unenterprising, geological
ages, and hence must be rela-
tively rare in the column of formations.
These comparatively unusual types of deposits began to attract at-
tention about 60 years ago in Europe, and geologists of the Indian
survey correctly interpreted the ancient Talchir bowlder-clays in 1859,
DRY LAND IN GDOLOGY—COLEMAN.
259
With deserts before their eyes for comparison, they recognized also
ancient arid deposits.
In America not much attention was given to
continental
forUiations
till
Davis and
his
brilliant
physiographic
school, 25 years ago, began to ex]}1ain the Cenozoic beds of the west
as dry-land
deposits.
At about the same time Walther and other
Germans took up tlie cai’eful study of desert processes, giving tlie duo
to the origin of ancient
red sandstones and
their acc(jm[)animents.
Of late years most of us have paid at least brief visits to deserts and
have felt the cliarm of tlu^ir bareness, tlieir loneliness, their dear, cool,
night skies and h(»t oi’ange haze at noon, and l\avc watched the dusty
pillars of the
go-devils'’ trans[)ort
a train-load of dnst across the
Kalihari, or have seen the 1(AV daiu/e of tlie yellow sand grains as a
hot wind builds U}) a bardinn in Aubta.
We have seen the selective
carvijig of the dt'sert sand-blast on roelvs of uiuMpial hardness, have
wondei’cd at tlie brown desert varnish on exposeil ]’oek surfaces, and
have S|)eciilated as to the origin of ‘‘calcia'te'' or 'dvankar.'’
Geologists
are now
on
the
alert
ioi*
continental, and
es]>ecially
desert, formations, and
llau-e arc few red sandstones whidi Inne not
been j)icked out of the marine I'aghag and set aside as belonging to
the land.
It
is even
])o.ssii>le that the ])endulum has
in some cases
swung too far and will have <o swing hack again.
Some of the red
sandstones
or
shales handed
over
to
the
desert may
yet
disclose
marine
fossils and have to I'eturn to the seashore.
A glance tlirough recent ((^xthooks of geology
in English, Fremdi,
and German shows how Avidely attention lias been given of late years
to continental, and
e^jceially
desi'rt,
formations.
Arid conditions
have been recognized,
oi*
at
least suspected, in nearly
all the main
subdivisions of historical
geology.
They have been mentioned by
one author or another in the l^leistocenc,
tlie IMioccne, the iMiocene,
the Eocene; the Cretaceous, and the Triassic; the .Permian, the Car-
boniferous,
the
DcAonian,
the
Silurian,
and
the
Cambrian;
the
KeweenaAvaii, and possil>ly one or two earlier of the ])re-Camhrian
series.
In fact, only
tlie Jiu'assic and the Ordovician seem to ha\’e
escaped the drought, and
it may be that a more careful search through
the literature would disclose deserts there also.
A number of the suggestions noted are onlv^ tentative, however, and
wide-spread
and
unmistakable
desert formations seem
confined
to
the Pleistocene, Triassic, Permian, Devonian, and late pre-Cambrian.
Of these the Ideistocene deserts may be looked on as continuing to the
present, the Triassic deserts form an aftermath of the arid conditions
of the Permian, and the Devonian deserts seem
less extensive than
the others.
The three times of grcaitest aridity appear to be: (1) The
.PleivStocene continuing to the pi’esent;
(2) the Permian-Triassic;
(3)
the late pre-Cambrian.
ANKTJAL WPOUT SMITHSONIAK
IlsrSTIttyTlOK,
1916.
Though well known, it may not be amiss to recall some features of
these three periods of widely extended desert conditions.
ARID ZONES OF THE PLEISTOCENE AND PRESENT.
The map of the world shows two zones which are largely desert,
one in each hemisphere, with a broad zone of heavy equatorial rain-
fall between.
To the north of
tlic northern
desert
belt there are
moister conditions, and the same is true to the south of the southern
one.
There is reason to believe that Antarctica
is arid, evaporation
exceeding precipitation, and the same may be true of some Arctic
lands.
The precipitation on Spitzbergen is stated to be only 6 inches
per annum.
The two belts of deserts do not run quite parallel to the Equator.
The northern one, beginning witli tlie Sahara and Nubian Deserts, in
Africa, runs northeastward through the Aral)inn and Indian Deserts
to those of central Asia, where tlie desert of (lol)! reaches nearly
50"^
of north latitude.
In Noiili America desert conditions are less ex-
tensive and do not extend hi^yond latitude
“lO"" or 15'^.
In the Southern Hemisphere tlie bodies of land are much smaller,
and the deserts of South Africa, Australia, and South America are
correspondingly small as comj>ared with those north of the Equator.
Their southern limits are, roughly, 30"^, 40°, and 45° south latitude.
Penck has
shoAvn,
I think
satisfactorily, that these
desert
belts
migrate toward the Equator in cold periods, narroAving the zone of
tropic
rains, and move
respectively
north
and
south
in
Avarmer
periods.
In the mildest geological periods it Avould almost seem as if
the equatorial belt of Avarmth and moisture expanded to cover the
w^hole earth, abolishing both deserts and ice-sheets, and these appear
to be the normal
conditions when peneplanatiou
lias advanced far
and shallow seas transgress
AA idely over the continents^
ARID
T'EKIOD OF THE PERMIAN AND
TRTASSTO.
Going back to Permian and Triassic times, much of
tlie evidence
has been buried or destroyed
; yet
it is certain tliat deserts extended
widely in many lands.
Red sandstones, arkoses, and shales with mud
cracks and footprints, beds of salt and gypsum, are reported from
England, Germany, Austria, and Russia in regions now well watered.
In North America there were the Avidespread red beds of tlie Rocky
Mountain region and the band of desert sandstones extending from
Prince Edward Island southwest to Virginia
; so that arid conditions
covered far more of Europe and North America than noAV.
In India
» ple Pornien der LnndoberllJiche u. Verschiebungen der Kllmogtirtel, Koenlgllche, Preus.
Afe.. Vol.
4, 1913.
mr LAND IK GEOLOGY--OOLEMAN.
261
the Gondwana system includes great thicknesses of coarse sandstone
with bands of conglomerate, supposed to be of fluviatile origin, ter-
restrial deposits, but perhaps not of a specially arid kind
;
^ but no
other references to Asiatic land conditions have been found.
I. C.
White reports a thick series of massive red and gray sandstones, prob-
ably of Triassic age, resting on Glossopteris beds with coal seams in
Brazil, but expresses no opinion as to the climate during the de-
position
of these upper beds.
The basal conglomerate under
the
coal he thinks glacial.^
Red beds of sandstone and conglomerate to
the thickness of 1,600 feet occur, according to Rogers, in the Karroo
system of South Africa, but he puts them probably above the Tri-
assic.'*
Whether the
1,100
feet of Ilawkesbury sandstones of the
Triassic in New South Wales, with their steep cross-bedding, bands
of conglomerates, woi'in tracks and sun cracks, ini|)ly an arid period
in Australia
is perhaps uncertain, though they are undoubtedly con-
tinental deposits.^
It will be seciii that land formations, often of a very arid kind, are
found in most of the continents in Permian or Triassic times.
They
seem to occur rather later in the regions which endure the cold of
the Permocarboniferous glaciation than in Europe and in our West-
ern States, but the correlation is not very certain.
These
New Red ”
deserts following on the heels of the severest ice age on record close
ilie Paleozoic calamitously.
It
is not surprising that such extreme
climatic changes put an end to the lush growths of the coal swamps,
so that only hardy plants survived, and hastened the departure of
the semiaquatic amphibia, while giving an impetus to the develop-
ment of the reptiles as dry-land inhabitants.
There must have been very dry conditions during the Upper Silu-
rian (Salina) of America, as shown by the salt and gypsum beds of
New York, Ohio, Ontario, and Manitoba; and the succeeding Old
Red beds of Scotland and other European countries suggest a similar
climate, but I have not found evidence of arid conditions on a wide
enough scale to make it desirable to discuss them here.
LATE PRE-CAMBRIAN DESERTS.
Desert characters have been ascribed to sandstones, perhaps be-
longing to the earliest Cambrian, but more probably the uppermost
pre-Cambrian, in many parts of the world.
They include apparently
the Keweenawan and part of the Belt series in America, the Torri-
donian of Scotland, part of the Gaisa beds of Norway, perhaps also
the Sparagmite of Sweden and the Jotnian of Finland.
Whether
' Oldham
: Geology of India, 2d edition, pp. 150—151.
“Brazilian
coal
fields, p. 31.
“Geology of Cape Colony,
p. 216.
“Geology of New South Wales. SuesHmileh.
pp. 158-160,
78839“—BM 1916
^18
Siftg
ANKtrAl. BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN iNSTITUTtON, 1916.
the Matsap beds of Cape Colony and some of the Kuddapah sand-
stones of India, described as shore deposits, or the Vindhian sand-
stones and conglomerates should bo included is uncertain.
If these are all of the same age and have been correctly interpreted
as arid deposits, this was the most severe and extensive period of
desert conditions known.
In many places on the Canadian Shield
the coarse red sandstones, usually with some conglomerate
at the
base, may be seen resting on an Archean surface of granitoid gneiss
or Keewatin schist or Animikie slate, the original land surface of
gently rounded
hills and shallow
valleys belonging to an ancient
peneplain.
In some outcrops the crumbling gneiss beneath, an old
regolith, provides most of the materials for the basal conglomerate.
This is true at various points on the north shore of Lake Superior
and apparently also in Scotland, where the Torridonian rests on the
Iiewisian.
The Lake Superior Keweenawan, though much the best
known, is on a small scale as compared with the areas of sandstone
of the same age farther north in Canada.
The Athabasca sandstones
of Tyrrell, those of Great Bear Lake and of central Labrador, not
to speak of smaller areas, indicate a very broad surface exposed to
arid conditions in North America.
These red sandstones still ocoupy
not less than 50,000 square miles, and it is certain that much greater
areas of such relatively soft and easily attacked rocks have been de-
stroyed in the long dry-land periods of later times.
It appears that in this desert period the arid districts were mainly
in the Northern Hemisphere and to the north of latitude 48°—that
isi, very much farther north than the belt of deserts of the present
Northern Hemisphere.
It
is unknown, of
course, to what extent
Keweenawan rocks are buried to the south of Lake Superior or of
Hcotland.
The breadth of the belt as known in North America is at
least 20°, since rocks of this age reach nearly to 70° north latitude
in the region north of Great Bear Lake.
The Gaisa beds on Varan-
ger Fjord, in Norway, reach the same latitude, and the Scotch Torri-
donian about latitude 58°.
It is hard to imagine red soils, drifting sands, and the hot winds of
deserts as existing in regions now tundra-covered and frigid
; but this
seems to have been true in the more northern areas.
GLACIAL PERIODS.
far arid conditions only have been mentioned, but the best
jpreserved land surfaces of the past are those sealed up unchangeably
beneath glacial deposits.
It seems absurd to couple together deserts
end glaciers, so opposite to one another in every respect; neverthe-
in running down the column of historical geology one finds these
phenomena closely linked together,
In almeet ell the
BBY LAKD m GEOLOGY—COLEMAN,
263
periods where aridity has been proved there have been found also
proofs of ice action, the two seemingly hostile conditions occuning
either at the same time in different parts of the world or one after the
other in the same region. We live in the closing stages of a great
Glacial period, extensive ice sheets still surviving in Greenland and
the Arctic Islands, as well as in Antarctica, and yet wide deserts are
found in all continents save Europe.
More or less certain evidence of ice action has been found in the
Pleistocene, the Eocene, the Cretaceous, the Triassic, the Permian, or
Permocarboniferous, the Carboniferous,
the Devonian, or possibly
Upper Silurian, perhai)s the Cambrian, certainly the late pre-Cam-
brian, and the Lower Huronian.
The list just given
is closely par-
allel to that given for the arid periods.
Only four of these glacial times are of prime importance—those
of the Pleistocene, the Permocarboniferous, the late pre-Cambrian,
and the Lower Huronian.
PLEISTOCENE ICE AGE.
The Pleistocene ice age, from wliich the world
is just emerging,
unless this happens to be an interglacial period,
is so familiar that
little need be said of it.
Bowlder-clay, moraines, and deposits formed
by glacial waters occur over 6,000,000 square miles of the Northeni
Hemisphere; smaller areas are found in the Southern Hemisphere,
and Pleistocene moraines reach thousands of feet below the present
glaciers on high mountains all over the world, even under the Equa-
tor, showing that the climates of the wdiole world were affected.
Be-
neath the glacial deposits in many places there are characteristically
smoothed and striated rock surfaces, though near the edges of the
ancient ice sheets tliere are thousands of square miles where loose
materials were not swept away to bedrock.
The central areas were
most effectively scoured, and in many places the rocks beneath, owing
to
unequal
hardness,
have
been
shaped
into
roches
moiitonnees,
forming hills well rounded on the side from which the ice advanced.
Bowlder-clay
is
a highly specialized product of land
ice;
floating
ice, such as floes or bergs, is not known to produce
it, the materials
dropped through the water when melting being necessarily more or
less
stratified.
The
‘‘soled bowlders”
or
“striated
stones” from
bowlder-clay have special characters not caused by any other agency,
such as mudflows or torrential action.
They are manufactured arti-
cles, easily recognized by one familiar with glacier work, and not to
be confounded with
stones scratched
or smoothed
in other ways.
These familiar features are recalled because they serve as criteria
fof the recognition of the ancient glaciations to be mentioned latert
264
AKKIUL AKPOET BMiraSOKlAK iKStlTtJTIOK, 1W6.
ITie hummocky, moiitonn6es surfaces left by the Pleistocene gla-
ciers on Archean rocks which have disordered structures and vai’y in
durability are very characteristic and were once looked on as the di-
rect handiwork of the ice sheets themselves.
The clean and polished
surfaces
of
fresh
rock,
generally
well
striated and
often
deeply
scored, are eloiiuent of the stripping and grinding of the glacier, but
the original surface forms have not been greatly changed, as will be
shown later.
Most of the great Pleistocene ice sheets gathered on comparatively
low ground and reached scale vel, often occn[>ying large areas of shal-
low sea-bottom as Avell as the land.
Few of them began in mountain
regions, and
tlie flow of those on
level ground vas caused by the
slope of the upper surface of the ice mass and not by the inclination
of the floor beneath.
They could even mo\e uphill for thousands of
feet, when the ice sheet was thick enough
in the center, and their
flow took place outward in all directions.
Doubtless conditions were similar in earlier glaciations, and
it is
not necessary to assume great mountain ranges to account for them,
as some geologists ha\e done.
rPUlMOCAUBONIFKKOlJS JCK A(JE.
The first undoubted proofs of ancient glaciation seem to have been
found by the Blandfords in India, and the first memoir of the Indian
survey (1859) contains a brief account of the Talchir tillite in central
India, illustrated by a rough sketch.
Soon after South African and
Australian tillites of the same age were described.
There was at first
a good
deal of skepticism expressed by European and American
geologists as to the reality of the discoveries.
Ramsay’s interpreta-
tion of certain English bowlder conglomerates as glacial a few years
before had been disputed, which cast doubt on the new reports from
the far east and south.
Was not the Carboniferous a tropical time,
even in the Arctic regions?
Glaciers and the steamy coal swamps
did not mix well together.
Since then, however, many northern geologists, including expert
glacialists, have studied these marvelous deposits, and for a number
of years no one has doubted their glacial origin, in spite of the fact
that most of the localities are in what are now warm, temperate, or
ev^n tropical regions.
All the evidences for the ice action on a large
SCJtle found in our Pleistocene are repeated, with the difference that
the Pleistocene till ceases about 38° from the Equator, while the Tal-
ehir tillite in India reaches well within the Tropics (18° North) and
I^ermocarboniferous
tillite in West Australia touches the Tropics.
Iiq Sotith Africa the Dwyka tillite reaches 24° 30', or even 22®,^ and
—
literature
see
Glacial
periods and
their
bearing on
geological
theorloa,
by
the
Bull. Geol.
Soc, Am.,
vol.
19, pp. 547-366, and bchuchert: CMmates of geologto
lust.,
Pub. No.
192,
pp. 263-298.
^
mY I^ND m GEOtOGY*--H:JOLEMAK^
26?
L C. White and Woodworth report similar tillites between 26® anc
30® in southern Brazil.^
New localities have been reported withir
the last few years in Argentina ^ and the Falkland Islands
; ® but onlj
few and unimportant occurrences are known in the Northern Hemi-
sphere outside of India.
They have been reported from Herat
ir
Afghanistan, Armenia, and the Urals; and in western Europe thej
have been described from central France^ and the Frankenwald.^
In North America tillites, probably of the same age, have been founc
by Sayles near Boston ® and by Cairnes on the Alaskan boundary.'
A year ago, near Penganga Kiver, under the hot sun of India, ir
latitude 19® or 20®, I walked across fields of ancient till strewn witi
glaciated stones and bowlders and stood on a well-polished and stri-
ated surface of Vindhian limestone, as typical as can be found
ir
Ontario or northern New York.
This resurrection of an ice-workec
surface of the Paleozoic, in what are now the sweltering Tropics,
gives a glacial geologist something to ponder over; and to see the
same things in Africa and Australia, only on a much larger scale, af
I have had occasion to do within the last few years, raises some o^
the most thrilling problems in all geology.
Our Pleistocene ice age, with its array of glacial and interglacia
beds, was merely an imitation on a much smaller and less impressive
scale of the tremendous Paleozoic ice age, which laid down in places
1,000 feet or more of till and included interglacial times long enmigl
to form great coal seams, as in the (ireta beds of New South Wales.
These ancient bowlder-clays and moutonnees rock surfaces of the
southern continents bring us face to face with the most dramatic
moment in geology, when a world, enervated by the moist, hot-house
conditions of the earlier Carboniferous, found
itself in the grip o
the fiercest and longest winter of the ages, followed by the merciless
droughts of the Permian and Triassic.
LATK PRE-CAMBRIAN ICE AGE.
Still more ancient tillites have been found in a number of regions
sometimes described as Lower Cambrian;
at others as Uppermost
pre-Cambrian.
In a few cases Cambrian fossils have been collectec
in beds above the tillite, but, so far as I am aware, never beneath
it.
1 Braziliftn oonl
fields, pp. 11-15; and geological expedition to Brazil and
Chile.
Bull
Mas. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. 66, No.
1.
•Keidel: Compte Rendu, Geol. Congress, XTI Session, 1914,
p. 676.
» Halle:
Geol. Mag.,
ii.
s., Dec.
5,
vol.
5, pp. 264-205.
* Compte Rendu,
1895,
vol.
117,
p.
265.
Striated
stones and
angular
blocks up
t<
12 or 16
cubic meters arc
described.
®J. B. G. G„ 1898, vol. 46,
p. 09.
Bowlders occur scattered through unstrattfled gray-
w&cke
In
the upper Culm.
® Sayles and La Forge:
Science,
n.
s.,
vol.
32,
pp. 723-724;
also Harvard
Bull. Mu»
Comp. Zool.,
vol.. .56, No.
2.
^G. S. C., Mem, 67, Alaska Boundary Survey, pp. 91-92,
266
AHJSrtTAL
SMlTHgOKlAJ^
iKSIPITtTXlOK, %m.
It is possible that there were two early ice ages, with an interval
between ; but it seems more probable that they are of the same age
and
all
really pre-Cambrian.
The Australians believe that their
more ancient tillites are Cambrian, however.
Tillites have been suggested at two places in the Keweenawan of
America.
They occur in the Gaisa beds of Norway, where there is a
striated surface beneath; perhaps also in the Torridonian of Scot-
land.
In Australia IIo^\chm describes an area of 460 miles by 260,
and they are found also in Tasmania.
They are reported from the
Nant’ou formation in China; the Griquatown series in Cape Colony,
where they have an area of at least
1,000 square miles, and near
Simla, in India.
The last two mentioned may be older than the
Keweenawan.
Sir Thomas Holland thinks the Simla tillite may even
be as old as the ITuronian.
These tillites belong to higher latitudes than those of the Permo-
carboniferoiis, none coming nearer the Equator than 29^
; but some
of them occupy regions now warm temperate, ^\hile the ice sheets of
the Pleistocene halted at about 38*^ in North and South America and
52° in Europe.
In so old a period one can hardly evpect to find very
complete evidence of the area covered by glaciers; but this ice age
seems to have been more severe than that of the Pleistocene.
•
HimONIAN ICE \CE
Much farther off in the abyss of pre-Cambiian time is the Lower
Huronian Glacial period, thus far known with certainty only from
the Canadian Shield, unless the tillite reported by Hintze from the
Wasatch Mountains and that from Simla in India are to be referred
to so early an age. A characteristic tillite with well-striated stones
has been found in the famous Cobalt region, its hard bowlder-clay
cut by the richest veins of native silver in the world.
Striated stones
have been found also 60 miles to the east, in the Province of Quebec,
by member’s of Morley Wilson’s geological survey party
and one
from the original Huronian region, 160 miles to the southwest, has
been figured by Collins.^
Areas of similar coarse bowlder conglom-
erate or tillite, sometimes inclosing blocks tons in weight and miles
jfrom their source, have been mapped at various points as far north-
east as Chibougamau, 320 miles from Cobalt, and have been found
also to the west of Cobalt.
They are wddely scattered over the Cana-
di^m Shield and were once much more extensive, covering, no doubt,
many thousands of square miles.
In most cases the tillite rests with gentle dips on the low hills and
fhallolv valleys of a peneplain closely resembling the present Lauren-
1 G
S
C
, Mem. 30, pp
88-97
® G, S. C
, Museum Bull
, No.
8, plate
mt lAm m moi^
267
tian peneplain.
In some places the
tillite passes downward, with
no visible break, into an old regolith due to the decay of the Lau-
rentian gneiss or Keewatin greenstone beneath.
In others the rock
below has been smoothed and polished, though no stride have yet been
found on
it.
It
is impressive to come on this old land surface half way down
in the pre-Cambrian succession, yet as thoroughly baseleveled as the
neighboring undulating surface of gneiss and greenstone, from which
rain and frost are now stripping the bowlder clay.
The continent
sealed up beneath the Huronian tillite looks as finished and as ancient
as the Laurentian peneplain beneath the bowlder clay of the last ice
age.
The strenuous history of the world since Huronian days could
add nothing
appreciable to
its hoary
antiquity.
Great mountain
ranges had already been gnawed down to the bare crystalline founda-
tions before the ice of the Huronian covered the surface with bowlder
clay, and this all happened long before a trilobite was entombed in the
mud of a Cambrian sea.
Though the extent of the Huronian
ice sheet
is only imperfectly
known, it is certain that a plain in all respexjts like that beneath the
tillite stretches 2,000 miles northwestward to the Arctic Ocean and
more than 1,000 miles northeastward to the edge of Labrador, for
flat-lying areas of Animikie or Kew’eenawan rocks cover a dozen
broad
areas
of
similar peneplain
in other parts
of
the Canadian
Shield.
The same plain slips gently under Silurian and Devonian
sediments
in the
central depression of Hudson Bay, under Ordo-
vician
limestone
and Potsdam
sandstone
in
Ontario,
and
under
Silurian,
Devonian,
and
Cretaceous
rocks toward
the
southwest.
How far the unchanged pre-Huronian peneplam or its little changed
successor extends southwestward beneath the stratified rocks
is un-
known.
Much of this vast surface has been buried at one time or another
and sheltered from erosion by marine sediments, and has since been
disinterred scarcely modified, but
it
is probable that
it was never
all covered by the
sea
at once.
Portions
of
it seem
to have
re-
mained dry land
as
cities of refuge for the inhabitants
in every
inundation.
That other continental nuclei have had similar histories may be
considered certain.
In Scotland and Scandinavia nearly horizontal
pre-Cambrian beds, whether of glacial origin or not, cover a pene-
plain closely like ours, and quartzites and conglomerates called pre
•
Cambrian may be seen resting with gentle dips on a similarly trun-
cated
plain
in
West
Australia.
Near
Clackline,
for
instance,
Huronian-looking quartzite rests on gneiss penetrated by pegmatiti)
dikes, and at several places in the neighborhood of Kalgouilie ancl
268
AKNUAL EEPOKT SMITHSONIAK INSI^TITTION,
1910.
Koolgardie a somewhat tilted conglomerate, like that of the American
Huronian, overlies the steeply dipping gneissoid rocks.
PIIE-IIURONIAN LAND CONDITIONS.
No unchanged land surface has yet been found below the peneplain
just
descrilxjd, but important land areas can be inferred with
cer-
tainty, though now
obliterated by squeezing and folding and the
metamorphism due to eruptive granites.
The great development of
clastic sedimentary rocks included under the names of Seine Series,
Sudbury Series, Terniscaming Series, etc., widely distributed over the
Canadian Shield, imply broad lands and even mountain ranges far
older than those destroyed before the Huronian.
They generally begin with a great basal conglomerate, so coarse
and bowldery sometimes as to suggest ice action, but squeezed and
rolled out and folded in w^lth other rocks in ways that make the find-
ing of striated stones or a striated surface beneath quite hopeless.
It
is, however, highly probable that the climate was in general cool and
moist, for the rocks are gray and often include arkoses, with
little
weathered feldspars, though Lawson speaks of the S(uno conglomer-
ate in one place as “ fanglomerate ” of desert formation.
The rocks
as a whole suggest a continental
origin, and
their materials must
have come from the weathering of land surfaces.
Some of the gray-
wackes and slates are very evenly bedded and show regular altera-
tions of coarser and finer materials, caused by varying seasons, either
warm and cold or wet and dry.
They resemble the stratified silt and
clay laid down in glacial lakes at the end of the Pleistocene.
Seder-
holm’s Bothnian slates, with seasonal banding, probably of somewhat
the same age, show similar conditions in Finland.
Land can be discovei’ed still farther down in the misty depths of
time, for the pebbles of the Seine and Dore conglomcu’ates include far
older sedimentary rocks derived from the Keewatin or Couchiching
or Grenville series, showing vast destruction of land surfaces in pre-
Laurentian ages at the very beginning of the geological record.
These glimpses of American land surfaces in a past twice removed
from the ancient pre-Huronian continent give one a strange
vista
into a dim anti(|uity almost infinitely remote from a dweller in the
post-Pleistocene.
There
is no visible beginning to dry land on the
continent of America.
WHY SHOULD THERE BE DRY LAND?
Though
it
is commonly
accepted
that
there were lands
in the
^rliest known times, there are geologists who hold a theory of the
ojHigin of the world which logically excludes the possibility of land
l&owiug
itself above the
sea.
The original nebular hypothesis,
if
mr LAND m geology—coleman.
269
followed without mishap from the stage of a cooling gas to that of
a liquid, and then of a solid, would result in a correct spheroid of
rotation.
The lithosphere thus formed would be covered by an un-
broken hydrosphere, followed in its turn by an atmosphere. A good
workman would certainly ha^’e come close enough to the ideal form
of his world to prevent errors amounting to GO.OOO feet. A properly
manufactured world, following the orthodox nebular process, would
be completely covered by an ocean 8,000 or 10,000 feet deep.
This
ideal world
without
a continent or an
island would have
avoided manj^
difficulties.
Land animals, blundering, bloodthirsty,
even
cannibal
in
tlieir crude
instincts,
could
never have
existed.
The ocean itself might never have been inhabited
if life originated,
as
is commonly
sup])osed, under
shallow-water
conditions.
How
quiet and peaceable such a woidd wmuld have been
!
One almost longs
for it under the turmoil of present conditions.
A world without land would have had its disadvantages, however.
There could have been no geologists and no geology.
But it is idle to speculate as to the possibilities of a landless world.
The blunder w^as (‘ommitted and the lithosphere w^as so far warped
out of shape that more than a quarter of it rises above the sea.
One
might inquire, liow^ever, whether the blunder might not have been
rectified by providing more wuitcr, so as to drowm out the objection-
able lands.
We know that there have been times when much of the
present continental area w\as encroached on by the
sea.
Was there
more
w’^ater
then, or
wu\s
it merely
differently
arranged'i^
Large
amounts of wuiter are wdthdrawui from circulation by
tlie hydration
of various minerals.
Arc they balanced by the amounts restored as
juvenile w\aters and the steam from volcanoes, assuming, of course,
that vol(;anoes give
off steam and not ammonium chloinde?
Prob-
ably most geologists take it for granted that the amount of water on
the globe is nearly constant from age to age.
The existence of dry land at
all when there
is so much water on
the earth
is a profound mystery not even j^lausibly explained by the
nebular hypothesis, since
it demands an inexcusable irregularity in
the working of the nebular machinery.
HAVE OCEANS AND <K)NTINENTS EVER CHANGED PLACES?
Admitting
that
in
the beginning the
lithosphere bulged up
in
places, so as to foinn continents, and sagged in other places, so as to
form ocean beds, there are interesting problems presented as to the
permanence of land and
seas.
All
will admit marginal changes
affecting large areas, but these encroachments of the sea on the conti-
nents and the later retreats may be of quite a subordinate kind, not
implying an interchange of deep sea bottoms and land surfaces.
The
essential permanence of continents and oceans has been firmly held
2Y0
EEPOET SMITHSONIAH INSXITUTIOK, M6.
by many geologists, notably Dana among the older ones, and seems
reasonable ; but there are other geologists, especially paleontologists,
as well as zoologists and botanists, who display great recklessness in
rearranging land and sea.
The trend of a mountain range, or the
convenience of a running bird, or of a marsupial afraid to wet its
feet seems sufficient warrant for hoisting up any sea bottom to con-
nect continent with continent. A Gondwana Land aidses in place of
an Indian Ocean and sweeps across to South America, so that
a
spore-bearing plant can follow up an ice age
; or an Atlantis ties New
England to Old England to help out the migrations of a shallow-
water fauna; or a ‘‘Lost Land of Agulhas” joins South Africa and
India.
It is curious to find these revolutionary suggestions made at a time
when geodesists are demonstrating that the earth’s crust over large
areas, and perhaps everywhere, approaches a state of isostaiic equilib-
rium, and that isostatic compensation is probably complete at a depth
of only 76 miles.
Hayford’s results have been ably supported and
applied by my predecessor, Dr. Becker, in his address last year, but
some geologists hesitate to accept them.
Barrell, after an elaborate
discussion of the whole question, thinks the equilibrium much
less
complete than Hayford’s results would suggest, but his arguments
do not seem entirely convincing.^
Great stress
is laid on the sub-
marine deltas of the Nile and the Congo as loads which should have
depressed the floor on which they were laid down, but have not done
so.
It should be remembered, however, that we know them only
from
soundings, and
that
assumptions
regarding them
are more
or less hypothetical.
On the other hand, the delta of the Mississippi
seems to conform to the theory of isostasy, and there are numerous
examples of depression going hand in hand with the formation of
shallow-water
deposits
quite
in accord
with
the
isostatic
theory.
The 14,000 feet of coal measures at the Joggins are an instance.
But
more convincing
still
is Fairchild’s demonstration
that a wave of
elevation followed up the retreat of the ice front during the closing
stages of the Glacial period.
The thickness of
ice near
its margin
could not have been more than a few thousand
feet, perhaps half a
mile, which would mean in weight of rock only 750 feet.
If the stiff
carapace of the earth in the State of New York yielded to so slight
a change of load
it
is hardly credible that 9,900
feet of sediments
spread over 75,000 square miles of sea bottom off the coast of Africa
could have no effect.
If I understand Barrell’s discussion aright, his differences from
Hftyford’s conclusions are rather of degi’ee than of kind.
He thinks
the earth’s crust more rigid and considers adjustments to change of
» Articles on the strength of the earth’s crust.
Jour. Oeol., vols. 22 and 28,
DRY LAND IK GEOLOGY—COLEMAK.
271
load much less complete, and also that they are carried out by slow
movements in the “asthenosphere” much below Hayford’s level of
complete compensation at 76 miles below the surface.
He would probably agree that on the broad scale continents are
buoyed up because they are light, and ocean bottoms are depressed
because the matter beneath them is heavy.
He would admit that to
transform great areas of sea bottom into land
it would be necessary
either to expand the rock beneath by several per cent or to replace
heavy
roclc, such
as
basalt, by
lighter materials, such
as
granite.
There is no obvious way in which the rock beneath a sea bottom can
be expanded enough to
lift
it 20,000
feet, as would be necessary in
parts of the Indian Ocean, to form a Gondwana land; so one must
assume that light rocks replace heavy ones beneath a million square
miles of the ocean
floor.
Even with unlimited time,
it
is hard to
imagine
a mechanism that could do the work, and no convincing
geological evidence can be brought forward to show that such a thing
ever took place.
Discussing this question not long ago in the Journal of Geology,
Prof.
Chamberlin showed
that the only
typical
case
of
deep-sea
deposits found on land, the well known one of the Barbadoes, occurs
on one of the great hinge lines around wdiich motions of the earth’s
crust take place and has no real hearing on the change of ocean bot-
toms of continents^
The same may be said of the deep-sea deposits
on Timor, in the East Indies, recently described by Molengraaff.^
In position Timor is almost the counterpart of the Barbados in the
West Indies.
The distribution of plants and animals should be arranged for by
other means than by the wholesale elevation of ocean beds to make
dry-land bridges for them.
W. D. Matthew’s excellent paper on
climate and evolution suggests w^ays in which this may be done more
economically.
The elevation of mountain chains by folding or the overriding of
blocks might be expected to ipake trouble for the isostatic theory
; but
the two best knowm examples, the Rockies and the Himalayas, seem
to be approximately in isostatic equilibrim.
In the case of the Hima-
layas, the youngest and highest of the great mountain systems,
it is
staggering to
find nummulitic beds 20,000
feet above the sea; but
however
it was managed, enough light material seems to have been
introduced beneath to float the mountains at about the proper height.
We may conclude that, broadly speaking, the dry-land areas have
always been where they are now^
The adjustments of the boundaries
of land and sea have been confined to the mai*gins of the continental
masses.
* Jour.
(Jool.,
vol, 22, pp.
131,
etc.
* Kouinklljke Akad. v. Wotonsohappen, Amsterdam, deel 24, pp 415-430.
272
ANNtJAL JffiPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1918.
TELEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
There are certain teleological features of the relations of land and
water to which attention may l)e drawn in closing.
Without water,
no
life such as we know would be
possible.
On the other hand,
uniformly deep water over the whole earth, such as might have been
e.xpected in a rigidly mechanical scheme, would probably not have
provided the conditions necessai’y for the development of
life.
An
apparently accidental lack of homogeneity in the eai'th allows lighter
parts to rise above what would otherwi.se have been a univensal sea.
The combined efforts of the epigene forces since the earliest known
times ha^'o been directed toward the destruction of continents and
islands and their reduction to shoals completely covered by the sea,
but their efforts have always Ix'en foiled by movements originating
in the earth’s interior.
No continent seems to have been completely
submerged since Triassic times.
The life of land plants and animals
appears to have been uninterrupted since that time on
all the con-
tinents.
There has been perpetual oscillation in respect to the area and eleva-
tion of land exposed, but on the whole the balance has been care-
fully maintained.
But for the presence of oceans of water, of an
abnormal lightne.ss in some parts of the earth’s crust, and an unfail-
ing balance for .50,000,000 years between the forces of elevation and
of destruction, life such as ours would have been impos,sible.
Can we
look on these surprising adjustments as merely accidental?
THE PETKOLEUM RESDUKCES OF THE UNITED
STATES.*
By
liAuiHi AuNor.D.
JN'rUOjniOTlON.
In
1908 wlion
llio
n^itarion
for
llie
uoiisorvalioii
of
oiir
ininoral
and other imtura]
resoui‘ces was at
its liei^ht,
a
|)a[)or was prepared
by Dr. David T. Day on ‘‘The Petroleum
Resources of the TTnited
States.’' “
It was the
privilejre of the writer to contribute some of
the data upon which Dr. Day based his conclusions.
Since the prep-
aration
of that
article much development
Avork has been done
in
this country, new
fields have been opened
up, and the
possibilities
of the older fields have been more closely studied.
The present paper
is intended as a revision of Dr. Day's thesis in view of the latest in-
formation pertaining to the subject.
The writer wishes to acknowl-
edge
his
indebtedness
to
the
following, among
others,
Avho
have
contributed data used in the i)reparation of these estimates: James
H. Gardner, M.
J. Munn, Prof. L.
C. Glenn, Prof. G.
1). Harris,
and Eichard E. Ilice.
kxti:nt OB THE lucTuomorM fields.
The
oil
fields of the United
States
usually
are
(dassified
as the
Appalachian, Lima-Indiana,
Illinois,
Mid-Continent,
Gulf, Eocky
Mountain, California, and Alaska.
AppalaeMan
field.—The Appalachian
field extends from
south-
western New Yoi\
through
Avestern
Pennsylvania,
southeastern
Ohio, West
Virginia, and
eastern
Kentucky,
into
northern
Ten-
nessee.
The formations yielding the
oil throughout this
field
in-
clude
those
of
the Devonian and
Carboniferous.
The
oil
occurs
along the axes and on the flanks of
anticlines, parallel in general
with the strike of the Appalachian Mountains, and on minor
ter-
races or other structures associated AAuth them.
Occasionally
it has
iRepriuted by permission from Economic Geology,
A^ol,
10, No.
8, December, 1915.
*Bull. U.
S.
Geol. Survey, No.
394,
pp. 30-50, 1909.
274
ANNUAL EEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916,
been found in waterless
synclines.
The
reservoir rocks are prin-
cipally sandstones and
coarse sediments.
The
oil from
this
field
is of the best quality in the world, yielding a high percentage of
the lighter oils such as gasoline and kerosene, and is utilized entirely
for refining.
It
is of paraffin base and varies in gravity from 25°
to 50° Beaume (0.0032 to 0.7778 sp. gr.), the heavier grades coming
only from the southern end of the
field.
The price of tlie “ Penn-
sylvania grade”
oil
is always high, ranging up to $2.50 per barrel.
The average daily production of the wells
is low, being 0.2 to 0.4
barrels in 1911.
This field is almost completely developed except the
portions
in Kentucky and
Tennessee, and
e\'en
here
recent pros-
pecting has resulted negatively in a majority of cases.
l/irmi-IndiwnAi field .—The Lima~Indiana field covers a considerable
portion
of
northwestern
Ohio
and
eastern
Indiana.
The
oil
is
derived from the Ordovician, Silurian, and Carboniferous, largely
from the Trenton limestone, the reservoir lock being porous dolo-
mitic
lenses or beds
or
sandstones.
Favorable
structures, such
as
half domes,
terraces,
etc., on the
flanks of
the
Cincinnati
uplift,
Usually harbor the commercial deposits.
The oil
is of paraffin base,
varies in gravity from 30° to 35° Beaume
(0.8750 to 0.8484 sp. gi\),
carries a little sul])hur, and is utilized entirely for refining purposes.
The average initial daily production of the wells up to 1911 was 15.5
barrels;
the average
daily production per well was
0.7 barrel
for
that year.
This field also is practically outlined, although new pools
are even yet being occasionally discovered.
Illinois field —The Illinois field occupies a strip of territory along
the La Salle anticline in the southeastern part of the State.
It also
extends a short distance into Indiana.
The
oil
is derived largely
from the Pennsylvanian and a
little from the upper Mississippian
(both Carboniferous), and
o<:curs principally
in well-defined sand-
stone horizons along the crest of the asymmetric La Salle anticline.
Impregnation
is governed locally by the lithology.
A
little of the
oil comes from
limestone.
The
oil
is
of
paraffin
base,
although
locally carrying some
asphalt, ranges
in gravity from 28°
to 39°
Beaume
(0.8860 to 0.8284
sp. gr.), and
is used principally for re-
fining purposes.
The average initial daily production up to 19H
was 63 barrels ; the average daily production of the individual wells
for the same year was
4.2
barrels.
With the exception
of some
possible territory in the western part of the State the Illinois pro-
ductive area is well defined at the present time.
Mid^Continent f>eld .—The Mid-Continent field comprises the pools
iu Oklahoma, southeastern Kansas, and northern Texas.
The
oil
is secured from
the sandstones of
the Pennsylvania
(Carbonifer-
ous)
formations in domes, half domes or terraces, and local
anti^
cliue# on the flanks of the great Ozark uplift.
The oil is of paraffin
PETROLEUM RESOURCES—^ARNOLD.
275
base, varying in gravity from 27*" to 41° Beaume
(0.8917 to 0.8187
sp. gr.), and is used for refining.
It is piped to the Gulf and also
to Indiana and other eastern States.
The development in this field
has been plienoinenal during the past few years, some of the pools
being exceedingly productive.
The average initial daily production
of the wells in 1011 was 110 barrels; the average daily x)roduction
8.6 barrels.
A
fair percentage of the region embraced in this field
yet remains
to be prospered, the bulk of the
untested land lying
in Texas.
Gulf
field ,—The
Gulf
field
includes
the
pools
lying
along
the
coastal plain of Louisiana and Texas.
The
oil occurs for the most
part
in domes
or quaquaversals
associated
with
salt and gypsum
deposits.
The age of the containing rocks ranges from Cretaceous
to Quaternary.
The reservoir rock is usually porous doloinitic lime-
stone or sandstone.
The
oil of northern Louisiana occurs
in Cre-
taceous and Eocene rocks along an iiplilt or
fold.
The
oils of the
Gulf field vary greatly in composition; those
in the strictly coastal
belt vary from irc to 27.7"^ Beaume (0.9655 to 0.8878 sp. gr.) and are
of asphalt base; those of northern Louisiana vary from 25° to 43.6°
Beaume
(0.f>031 to 0.8065 sp. gr.) and are of paraffin base.
Sulphur
usually accompanies the heavy oil.
The lighter oils are used for re-
fining, the heavier for fuel.
Some of the individual wells have been
exceedingly productive, a daily flow of 75,000 barrels being recorded
for one at least.
The pools usually are quite short-lived.
In 1911
the average
initial
daily flow
for the Gulf
coastal
pools was 257
barrels;
for
northern
Louisiana,
1,176
barrels;
the
daily
average
for the field, 60 barrels.
Some territory still remains untested in this
field.
Rocky Maujitain f£ld.—The Kocky Mountain
field embraces pools
in Wyoming and Colorado and as yet untested deposits in Utah and
New Mexico.
The oil occurs in beds of Carboniferous, Triassic
(?),
and Cretaceous
age, nearly always
in sandstone
interbedded with
shale, though occasionally in fracture zones.
Typical dome structure
is the most favorable location, but occasionally commercial deposits
occupy monoclines
or interrupted monoclines.
The
oils from the
older formations vary in gravity from 18° to 24° Beaume (0.9459 to
0.9091
sp.
gr.), are of asphalt base, and are used largely for fuel;
those from the Cretaceous vary from 32° to 48° Beaume
(0.8642 to
0.7865 sp. gr.)
, are of paraffin base, and are refined, yielding high per-
centages of gasoline, kerosene, and distillates.
The productivity of
individual wells usually is not large, the average daily yield per well
being about 25
barrels in
1913.
The
potentialities
of the Bocky
Mountain
field
are not
great,
unless the
extensive
deposits
of
oil
shale of northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah
are taken
276
ANNtJAL EBPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916*
into account*
As these deposits will require a
distillation process
for the recovery of their oil contents, they are not included under the
head of free oil deposits.
Califmmia fdd
.—California
is the
greatest producer
of
petro*
leuin of an,y State
in
the Union,
It secures
its
oil from
rocks of
Cretaceous
to
late Tertiary
age, the great bulk coming from the
Miocene.
Nearly every type of structure peculiar to the coast ranges
yields commercial quantities of oil, anticlines, domes, plunging anti-
clines, monoclines, and fault zones being the principal soujtcs.
The
reservoir
rocks
usually
are
sand
and
sandstone,
though
fracture
joints in slialc hold oil in at least one district.
The oil
is ])ractically
all of asphalt base, although paraflin up to
1
|)er cent
is found in a
little of the oil fVom the Cretaceous and Eocene.
The oil
vai’ies in
gravity from
to 35*^ Beaume
(0.1)859 to 0.8481
sj). gr.), about 70
per cent of it being topped or refined.
Much of the heavy oil
is used
for fuel and road
dressing.
The prod\ictivity of individual
wells
has reached as high as t58,000 barrels daily; the average daily ppoduc-
tion per well was 45.2 barrels
in
lOlIh
The
oil
districts of
Cali-
fomia are practically outlined to-day and little in the way of addi-
tional acreage is to be ex])ected in the future.
Alaska
field
,—Small
quantities of
oil have
been
obtained from
the
Jurassic
rocks
of
western
Alaska and
the lower Tertiary
of
eastern Alaska.
The oil occurs in sandstone along well-defined and
sometimes faulted anticlines.
The oil varies in gravity from 39"^ to
45.9° Beaume (0.8284 to 0.7958 sp. gr.) and is of an excellent refining
grade.
The wells so far drilled are small producers.
The commercial
productivity of the Alaskan deposits yet remains to be proven.
Other fields
.—In addition to the Slates mentioned
as occupying
the above
fields,
oil occurs in small
(|uantitics in Michigan
(a con-
tinuation of the Peti’oleo, Canada Jield) and Missouri (a continuation
of the Oklahoma
conditions).
These
States and Alaska together
produced but 7,792 barrels in 1911.
Alabama and Mississippi
also
arc said to have possibilities.
IMPOKTANCE OF THE UNITED STATES AS (JOMPAKED WITH OTHER
(T)UNTUIES.
The
following
table, compiled under the
supervision
of
J.
D.
Northrop, of the United States Geological Survey,^ giving the pro-
duction of (jrude petroleum in 1914 and from 1857 to 1914, in barrels,
illustrates the relative importance of the various oil-producing coun-
tries of the world.
1 Mining and Scientific Treas, Aug. 14, 1915, p. 248.
PETROLEUM RESOURCES—ARKOLD.
277
Table l.^WorWs produrMon of crude petroleum in
and 1857 to lOlIf, with
percentage of production hy countries, in barrels of
gallons.
Country.
191 4
1857-1914
Production.
Per cent.
Prcxluction.
Per cent.
United States
265,762,535
66.36
.3,3.35,457,140
59.63
Russia
-
67,020,522
16.71
1,622,233, 8-15
29.00
Mexico
21,188, 427
5.20
90, .359, 869
1.62
Roumania
12,826,579
3.20
117,982,474
2.11
Dutch East Indies
1 12,705,208
3.17
138,278,392
2.47
India
3 8,000,000
2.00
73.979, 919
1.32
Galicia
3 .S, 033, 3.50
1.26
131,873,601
2.36
.Tapan
...
i
3 2, 7.38, .378
.68
27,051,158
.48
Peru
1,917,802
.48
14,306,972
.26
Germany
3 99.5,764
,25
12,965.569
.23
Egypt
777,038
.10
1,086,728
.02
Trinidad
64.3,53.3
.16
2,069,4.30
.04
Canada
2J4,R0.5
.0,5
23, 493, 610
!
.42
Italy
39, 518
.01
802,229
.01
Other coiintrlpj^
i
<620,000
.16
1,322,000
.03
Total
11
400,483,480
100.00
5,593.262,030
100.00
1 Includes Britislj Borneo.
3 Includes Formosa.
> EvStimated.
< Includes 600,000 barrels produced In Argentina.
The relntive importance of
tlie States
in the Union
is shown
in
the accompanying table, which gives the marketed production for the
year 1914.
In the case of two of the States at
least, the marketed
production
is below the estimated production, tlie discrepancy being
accounted for by
oil put in storage.
The actual production of Cali-
fornia
was
probably
around
103,000.000
barrels,
with
possibly
7,000,000 barrels “shut
in,'’ which might have been produced.
The
estimated production of Oklahoma was 98,000,000 barrels.
Table IT .—Production of petroleum
in the United Sitate}^, hy Pfates, in ldl \ and
1857
to JiU'i.
in
barrels of
gallon>(.
Alaska
California
Colorado
Illinois
Indiana
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Michigan
Missoiirl
New Mexico...
Now York
Ohio
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania
.
Texas
West Virginia.
Wyoming
Otner
Total
19M
I
18,57-1914
0 )
99, 775,327
222,773
21,919,749
1,33.S456
3, 103, 585
.502, 441
14,309, 435
741,273,559
10,649,143
232,326,616
102,82.3,798
28,547,074
9,095,970
89,895,433
72,712
938, 974
(3)
8,636,352
432,762,004
73, 631, 724
461,833,460
8,170,335
754,180,215
20,068,184
203,799,381
9,6S0,a33
260,232,815
3,560,375
7,964,944
7.792
265,762,535
| 3,335,457,130
’ Included in
Other,’'
* Included in Pennsylvania.
FACTORS GOVERNING THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM.
Before entering into a discussion of the probable future production
of petroleum in the United States, it will be well to outline the various
factors which govern this production.
These, factors may be divided
into two groups, natural and artificial.
73889"—SM 1916
10
278
ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INfeTITUTION,
1D16.
A. NATURAL FACTORS.
1. Presmre,—The pressure exerted on the oil in
its underground
reservoir may be hydrostatic, hydraulic, or gas;
it may be coexten-
sive with the field or pool, in which case it is called
field pi’essure,”
or it may be exceedingly local in extent, when it is called
local” or
‘‘well pressure.”
Ihcssure
in
oil wells vai*ies from 0 to over 2,000
pounds per square ineh, usually declining as the field or Avell grows
old.
Other things being equal, the ])roduction varies with the pres-
sure.
2.
Viscosity.—Production varies inversely with the viscosity, and
since the viscosity in general increases with the
si)ecific gravity
(in-
creases Inversely Avith the Beauinc degrees)
it may be said that, other
conditions being equal, the pindiu^tion varies inversely w ith
tlie spe-
cific gravity of the oil.
Natural petroleums vary fi’om substances as
fluid as w ater (low
vis(‘ositv
) to those Inn ing the consistency of ’’‘cold
molasses” (high \'iscosity), or even to those possessing the i)roperties
of solids.
3. Thickness end evident of reservoir
The production A'aries
Avith the thickness and extent of the reservoir rock.
The thickness of
the pay streaks may vary from 2 feet, as in some fields of the eastern
United
States, to over 200
feet, as in some
('‘alifornia
fields.
The
lateral extent of tlie layer or lens may be from a
fcAv feet to several
miles.
4. Pm^osity of reservoir rocks.—Prodtu'lion
Aai'ies
inversely
Avith.
the porosity within certain limits.
In uniformly grained rocks the
coai-ser the grain of the reservoir the less
is the actual porosity; but
the larger the size of the interstices the
le^r^s is the friction surface per
unit of
oil.
Idiei-efoie, coatse sediments are really
less ]>orous ami
consequently hold less oil, but they give it up more readily than fine
sediments
and
usually
give
a
greater
ultimate
yield
per
unit of
volume.
Keservoir rocks may be
fine shale to the coarsest conglo-
merates, or porous or caAcimous dolomites or limestones.
Fracture
or fault zones also may
act
as reservoirs.
The
Avorld’s maximum
producers obtain their
oil from cavernous limestones or dolomites;
the steadiest and longest-liAed wells are in medium-giained sand.
6. Structure of reservoir rocks .—Structure usually has a profound
influence on oil accumulation and production, the most advantageous
positions being in the crests of domes or anticlines, or on the flanks
of sealed or terraced
monoclines.
Lithology or other causes may
locally produce exceptions to all rules of accumulation.
^
B. ARTIFICIAL FACTORS.
1. Price of oil.—The price of oil is the dominant factor governing
the production of oil, especially as it relates to groups of wells, fields,
PETROI-EUM RESOURCES
ARNOLD.
2 79
districts, or States.
The price may vary from 10 to 15 cents a barrel
at the well, as at certain periods in the history of the Mexican or
California
fields, or it may range np to $2.50 per barrel, and
in ex-
ceptional cases much higher, when the demand is great and the sup-
ply limited.
Price of oil lai‘gely affects the other artificial factors,
which may be snmmai'i/ed as follows:
2. Depth of v^etls and trine reqmrcd to dvUL—Pj*oduction may be
accelerated or I’ctarded by the time required to drill wells.
In some
places wells can he jmt down in a week or 10 days; elsewher*e it may
take from one to two yeai's to finish a well.
In
a shallow well dis-
trict production can be increased (]uickly by
a vigorous dialling pro-
gram; in deep well areas mu(‘h time and money may be necessary to
ino'ease or even sustain
]n’odnction.
3.
/>hfanre
t^eparating
ircth .—AVi thin
a
certa
i n
iindergi’ound
reservoir, Uie (juantity of
oil
that
ultimately can
l>e recovered and
the rapidily with
wliich
it may be produced are largely dependent
on
the
distance sejiarating the
individual
wells.
The thicker the
wells the (juicker the reco^ ery of the oil and the greater the expense
of reco\ ery.
AVells may be spaced 25 feet a])nrt or as near together
as the
deri’icks
Avill stand, as in the congested Spindle-top
field of
Texas, or they may be separated by a distance of one-fourth mile or
more.
Ownership of ])ro])erty often determines the spacing of the
wells, many small
tracts under separate ownership tending toward
congestion of development and rapidity of re(*overy.
Conservation
is best attained by single ownership of large l)odies of land, so that
devel()])ment will be determined by the principle of recovering the oil
at the least possible expense, that is, with the least number of wells.
4.
('onditioih of irefl^ pamp, etc,—The condition of the well, pump,
and
other
physical
{U’opei'ties
involved
in
the winning of the
oil
greatly influences the production,
(dean wells, eflicient ]>umps, and
enei'getic employees tend toward maximum production; sanded up or
improperly
perfoi*atcd
wells,
leaky
])umps,
and
inexperienced
or
careless em])loyees militate against successful opei’ation.
5. Discoverif of netn fields,—The discovery of new’
fields
is a most
potent factor in
oil production.
The search for new’
fields
is stimu-
lated by high prices; their discovery usually results in a flush yield
and
a lowering of the price.
Obviously, each new’
field raises the
noianal production to be expected from any district or State, and it
is this factor of new territory which lends so much uncertainty to the
oil
business.
0. Distance from market,—The distance from market of any field
or group of wudls often determines the rate of development and con-
sequent
production.
Tliose
fields nearest
to market
or
favorable
280
ANNUAL RKPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
transportation facilities are usually quickly developed to their maxi-
mum capacity, while
fields
farther away
are often
left for years
without even being adequately prospected.
7.
in
dei^elopwent and
recovery
methods .—^New
methods of drilling and increasingly efficient methods of recovery are
favorably atTecting ])roduction in many fields.
The most important
advance in recent years has been along the line of increased use of
compressed air in the recovery of
oil, especially in California and
Pennsylvania.
8, Water coinplications.—""Water troubles-' may be either natural
or a combination of natural conditions and human
carelessness or
ignorance.
Water causes the final ruin of practically all oil fields;
it
is the omnipresent and greatest menace of the producing fields.
In
most
cases water
troubles
are
inexcusable.
Their
results
almost
always are negative and sometimes irremediable.
Oil in most fields of the United States and, in fact, throughout the
world, occurs in inclined or slojiing beds of sand or other porous
rock, and these oil zones usually are overlain and underlain by water
sands or zones wliich are separated from the oil zones by impervious
clay, shale, or other str<ata.
In these two cases the Tvater is extraneous
to the
oil
sands.
These
waters
are
called
^"to))”
and
“‘bottom”
waters, in accordance with
their occurrence, respectively, above or
below the oil zones.
In a properly finished well the ‘‘Hop” water is
cased off or cemented olf before the well
is drilled into the oil sand.
The “ bottom
*’ water never is drilled into except l)y accident, in which
event it is plugged off.
With the
top ” water shut off and the
bot-
tom” water untouched,
the
oil
is produced
practically
free from
water.
Watei', being heavier than oil and often also under a gi'eater
hydrostatic pressure, will replace part or
all of the
oil at the point
of ingress into the well if
it is allowed to reach the oil sand.
In this
way
it replaces the
oil,
in whole or
in
])art, and thus
lessetis the
amount of
oil produced and
increases
its cost of recovery.
Water
also occurs indigenous to the oil sands in certain fields, but in this
case it does not at first occupy the same ]iart of the stratum as that
occupied by the oil, but lies in the lower or
down-slope” portion of
the sand, and the line marking the junction of the oil in the “up-
slope” part of tlie l>ed and the water in the “ down slope” part de-
termines the limits of the productive
territory.
The water under
these conditions is called “edge” water.
Upon exhaustion of the oil
by flowing or pumping, the “edge” water, through hydrostatic dr
other pressure, usually “ follows up ” and replaces the oil.
The ap-
pearance of the
originally
extraneous “top” water or “bottom”
water in a well indicates a failure to exclude the water properly by the
manipulation of casing, cement, or plugs.
Such a condition usually
can ^ remedied and the offending fluid kept out of the
oil sand,
PETROLFATM RESOURCES—ARNOLD.
281
although what has come in already may sometimes remain in the oil
to a gi'eater or less extent.
The appearance of
edge ” water in a
well is another matter, for here the oil has been permanently replaced
by the water, and, so far as the affected sand is concerned, the well
can be considered as no longer productive.
“ Edge ” water sometimes
appears in a well
in some particular sand, while other producing
sands are free from water.
In this instance, the “ edge” water sand
is abandoned and
(aised off and
tlie production
(‘ontiniied from the
other sands.
Most of the watei‘ troiililes are due to a failure to shut off the “ top ”
water in the ])ro(*ess of drilling.
Wells, ])ro])erties, and entire fields
have been seriously damaged or entirely imined by the
watei*. some-
times from only
a
few
ofi'ending
wells.
This
factor
of water
is,
therefore, one of the most
])oiejit
in
oil
])rodnction and at
tlie same
time the most nnceiiain.
METHODS OF ESTIMATTNiJ
El TrUK
SI lUU.V.
Two methods of estimating the future produetion
oj‘ snj)plv of oil
in any area or field are in
use. one known as the saturation method,
the other, tlie j;)ro(luetion
<*iir\'o niethod.
sA'i'i UATiuN
A! irrHuo.’
The saturation method of (‘omputation involves finding the cubieal
contents of
tlie reservoir, determining tlie degn^o oT ijorosity of the
volume, and
then
estimating
the
total,
available, and
net supply
of
oil
contained under
the
a)*ea
iii
question.
By
total
supply
is
meant the total (juaiitity of oil in the resei’voir; by available supply
is meant the tjuantity that theoretically can
l)e I'ccoveied with ordi-
nary methods in vogue; net supply
is
tlie quantity marketed after
deducting for fuel used in devehqunent and o[)eration, leakage, and
other losses.
Total supply depends on the volume and porosity of the reservoir
and on the volume of free gas and of water which are included in the
oil.
The first factor usually can be approximated by taking the area
involved and multiplying by the average thickness of the
oil sand
or zone.
The porosity can be approximated from out(Top samples or
drilling samples of the
reservoir.
Gas and water contents are tin-
certaiii, but in most instances can be disregarded for rough ajiproxi-
mations.
Gas usually
is in solution and the water only in the out-
lying edges of the oil pools.
Available saturation may range from
0
to, possibly, 80 per
cent, depending largely
oif the gas pressure
and other factors, such as grain of reservoir, coherency, etc.
From
40 to 60 per cent of the total quantity ordinarily is recoverable.
Of
^ Th-ls methofl Is described by Cheater W. Washburne, Bull. A. I. M. E., No. 08, February;
1015,
pp.
469-171.
282
ANNUAL REFOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
this quantity possibly 10 per cent to 15 per cent is lost in production
or used for fuel, so that of the total supply but 34 per cent to 54 per
cent ordinarily
is marketed.
Many yeai*s may be required to make
even this recovery.
It is the writer’s belief that estimates based on the satui-ation method
are much less reliable and satisfactory than those worked out through
the production-ciii’ve method, but the former must be used for new
or poorly dev^eloped fiedds and will be brietlv des(a‘Ll)od.
The thickness of producing oil sands or oil zones varies from 2 feet
in the Illinois field to over 200
feet in the C’alifornia
field.
Total
supply or saturation as marked by the porosity varies from a trace,
in sands, u]) to 50 per cent in some exceedingly porous diatomaceous
shale from California.
Between 5 and 15 per cent is tlie average for
sands, some, however, going as high
as 30
])er
cent.
An acre of
ground covered witli oil
a foot deep
(1
aci’e foot) contains 7,758 bar-
rels.
This would 4)e complete saturatioii
for
tlie
43,5r>0
cn])ic
feet.
Assuming an averages of 10 per c(‘n< saturation would give 775.8 bar-
rels per acre-foot for noi'mal comlhions.
On (his basis a 5-foot sand
would contain 3,S70 IkhtcIs j)er acre, and
a 50- loot sand 38,700 bar-
rels.
Actual
yields
of
over
100,000
hai‘rels
per
acre
are known.
Estimates of the a\ erag:e production per acre for the various States
are given in Ta])Ie Hi.
Most of
th(\se
lignres
a]‘(‘ based
primarily
on the prodnction-ciir\ e method, but a few are l)ased on or checked
by the saturation method.
P[{01)I^fTI(>N-(TTKVK ]Mr:THon.
General staiernenf .
Estimating future
])rodiif*l ion
or supply by
a plotting of hypotliotical
curves,
bas(‘d on
actual
figjires
in
well-
known areas or
fields,
is the safest method,
as
it involves
factors
which
it is possible to obtain.
Another thing in
its favor from
tlie
standpoint of the producer and mai-keter of
oil
is that
it
is based
on and has to do Avith actual “net” oil figures, instead of theoretical
quantities.
Basis of
theoretical curve ,—The
theoretical curve shown
in the
diagram accompan^dng tliis article
is based primarily on the yearly
total
prcKluction
figures of New York and Pennsylvania.
These
figures cover a period of productivity of 51
years, longer
l)y
far
than that of any other field in the United States.
Furthermore, over
this period this field has been subject to all of the vicissitudes from
hath natural and artificial causes that beset oil fields in general.
The
area involved in the Pennsylvania and New York
field
is greater
than that in any
other
field
in
the United
States, which
is
still
another reason why the result should be conservative.
TPhe interesting part of the production curve
is that following the
period of maximum yield.
In some instances
it
is
fairly
safe to
284
ANKIJAL KEPOBT SMITHSONTAN IKSTITUTIOK,
1916.
predict just when this period
is reached, although usually a great
divergence of opinion pi^evails, due to whether the prophet is a pro-
ducer or a consumer.
As a rule, the crest of the production curve
is not a sharp peak, but is represented by a more or less wavj^ dome,
showing that the ])roduction remains near the maximum for several
years.
In the case of the Pennsylvania-New York curve, the ])eriod
of high production extended over about 10 years; that of Ohio and
West Virginia over 8 years; and that of Illinois over 2 years.
Fol-
lowing this period the production
is more or
IcvSs irregular,
))ut
in
general decreases at a fairly regular rate, the ]*ate of decrease, based
on the previous year's production, becoming gradually
h;ss and
less
as is indicated in the theoretical cur\e in the diagram.
In figures
tliis decrease may
l»e tabulated thus, the basis of computation being
the maximum yearly production for the field
Ver rent of maxinnun jooduction.
At end of first 10
50
At end of second 10 years
80
At end of third 10 years
20
At end of fourth 10 years
15
At end of fifth 10 years
12.5
At end of sixth 10 years
10
Average for 10 years
75
Average for 10 years
40
Average for 10 years
25
Average for 30 years
17.5
Average for 10 years
18.75
Average for 10 years
11.25
The usual development history
in the ])eriod of high production
is,
first, a decrease of yield followed by increase in
ju'ice,
tlien
re-
newed development
activity, with
a resultant
increase
in
yield,
a
fall in price, and so on until the development reaches a ])oint where
the production of new wells fails to make np the decrease of the old,
when the final ])eriod of decrease begins.
lOSTHMATED FUTURE PRODUCTION.
The
following
table
gives
the
estimated
future
production
of
petroleum
in
the
United
States,
together
with
the
apjiroximate
figures
as to the pro\en and
})rospective oil-bearing
areas, and
a
summary
of
the
i)rincipal
points
regarding
the
occurrence
and
character of the oil.
The figures of future supply take into account a certain per cent
of the prospective
oil
area,
as the curve on which they
are based
pertains to an area Avhere new
fields have been added from time to
time as development progressed.
In the case of Texas, Wyoming,
etc., where the ratio of ])rospective area to proven area
is high, the
future supply may be considerably greater than that predicted
if
the bulk of the prospective land proves j)roductive.
COMPARISON Avrra DU. day’s figures for
1908.
Table IV
is a comparison of the estimates given by
I)r.‘ Day for
i90>8 with those by the writer for 1915.
They are here presented by
in order to correspond with Dr. Day’s divisions.
Table
III
.
—
Past
and
esliniaUd
future
production
rf
petrohiim
in
the
United
Stales,
PETROLEUM RESOURCES—ARNOLD.
28
Table
IV.
—
Estimated
total
production
of
the
United
States,
by
fields
,
286
ANNUAL BEI^OBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
PETKOLEUM KEBOURCES—^ARNOLD.
287
Comparing tho
\vriter\s estimates with those of Dr. Day,
it is at
once apparent that the estimates for the older eastern
fields have
been reduced while those for the western
fields have been increased.
This
is especially true for tho Mid-Continent
field, in which there
was little develojinient at the time Dr. Day’s figures were compiled.
In the case of California
^ it has l)een found that the available satura-
tion
is less than was ex])ec(ed during the eai’ly history of the
field.
At the tinu^ the first estimates were made the field gas ])ressure was
high and water trou))le had
not become serious.
With the lapse of
time it has become evidenf that a reduced gas pi'cssure and water infil-
tration necessitate mati'rially cutting the original
ligui’i^s.
At the ])resent rate of consimijition of approximately 205,000,000
barrels per year, an estimated sup]>ly of
100,0(10 barrels would
last only, a])proximately, 22 years.
However,
as the total produc-
tion of the United
Statics will gradually deci-ease from year to year,
it
is believed that (he total available sujjply will
sprt'ad out over
a
period of from 50 to 75 years.
The pri^*e of
oil, which now
rang(‘S
from 40 eents to $2 per barrel
(average, 05 eents), depending on the
locality and grade of the product,
]')rol)td)ly
will imavase to figures
approximating $1 per ])arr(4
for fuel
oil and prissihly $5 or more for
the lighter grtides.
All other
fa(*tors being
eijual, a ban^el of fuel
oil
as compared
witli
eoai
on
the
Pacific
coast
is worth
to-day
03 cents.
lA’cn wore oil
t(» ])e used only as a fuel, the tendem/y would
be for
it to rise in price until
it reached a
])oint set by the value of
coal in
tlio same rc'gions.
As oil has so many points in
its favor, as
regards ease of handling,
e lea tdi ness,
etc.,
it
is
quite
evident
that
eventually
it will he sold
at a higher price than
is warranted by
its
heat value as com[)ar*(‘d with that of coal.
Before the
fnM'.
iiatui-al petroleum
in the earth
is (‘xhausted the
oil shales of Colorado, Idah, (dVlifornia, aiid other States will have
begun
to
l)e
utilized
as
a
source
of petroleum.
Also
artificial
oil
made from animal and vegetable waste probably will
])e available to
take
its ])1a{‘e.
Even
at the ])resent time the necessities of war have
led certain of the European governments to
utilize various
substi-
tutes for petroleum and
its
derivatives, the
su])stitutes
in general
being made from organic substances.
In conclusion, tlu^ writer might repeat wliat often has l)een pointed
out by conservationists, that oil as far as possible should
l)e used for
those purposes for which we have no other substitute, namely, for
lubricants, refined derivatives,
etc., and not for
fuel.
If used
for
fuel, it should not bo in connection with the wasteful steam engine,
but in the Diesel engine and similar types, which are so much moi’e
efficient that their use doubtless will become more and more general
as time goes on,
^ Dr. Gpo. Otla Smith
(llHciiflHOH the duration of CaUfovuin petroleum reyourees
in Min,
Res. U.
S. for 1910,
Ft.
II,
p.
4i0,
ot seQ.
THE OUTLOOK FOR IRON.*
By Prof. James Furman
Kjomu,
Colvmh id
I ^mvers
f //.
The close of the nineteenth century produciul nn
attitiifle of mind
in many stiideihs of national affairs akin to that of a mcndiant who
balances his books at the end of
a twelvemonth.
When the results
of a year's business have been demonstrated, the merchant decides
on his plans and policies for the fiilure.
lie makes
a
reliable esti-
mate of his resources and learns his possibilities and his limitations.
As a nation wliich looked over
a hundi’ed years instead of one year,
we were
in much
the same
position
when
the
twentieth
century
opened.
From small beginnings,
all manner of imiustries liad reached an
impressive development.
Some employed materials which were con-
stantly reproduced either by plants or animals, and which, by im-
proved methods, could be increascal in amount; but other industries
were rapidly drawing upon
fixed
reserves which could not be
re-
newed,
We naturally began to forecast the future and, with a look
ahead,
to infer the course of events in the century then opening.
Among the industries, that of mining came in for special attention.
It is a very gix'at one in this country, and it is distinctive in that it
destroys its raw materials in utilizing them.
Forests, crops and live
stock all grow again.
f)re and coal mined are gone forever.
Not im-
natuTully, in
a fundamental industry such as iron mining—one on
which so many others lest,—people vitally inteiested began to raise
the question of reserve for the future and to wonder in what position
the industry would find itself fifty or a hundred years later. We are
not surprised, therefore, to note that open expression was given to
feelings of apprehension, nor that some prophecies were made whose
i*estatement now
possesses much
interest.
Not
alone, however, in
our own country were
tliese apprehensions
felt.
Abroad, they like-
wise found expression, especially in England, whose people had been
roused for years regarding the future of their coal fields.
In October, 1902, Mr. Andrew Carnegie, one of our most distin-
guished
ironmasters, was
installed
as
rector
of the University of
1 Reprinted by permission from Contributions from the Geological Department, Columbia
University,
Vol.
27,
No.
1.
280
290
ANNUAL REPORT HMITHSONTAN INSTITaXION,
1916.
St. Andrews, Scotland.
He delivered a very interesting address in
which he stated that
if the rate of consumption of iron ore in the
United States did not greatly increase, we would have a supply of
tirst-class iron ore for only GO or 70 years and of second-class for 30
years
longer.
Mr.
C^arnegic estimated our demonstrated
store of
unmined ore at 1,000,000,000 ions.
The consumption, at that time,
was between tweniy-hve and thirty millions of tons annually.
All
persons well informed upon mining matters would
infer that the
mining of a billion tons, now demonstrated, would reveal appreciably
more; and while a billion tons divided by ‘25 gives a life of 40 yeai^,
60 or 70 years Avas a not unreasonable ligure.
Yet this period
is a
relatiATly short one and
the
forecast
justifies
anxiety.
Since Mr.
Carnegie's
address
Avas
delivered,
the
annual
output
of
ore
has
doubled, and, unless relieved by other considerations, Avhatevcr
aj)-
prehensions Avere jiistilled then are tAvicc as emphatic now.
In 1805, from three ditl’erent spokesmen came
])rophe(‘ies similar
to those of Mr. Carnegie.
Sir llobert A. Iladfield, Avhose words re-
garding the iron and
steed industry should carry as great Avcight as
any manV,
in
a
presidculial address (o the
British
Iron and
Steel
Institute^ forecasts the call of the Avorhfs furnaces upon the mines
at the outset of the ncAv century, and upon the basis of knoAVii
re-
serves also gave good ground
for apprehension.
In the same year,
the late Prof. Tornebohm, long the chief of the Swedish Geological
Survey and Avith siiecial experience in iron or('s, made a re])ort to the
Parliament of SAvedon, based on
a
visit to
this country.-
At this
time the Swedish Government Avas actively sharing in the develop-
ment of the great bodies of iron ore in Lapland, far Avithin the Polar
Circle.
The importance of kjioAving the part which they might play
in the worlds iron industry of the future Avas great, and the deter-
mination of the limits
(ff annual output Avas
a. matter iu
Avliich the
SAvedish authorities felt a lively interest.
Prof. Tornebohm credited the Mesabi P;nige with half
a
billion
tons;
the
other
I^ake
Superior ranges,
collecti\ely,
Avith
as much
more; and the Eastcjui broAvn hematites Avith
G(),00(),0()0,
This total
of a little over a billion tons gave cause for anxiety, since the out-
put
in 1905
of American mines had
risen beyond
forty
millions,
and a life of 25 years Avas thus indicated.
But, of course, a moment’s
reflection shoAvs that the estimates are incomj)lete, since the Clinton
ores of the East, and
especially of Alabama, are omitted
entirely.
In the same year, 1905, the late Prof. N. S. Shaler sought to rouse
his countrymen
to an appreciation of the situation Avith regard to
the mining industry in a paper of a popular nature on
‘‘ Tlie Ex-
1 Proceedings,
1905,
L.
27, and
especially
86-60.
* Reprinted In the Iron Age, Nov.
2, 1906.
OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP.
291
haustion of the WorlcFs Siipi)]y of Metals.” ^
Prof. Slialcr, in gen-
eral terms, considei’s the supply of ores of all sorts remaining to us
as, roughly, twenty times the amount already mined,
lie
thinks
another century
will exhaust the European
supplies of
iron
ore.
The best place for the iron industry
is in the Mississippi
Valley,
and the ores tributary
to
it are
])assed
in review
Avithout
definite
figures, exc(‘pt for Alabama, to Avhose Clinton red hematites a life of
50 3^ears
is assigned.
Other jiapers preceded, accompanied or followed tlie four specially
cited and of these a
list
is given
at the close of this contribution.
They can not
all
lie mentioned now, and the ones brielly reviewed
will sullice to show the aj)preheiisi ve state of the public mind, here
and elsewhere, from
10 to 15 years ago.
As a sym])tom of the Avidespread interest and as a natural step to
prevent waste and to maintain as long as ])ossible the material sup-
jiorts of
industries,
the
conservation
moMuneiit sprang up
in
this
country.
It has taken form in annual conventions and discussions,
and
has been
influential
in
matters
of
legislation.
Outside
the
American boundaries, similar steps have been taken.
Reports of the
Canadian Conservation Commission regularly reach
us.
In connection with conservation
in general, iron ore has been one
of
the
chief
sulyjects
to be
considered, and
Ave
are not
surprised
to find our Swedish colleagues, as soon as they were assured at the
International
Oeological
Congress held
in
INIexico
City,
in
1906,
that
their
invitation
for
the meeting of
1910
Avould
be
accepted,
began
to plan
a
great Avork on
the “Iron Ore Resources
of
the
World.”
Iron mining
is one of the chief,
if not the
chief, single
industry
in Sweden.
Tlie
subject, therefore,
])ossessed
great
local
as
well as international importance,
d'he associated authors
in
all
lands began to busy tliemselves at once
Avith data and estimates of
reserves.
A
vear
after
the movement
had
l)een
started
by
the
Swedisli
committee
and
by
its
representative
in
this
country,
a
special investigation of American iron
oj-e resein cs Avas also initiated
under the Ihuied States Geological Sui’acy Avith Dr. C. W. Hayes in
charge of the collection of data.
TIic result of these endeavors led
to the preparation of as com])letc estimates as were practically pos-
sible.'-^
They
Avill be mentioned and utilized later on.
Before
AA^e
can
actually
undertake
a
discussion
of
the
future,
we must have clearly before us several matters of vital import.
We
must know the largo features of production in the United States as a
whole and in the more important individual
districts.
We need to
1 International Quarterly,
vol.
2, 230-247,
1005.
* C. W. Hayes. Bull. 394, U.
S. G.
S., 70-114, 1909.
292
ANNUAL KE#OKT SMITB.SOKIAN INSTirUTION,
1&16.
briefly
trace the progress of production during recent years.
We
need further to know what the general run of working percentages
has been and to answer the questions : Is the yield per ton declining
as the years
pass, and are we content now
to treat ores of lower
grade than were our fathers?
How do our ores compare in yield
with those of foreign productive areas?
We can not overlook the
vital bearing of our supply of coking coal—a factor in present iron
metallurgy not
inferior
to
ore
supply
itself.
We must
consider
sources of ore outside the United States and yet so situated as to
contribute to our furnaces.
We must also consider
]:)resent, or rea-
sonably certain future improvements in processes of smelting.
No
horoscope for the future can be cast without attaching due weight
to all these factors.
The gi-owth in the production of iron ore in the United States has
been so great as to be the chief cause of anxiety for the future.
The
tabulation of a few
figures, using
a
million long tons
as the unit,
will make the matter clear.
Extended
statistics are not necessary.
I am extremely anxious that the great striking truths should not be
lost in a maze of figures.
The statistics are taken from
tlie Mineral
Kesources of the United States Geological Survey.
Detailed figures
are not attainable for 1888 and earlier years, except in those in which
a census was taken.
In the years before the Civil War the production was small, but
shortly after peace was restored the Tvake Superior mines began to
assume greater and greater im])ortancx‘, and later Alabama developed
its mining and smelting industry.
in
of long
/o«.v.
1860..
1870.
1875..
1880..
1882.,
1884..
1886..
1888..
1890..
1892..
1894..
1896..
1900..
.
1902..
.
1904..
.
1906..
.
1908..
.
1910*..
1912
..
^
mi...
Uuitea
Statos
total.
Lake
Superior.
1
AJahama.
Other
K astern
States.
We.stern
States.
2.H
[
:c8
0.8
i
'
4.0
0.8
^
!
7.1
1.9
!
0.17
1
5.
0.00
8.7
2.9
i
0.05
7.7
2.6
0.02
10.0
3.5
12.0
5.0
i
6.03
16.0
8.98
1.90
4.96
0. 19
16.
9. m
2.31
4.24
0. 15
11.8
7.60
1.49
2.70
0.29
16.0
10. 50
2.04
3.10
0.26
19.4
13.
2. 40
2.84
0.37
27.6
20.50
2.75
3.75
0.54
35.5
27.05
3.57
4.30
0.65
27.6
20.30
3.70
3.28
0.36
47.7
37.80
3-99
4.91
0.80
35.9
28. 10
3.70
3.50
0.52
56.8
46.30
4.80
4.80
0.80
55.1
42.0
i
46. 40
32.91
4.60
3. 10
0.90
OUTLOOK FOE IKON—KEMP.
293
GENERAL PROGRESS OP PRODUCTION.
By these figures a modest but steady growth in the production
of iron ore is shown up to 1884. A marked increase then developed,
which subsequent figures will show was chiefly due to the entrance
of the Gogebic and Vermilion Ranges. A rapid growth followed to
1890; and then production held steady, or, as in 1894, temporarily
dropped back during panic times.
Following 1896, the growth was
very marked and was chiefly due to the Mesabi Range.
Hard times
checked
it in 1904, in 1908, and again in 1914.
No industry is more
sympathetic with general business conditions than
is the production
of iron and steel.
The figures also show that the great increase in output is due to
the growth of the industry in the Lake Superior region.
Without
the contributions from the lake, the country as a whole would be
back in the position which it occupied in 1886, with about 10,000,000
tons total production.
In general, if we look back to 1860 and take time by decades, we
may say that to-day the production
is twenty times what it was in
1860;
fifteen times what
it was in
1870; eight times that of 1880;
three and one-half times that of 1890; and twice that of 1900. We
can not continue
in the same
ratio, but must
ere long reach our
zenith.
Production of the Lake Superior rangen in millions of long tms.
Total
United
States.
1
Marquette.
Menomi-
nee.
UiOgehic.
Vermilion.
Mesabi.
Cuynna.
1870
3.8
0,85
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1875
4.0
0.88
0.0
0.0
0.
1880
7.1
1.38
j
0.52
0.0
0.0
0.0
1882
8.7
1.83
1.14
0.0
0.0
0. 06
0.0
0.0
ISSi
7.7
1.56
0.89
0.001
1886
1
10.0
1.63
0.88
0.75
0. 30
0.0
1888
12.0
1.92
1.19
1.43
0.51
0.0
1890
;
16,0
2.86
2.27
2.91
0.89
0.0
1892...
16.
2. 84
2. 40
3.06
1.23
0. 03
1894
i
11.8
1.93
1.25
1.52
1.05
J.91
1896
16.
2.42
1.76
2. 10
1.20
3.08
1898
19.4
2.99
2. 27
2.55
1.12
4.83
1900
1
27.5
3.94
3.68
3.10
1.67
8. 16
1902
35.
3.73
4.42
3.68
2.06
13.08
1904
27.6
2.46
2.87
2.13
1
1.05
11.67
1906
1
47.7
4.07
4.96
3.48
1.79
23.56
1908
35.
3.31
2.90
3.24
0.92
17.72
1010
66.8
4.6»
4.JW
4.74
1.39
30. 67
1912
1914
65.1
42.0
3.54
4.46
3.92
I
1.45
‘
32.60
0.37
1
1
A
brief survey
of
the
figures
relating
to
the
individual Lake
Superior ranges
will
justify
the following conclusions: The Mar*
quette, Menominee, Gogebic, and Vermilion Ranges show a steady,
normal increase in output, which
is not startling nor one to cause,
under ordinary circumstances, undue apprehension.
Some signs of
Tasso®—SM 1916
20
294
AKKTJAL mBOWC SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, mO.
declining output are manifest in the case of the Vermilion.
The
vast increase in the output of iron ore is due to the Mesabi Range,
and from
it in 1912 came nearly 60 per cent of the country's total.
A marked decline in available supply from the Mesabi would bring
about a greater falling off in ore supply than any possible increase
in the other Lake Superior ranges, or than the present sources of
supply from other mining districts, could make good.
The Mesabi
Range
is the key to the maintenance of the domestic supply at its
present grade, and when it declines we must appeal to foreign sources
to keep the iron and steel industry in its present position.
YIELD OF THE CUES.
Conditions vary
greatly
in
different
parts
of
the
country;
at
different times; with different ores; and with the entrance of new
sources of supply.
It is a general truth that the richest ores are
obtained in the early days of mining.
As time passes and the in-
dustry becomes
firmly
established,
lower and
lower
grades come
within the range of profit.
Alabama Clinton ores gave much higher
percentages when mined
wholly above the permanent water
level
than they do now, when pursued bedow
it.
For many decades only
lump
ore, and much of that over 60 per cent iron, was produced
by the magnetite mines of the eastern Adirondacks.
To-day the
greater portion of the ore goes first through a magnetic concentrator
before
it
is
shipped.
In
earliest
years
on Lake
Superior
hard,
specular ore at 65 and above was sought.
With improved
facilities
the grade came down to and below 60, but the soft ores found slight
sale.
Now the soft, earthy ores are the principal objects of mining,
and the average grade is well down in the
fifties.
Important ship-
ments of ore with percentages below
50
liave been placed on the
steamships.
In the summer of 1875, Prof. Albert II. Chester,^ an experienced
chemist, visited the Lake Superior region in the endeavor to secure
average samples from the stock
piles of the larger mines,
all, of
course, at that time in the Marquette range and shipping hard, specu-
lar ores.
Four samples ranged from 61.01 to 6G.8.H and probably give
a fair idea of the ore at that time sent away.
Iron Mountain, Mo.,
ore ran 64.87; Lake Champlain magnetites, 56.01 to 62.68; Clinton,
N. Y., fossil ore, 44.57, but yielded 43 in the furnace.
In September, 1890, Geo. W. Goetz ^ published a tabulated series
6f analyses from the four older Lake Superior ranges, which, when
averaged, afford the following values.
To give a correct average,
the
of each mine’s ore ought to be weighted with the output,
and as the data for this calculation are not available, we must be
Albert H. Chester, "On the Percentage of Iron
in Certain Ores."
Trans. Amer.
Inst.
A«tli. Eng., VOL
4, 210,
1875.
,*Geo. W.
Goetai, “Analyses of Lake Superior Iron Ores," Idem, voL
19,
59, 1890.
OUTLOOK TOR IRON—KEMP.
296
content with the general significance of the results.
On the whole,
they supply us with trustworthy values*
Range.
No. of
analyses.
Maxmiiim.
Minimum.
Average.
Marquette
30
69. 77
53.02
62.3.3
Monornineo
23
65.20
,52. JS
60-00
Gogebic
21
05. 45
54.95
62.09
Vermilion
8
07. 54
GO. 20
64.50
1
These figures represent the good old times when specular ore was
almost the only one produced and before the soft ores began to be a
serious
factor.
They
are, however,
significant,
in that customary
working percentages, such as these, very probably were not without
their influence in the estimates of the life of the ranges, as set forth
by several of the writers whose opinions were cited in the introduc-
tion to this address.
Kaphael Pumpelly, in connection with the summaries of the Tenth
Census,^ estimated on the best and most comprehensive data which
we have ever had, the general average of iron ores for the TTnited
States at
51.22
per cent
iron.
The maximum
average percentage
among the
States was that of Missouri,
60.01
(but Michigan had
59.57).
The minimum was West Virginia, 37.92.
Pennsyh ania, the
largest producer of ore in that year, gave 45.28.
On the basis of ore
production and pig-ii-on production, allow'ance being made for mill
cinder, foreign ores, etc., John Birkinbine estimated for the Eleventh
Census - an average of 51.27 for the country at large.
An appreci-
able error crept in, liowever, in assuming pig iron to be entirely iron,
whereas
it
is only about 95
])er cent or less metallic iron.
We can
hardly compare
this figure with the one given by Prof. Pumpelly
which was based on
actual analyses of samples.
If we credit the
7,000,000 tons of j)ig iron, as used by Mr.
Birkinbine,
Avith 95 per
cent iron, the average is 48.71, Avhich indicates an appreciable falling
off in yield in 10 years.
General
estimates
of
average
percentages which
Avill
be
trust-
worthy are difficult to carry out on the basis of annual statistics of
tons of ore and
tons of pig
iron.
Foreign
ores contribute
to an
appi’eciable degree, and their yield can only be estimated.
Stocks
of mined ore, stored at furnaces or mines at the end of a year, are
naturally credited
to that
year, but they
are not turned
inter pig
iron
until the following twelvemonth.
Mill cinder
is
also
a
con-
tributor of iron to the extent of a small percentage
of the
total.
The data for all these corrections are not available for a long period
of years, and, therefore, all could not be introduced in the following
^ Tenth Census, vol.
15,
19, for the year 1879.
on Mineral Industries,
p.
10,
296
ANNUAL afiPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, im,
estimates.
The importations
could, however, be deducted, and to
them an average of 58 per cent iron has been arbitrarily assigned.
The results obtained are so variable that their significance is ratjier
one of degree than of actual individual accuracy.
The statistics are
chiefly taken from the Mineral Resources for 1910, page 76.
Long
tons are used.
United
States
iron ore.
in l.hoii-
sands
of long
tons.
Imported
ore in
thou-
sands
of long
tons.
Pig iron
! in thoii-
i
sands
1
of long
tons.
95 per
cent pig
iron, mo-
talUc
iron, in
thou-
sands
of long
tons.
Iron in
imported
ores at
58 per
cent in
thou-
sands
of long
tons.
Not iron.
Average
percent
of ore.
i
Eatl-
mated
by E.C.
Eckel,
“Iron
Ores,'*
1914.
1870. ,
3, 832
1,678
1.594
1,594
41.6
1875 ....
4,018
50.6
2,040
3,802
4,077
9,203
1,938
3,012
3,874
33
1,1K)3
3, 326
3,647
7,930
47.3
1880
.
7, 120
493
28()
1
46. 7
1885
7,000
1 10,302
391
227
1
48.0
1890
1,247
8,653
723
48.6
56.50
1895
1 17,203
524
9,440
8,974
304
8,670
50.4
64.95
1900
120,722
898
13,789
13, 100
521
12,579
47.1
51.55
1905
1 43,433
846
22,992
21,842
491
21,351
40.1
53. 19
1910
1 55,240
2, 591
27,304
25,939
1,501
24, 439
44.2
49. 42
1912
158,031
2,104
29,727
28,241
1,220
27,021
46.5
51.46
1 The.se totals are the apparent iron oro consumptions as given in the Mineral Resources, United States
Geological Surv^ey,
for
1912,
p.
I(i2.
They
dilTor from the totals
of production in
the previous tables
because corrected
for unsrnoltod
sto(.‘ks, exports, and zinc residuum.
No correction
is made
for mill
dndcr.
The variations shown above
are
so pronounced
as to
cast some
doubt upon the accuracy of the individual percentages, but we may
have some confidence in the general tendencies shown.
We can not
but be impressed with the apparent practice of the mining companies
of using lower grade ore in good times, as shown by high produc-
tion, and saving higher-grade ores for bad years.
So far as recent
years are concerned, we can only say that the general grade has de-
clined, although
it does not appear to be as low as
it was in 1870,
when the brown ores of the East were so large a factor in produc-
tion.
It must be to-day well below 50 per cent.
In ^the
last column, and
for the years l>eginning with
1890, are
given cahailations of average yield, prepared by E. C. Eckel in his
valuable manual
on
‘‘Iron
Ores,”
published
in
1914.
The same
figures for apjiarent iron ore consumption have been used as in the
calculations given
in the
first column of the present table; that
is,
the total annual production has been increased by imports and by
ssinc residuum
(i.
e., used for spicgeleisen by the New Jersey Zinc
Co.), and diminished by exports and by stocks on hand at the close
of tne year.
The zinc residuum
is only
0.2
to 0.4 per cent of the
tbtal and makes little difference.
But a decided difference arises in
(Calculating the yield of American ores if one assumes that pig iron
ia pure iron, and lets the much richer importations of foreign ores
enter into the calculation.
These last two elements in the problem
eiplain the wide divergence in percentages of from 4 to nearly 8
per cent between the average values given in this paper and those
OUTLOOK POE IBOK—KEMP.
297
quoted by Mr, Eckel.
Both calculations depart from the truth in
so far as mill cinder, blue billy, scrap iron, etc., enter into the prob-
lem, since no account has been made of them."' Of course, there
is
also a slight loss of iron in blast-furnace cinder.
The great importance of the decline in yield is the vastly increased
amount of reserves which are thereby brought within the range of
mining.
As the average may
still further decline
until
it reaches,
say, 35 per cent, the reserves, as figures to be given later will show,
become enormous.
Thirty-five per cent, however, is by no means an
uni’easonable figure for the general yield of the Jurassic ores in the
Lorraine and Luxembourg districts, which so largely supply Belgian,
French, and Oennan
furnaces.
The same statement
will apply to
the Cleveland district in England.
The great reserves of 35 per cent
ore
in
the
Tjake
Superior
district
are, however,
highly
siliceous,
whereas the Jurassic oi*es are basic.
In Silesia, in southeastern Ger-
many, even lower ])ercentages are not esteemed beyond the possibili-
ties.
Thirty-fi\'e per cent
is therefore a not unreasonable
figure to
consider, when a long look ahead
is taken.
On the other hand, in
comparing the yield of the ores in different lands, a distinction should
be made between exporting and smelting countries.
Exporting coun-
tries necessarily must furnish high-grade ore, so as to meet freight
charges incident to long transportation.
ESTIMATES OF UESEUVES.
Since 1005, several estimates of reserves have been made, of which
condensed summaries may be cited.^
The amounts are in millions of
long tons.
1SK)5.
TtJrnebohni
Tjako
Superior
1,000
Alabama
(\0
Elsewhere
40
1,000
1907.
E. C. Eckel
Lake
Superior
1, 500-2, 000
Alabama
reel
ore
—
1, 000
Alabama brown ore__
___
_ __
75
Georgia
reel
ore
200
Georgia brown ore
125
Teanessee red
ore
--
-
600
Tennessee brown ore
—
-
225
Virginia red ore
50
Virginia brown
ore
300
4, 075-4, 575
Southern
reserves
for
the
remote
future
were
estimated
at
10,000 million tons.
* The figures as given for Tdrnobohm, Eckel and Butler-Blrklnbine are cited from E. C.
Eckel,
** Iron Ores,”
841-351,
1914.
298
ANNUAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN' IN&MTUTION, 1W6.
1909.
Biitler-Birkinbine
Lake
Superior
Southern
States
New
York
New
Jersey
-
--
Pennsylvania
Rocky Mountain
region_^_
1,618
1, 814.9
750
185
45
100
4, 4G2.
1911.
Minnesota-Miohij^an Tax Coiuinission,
J. U. Finlay, (Mipneer:
Minnesota
and
Michijj^an
.
1,584
1912.
E. (1 Eclvol
Lake
Superior
^
_
2, (HX)-2, 500
Nortlieastorn
...
.
__
800-
600
Western
300-
700
Birmingham
.
^
-
.
_
.
.
.
1,500-2,000
Texas
__
-
.
.
..
600-1,000
Other
Soutliern
States
.
_
„
500- 750
5, 200-7, 550
The most complete of all the estimates is that of Dr. C. W. Hayes
in Bulletin
of the ITnited States Geological Survey,
li)09.
The
estimates are divided into two classes of ores;
first, those available
under present conditions; and second, those whicli come within rea-
sonable possibilities of utilization for the future.
The statistics are
given in long tons in millions and decimals of a million.
Districts.
Magno-
tito.
Specular
i
and re<l
heina-
,
tite.
1
Clinton
ore.
!
Drown
ore.
C'arbon-
ate ore.
Total.
Available ores:
Northeastem..
im. 0
!
2.0
3.";. 0
11.0
1
208.0
Soutlieastem
12.5
8.0
5
I
54.4
538.4
Lake Superior
3, .500.0
10.0
3,510.0
315.0
Minas Valley
15.
i
300.
1
Itcvclw Mountains
r>i.5
4.3
!
2.0
t
...
67.8
Pacino Slope
GS.9
68.9
Total
292.9
3,529.3
508.
31)7.4
4,698.1
90.0
Titaniferous
magnetite
cjoiisidered
available by Dr. Hayes
4,788.1
Not available ores:
Northeastern
211.5
2.0
020.0
13.5
248
1,095.0
1,276.5
72,030.0
570.
Southeastern
23.0
53.0
970.
108.0
62
Lake Superior
4,525.0
07,475.0
10.0
i
30.0
Mississippi Valiev
5t»0.
Kocl^ Mnuutain's
116.9
2.1
i.O
120*6
Pacinc Slope
13.8
10.0
.1
23.9
Total
4,890.2
67,552.1
1,020.5
743.2
310
76,U6.0
In the last group of ores 1 have included Dr. Hayes’s estimates of titaniferous magnetite without sepa*
rate olasslhcaUon.
OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP*
299
The estimates for the Eleventh International Geological Congress
were grouped in a somewhat different manner, as follows
Avail-
able.
Probable
addition.
Archean magnetites:
Lump ores
20.0
30.0
Concentrates
40.0
10.0
Adirondack red hcnifttitcs-.
.
.
.
2.0
2.0
Pennsylvania soft magnetites
40.0
Cambfo-Ordovieian brown heinatiles
65.0
181.0
Mesozoic and Tertiary brown hematites
10.0
15.0
Clinton red hematites
.
.
.
505.
1,368.0
27.5
Alabama gray and red hematites
27.5
Carbonate ores
308.0
l.(ake Superior hematites ...
3,500.0
72,000.0
5.0
Mississipj)i Valley specular and red hematites
15.0
Mississippi Valley Palaeozoic brown hematites
30.
45.0
Mississiiipi Valle}’^ Tertiary brown hematites
2(j0.
520.0
CorcUlloran magnetites and hematites
(>3.8
55.0
Titanlferous ores
4,578.6
90.0
74,586.5
128.5
As shown
earlier,
the
annual
production
in
recent
years has
totaled between
50 and
60 millions of
tons.
Let
ns assume that
it
will be 60
millions
in
the near
future.
Dr.
Hayes’s estimates
indicated
practically
4,800
millions of
tons
of
available
reserves
or
eighty
year’s’
supply.
The
estimates
for
the
International
Geological
Congress
of
1910
arc
not
appreciably
different.
By
just so much
as the annual production exceeds the amount of 60
millions,
will
the
time be shortened, except
in
so far
as further
exploration opens up new
reserves.
In mining enterprises in gen-
eral, however,
if the management of
a company
felt that
it had
eighty years
fairly
well
assured,
it would congratulate
its
stock-
holders on the outlook.
This attitude of mind would be justified by
the common experience
in mining the ores of such
a
widely
dis-
tributed metal
as
iron, that new
reserves open up
in
old or new
properties as old supplies are exhausted.
On the other hand, if we anticipate the general decline in the yield
of ores, so that lower and lower grade reserves may be brought in;
and if we assume that more tons of ore will be required to furnish
the usual output of })ig iron, such that the annual output of ore may
reach
100 millions;
then from
the probable
addition
of
reserves,
given in the second column of estimates, we forecast from practi-
cally 75,000 million tons a
life of 750
years.
That iron could be
produced in these amounts and for this period of time, thei'e can be
no doubt, if we omit consideration of cost and
if we only consider
possible ores down to 35 per cent.
Iron-bearing rocks of still lower
percentages are so abundant as to be inexhaustible.
No one need feel
anxiety about the physical possibility of pi’oducing iron up to the
conceivable life of the race on the planet.
$00
AtKTJAL
ttElPOiLT SMITHSOKIAN IKStlTlLTWON,
1910.
In earlier pages, the point was emphasized that the crux of the
present situation
lies in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota.
Of the
56.1 million tons produced in 1912, 32.6 millions came from it.
The
chief point of immediate interest, therefore,
is concerned with the
life of the Mesabi.
Its decline means great rearrangements in the
present situation in the iron industry.
The most recent estimates are
those of C. R. Van Hise, C. K. Leith, and W. J. Mead, in cooper-
ation, as given in Monograph 52
of the United
States Geological
Survey, 1911.
Fifty per cent of iron in the dried ore is assumed as
the minimum average yield
at the time the estimates were made;
1,600 millions of tons were then credited to the Mesabi
(p. 489).
The
output for 1910, for this range, was 30.57 millions, indicating a life
of a
little over 50
years.
At the production of
32,6 millions for
1912, a life of almost exactly 50 years
is shown.
If, on the other
hand, a minimum percentage of 35 in iron
is considered, the same
authors assign
to the Mesabi Range reserves of 30,000 million tons
(p. 492), which would give us 300 years of
life, even at 100 million
tons annual output.
The aiithoivs of Monograpli 52 also discuss the reserves of the en-
tire Lake Superior region.
The reser\"es of 50 per cent ore, in the
other ranges than the Mesabi, are less than one sixth its amount, and
their combined output about two-fifths its total.
Their estimated life
is thus much shorter.
The time period lies between 20 and 25 years.
When, however, we consider a minimum yield of 35 per cent, their
combined
reiierves
are
greater than
those of
the Mesabi, and
are
estimated at 37,630 millions of tons.
If we credit them with two to
three times their present annual output, a
life of fully 1,000 years
is shown.
Thus one can attack the problem from various points of view,
and with varying assumptions; but the conclusion
is inevitable that
the output of ore from the Lake Superior region can not be kept
up at the present production and with a minimum yield of 50 per
cent for as much as 50 years, unless unanticipated new discoveries of
rich ore are made.
With diminishing yield, however, and with the
tenor
still at percentages above 35, the shipments of iron ore, even
in increasing amounts, can be maintained for centuries.
X«et us turn next to Alabama and its closely related States, Georgia
t and Tennessee; since, together, they constitute the second center of
ore production.
The great reserves
lie in the Clinton
ores, which
arc well stratified and which have been and will be explored by bore
holes.
The reserves are much increased by the brown ores of the
region and of northwestern Alabama, and by the probable devel-
opment of much older gray and red hematites in eastern Alabama;
$ui attention will be alone directed at this point to the Clinton orea
latter are so well stratified and persistent and are now proved
OtJtLOOi^ FOR IRON—KEMP.
SOI
by such extensive exploration that with much confidence we may
credit them, at least in the Birmingham region, with 36 to 37 per
cent iron, and may consider the estimates of reserves as unusually
trustworthy.
Dr.
C. W. Hayes, on the basis of the careful
field
work of C. F, Burchard,^ estimated them at the following amounts
in millions of tons.
Tennessee, Georgia, and northeikst Ala]>ama
Available.
86.5
.358.5
Not
available.
440m
Birminghan]
/llstrict, Alal)arna..I
Total
145.0
1
878
Mr. E. C. Eckel had previously credited the Birmingham district
with
1,000 million
tons,
a number
not unduly above
the sum
of
the two figures
for Birmingham given above.
The
ofiicers of the
Tennessee Coal
&, Iron Co. considered, in
1900,
in round numbers
500 million tons as reliably assured.
The combijied
ou({)ut of these
three
States
in
Clinton
ore was
practically 4 millions of tons in 1912, indicating at this rate 111 years’
life
assured, and over 200
years’ additional
life
as
probable.
In
these
estimates we do not assume an
essential
falling
off
in
the
yield of the ores below percentages actively mined to-day.
Were wo
to take up
the
figures
for the
other
portions
of
the
country very similar
results would be reached.
But, as their con-
tributions are proportionately smaller, the effects of rearrangements
are less serious.
Obviously, in a general way, viewing the country
at large, and allowing for reasonable decline in yield, the ore supply
is good for several (centuries.
FOREIGN SOURCES OF SURPI.Y.
The yield
in the funiace
is certain to be maintained, in an im-
portant manner, by importations of rich ores from abroad.
These
contributions are already a serious
factor, since they amounted to
2.1 million tons in 1910, and had reached 2.5 millions in 1912, rang-
ing between 3.5 and 4.G per cent of the total.
Cuba,—The most accessible and the heaviest contributor of ore is
Cuba.
The mines in the vicinity of Santiago, on the southeastern
coast, have been shipping
for 20
yeai's amounts
wliich
annually
range below and above a half million tons of magnetite, with some
hematite mechanically intergrown.
The ores now run from 65 to
60 per cent in iron and are of Bessemer grade.
For some years addi-
tional, these contributions will continue.
The great and enduring
^Bulletin No. 394, U.
S. Geol. Survey,
pp. 88-89, 1909;
No. 400, pp. 129-133. 1910.
302
AKNttAL REJPORT SMITHSOKIAK IK8TITUTION, im.
reserves, however, are on the northeastern coast or near
it.
Exten-
sive areas of serpentine have weathered in the tropical climate so as
to afford a heavy mantle of alteration products, which when freed
of absorbed water yield 48 per cent
iron, with about
1 per cent
nickel and 1 to 2 per cent chromium.
When freed of additional com-
bined water in calcining furnaces the ore reaches 56 per cent iron.
The Mayari tract, already actively mined, can yield 600 million tons
of excellent nickel-bearing Bessemer ore.
The undeveloped Moa and
San Felipe
(or Cubitas)
districts can
swell the
reserves to 2,000
million tons.
Thus, as the output of the mines in the United States
falls lower and lower below present percentages, more and more can
the grade be kept at or near the above values by Cuban contributions
to furnaces near the Atlantic seaboard.
The supply of Cuban ores
is sufficient to last several centuries, at any reasonable consumption
of conceivable importations.
They are very conveniently
situated
for low costs of mining and shipping.
Sweden,—In recent years, the second conti-ibuter to American fur-
naces has been Sweden.
The supplies have come from the great mag-
netite body at Kiruna, in Swedish Lajdand.
The ore reaches the sea
at Narvik in Norway, a port open all the year round, and distant from
the mines 100 miles by rail. A generally high phosphorus ore is now
mined, with a small proportion of rich Bessemer grade.
The output
is sorted into different grades, possessing from 59 to 69 per cent iron,
with peril ai)s a general average of 65.
Importations in 1912 into this
gountry were practically 384,000 tons.
Tlie output of the mines is
carefully regulated by the Swedish Government with the purpose of
conserving the supply for a long life.
The United States can not an-
ticipate more than a moderate contribution from this source.
Norwmj,—In Norway, not far from the sea and adapted to mag-
netic concentration, tlicre are additional deposits which are possibili-
ties for the future.
One enterprise is already active on the extreme
northeastern frontier of Norway, east of the North
(;a})e.
The Eu-
ropean furnaces have, however, absorbed the output hitherto.
Newfcmndland .—The third source of importations, in recent years,
has been Newfoundland.
The shipments come from the red hema-
tite mines on Bell Island in Conception Bay.
The ores are beds of
red hematite in Cambrian and Ordovician strata and are strongly
reminiscent of the Clinton ores.
They supply a non-Bessemer ore of
50 per cent, or slightly less, in iron, and in their best years have ex-
ported over 200,000 tons to the United States.
The reserves which
run beneath the sea are estimated by J. P. Howley at over 3,000 mil-
lions of tons.
The ores are generally called the Wabana.
With a
sea voyage of 1,100 to 1,500 miles, they can reach our principal ports
OtItLOOK
^*611
—KEMP.
SOS
of entry.
Their chief markets, however, are the iron and steel cen-
ters of Nova Scotia.
Chile ,—The Panama Canal has made accessible one great deposit
or iron ore on tlie west coast of Chile, called the Tofo.
Tofo is 30 miles
north of Coqiiimbo.
Tlie ores are only three or four miles from the
sea.
The Bethlehem Steel Co.
is making extensive preparations for
shipments on a large scale in the immediate
fiitui-e.
Publislied de-
scriptions mention reserves of 100 million tons of ore ranging above
and somewhat below GO per cent and prevailingly of Bessemer grade.
A possible annual output of
1.5 to 2 millions of tons
is expected.
(Iron Age, May
11, 1014.)
Other deposits along the west coast of
South America have been reported in an incomplete way, but are not
yet sulliciently developed to seriously enter into our forecasts.
Brazil ,—For some years past reports have been current of very
large, rich, low*phosidiorus deposits of specular hematite in the State
of Minas Geraes, Brazil.
They constitute beds in metamorphic sedi-
ments of pre-Cambrian
age, and appear some three hundred and
seventy-five
miles
from
the
seacoast.
Deposits
of
hard
specular
hematite and loose blocks on the surface are available
in enormous
(juantity.
Tlie
fn*st estimates, for the Kleventh International Geo-
logical Congress, by Orville A. Derby, the able State geologist of
Brazil, gave 2,000 million tons.
Since then the observations of Leith
and Harder indicate more than three times this amount.
Vast quan-
tities
lain between 05 and 70 per cent in iron and
are well within
Bessemer limits.
The cliief handicap lies in the long railway haul to
the sea.
AVhile railways tap the district, both from Bio Janeiro and
Victoria
(the
latter the
probable
port
of
future
shipments), the
present roadbeds are not adapted to the hard wear and tear of a
heavy iron ore traffic and must be rebuilt.'
Once on shipboard, the
distance to Atlantic ports is about 4,000 miles.
Europe and Africa ,—The ITnited
States also import appreciable
amounts of ore from Spanish, Algerian, and Grecian ports.
Spain is
the chief contributor, approximately 440,000 tons reaching Atlantic
ports in 1910.
To some extent, therefore, declining American per-
centages may be raised by future shipments from these sources, yet
as time passes Biutish and continental needs will be even more press-
ing than American and will call more insistently for supplies from
European and northern African mines.
The possibilities of importation and sale turn, however, upon mar-
ket conditions.
Through the kindness of Mr. Charles F. Eand, presi-
dent of the Spanish -American Iron Co., the following figures have
^The latest account
Is by E.
C. Harder, “The Iron Industry
of Brazil,” Transactions
of the American Institute of Mining Engineers.
304
ANITTJAL
SMITHSONIAN INSTITU
been supplied the writer.
They summarize market conditions and
ocean freights as they have prevailed in recent years
Ocean freight from Cuba
is 95 cents a ton; from Wabana, New-
foundland, 70 cents; from Brazil, $2.12|
(i. e., 8s. 6d.)
; from Sweden,
$1.50; from Spain, $1.37|; from North Africa, $1.25; from Chile, $3.
When the ore reaches American ports, it brings as a general rule 7
cents a
unit, although specially rich and pure varieties may com-
mand 8 cents.
From these data, in a general way, one can see the
market conditions which must he met by an exporter of ore from any
one of the countries which are the chief contributors to American
furnaces.
Ocean freights, for some time to come, certainly will not
be
less than
in
recent
years, even when seagoing bottoms can be
secured.
THPt .SUPPLY OP COKE.
So long as iron ore is turned into pig iron as the first step toward
steel, as in our present-day practice, coke will be no less vital to the
industry than ore
itself.
The relatively great height of a modern
stack and the heavy burden of charge which
rests upon the
still
bui'ning fuel demand strong and resistant coke.
Not every coke will
answer.
From an address by Mr. J. E. Johnson before the Mining
and Metallurgical
Society of America, January
12,
1915, the
fol-
lowing figures are taken
: From 52 per cent iron ore a ton of pig iron
may be made with
1 ton of coke.
These conditions are approxi-
mately those of Lake Superior ores to-day.
From a 38 pci“ cent ore,
a ton of pig requires IJ tons of coke, conditions approximately those
of Alabama.
Should we ever use 25 per cent ore, 2| tons of coke
will be necessary to the ton of pig.
Wliatever may be said, therefore,
regarding the coke supply to-day will apply with increasing force
as the years pass and the yield of ores declines.
Anthracite coal has
been, to a certain extent, used in the iron furnaces, but its desirability
and increasing price for household fuel and for steam purposes in our
Eastern cities make it a factor in future iron metallurgy of diminish-
ing importance.
Open-burning bituminous coal has been used raw
to some extent, but is not now a serious factor.
The following table summarizes the bituminous coal reserves as
oalculated by M. K. Campbell, of the United States Geological Sur-
yey, and as given in the Mineral Resources of the United States for
1910, page 28.
Only eastern coke-producing States are selected be-
cause the present effect of Rocky Mountain States upon the
total
i^lt is not great.
The influence which they can exercise upon the
•l^itihre
is small or remote.
The same
is true of the Pacific coast
and its possible future industry in iron and steel.
In the table the
OUTLOOK POE IKON—KEMP.
305
total bituminous coal reserves have been reduced by an arbitrary
fraction, which is assumed to represent the portion of coking grade
suitable
to
blast-furnace
use.
Much
difference
of
opinion might
arise over this reduction.
Its importance turns, however, upon the
ultimate result; that
is,
if the supply of coke proves to be a
le.ss
serious matter than the supply of ore, these fractions might vary
widely and yet not dwti-oy the reliability of the final result.
In the
further calculations
I assume that two-thirds of
the
coal can be
ultimately mined, one-third being left in pillars.
In passing from
coal to coke, I use the same percentages of yield for each of the
States as are given in the Mineral Resources of the United States
Geological Survey for 1012
, Part II, page 251 .
The estimates are,
moreover,
within the
probable
reserves
in
this
additional
respect
that no account is taken of Illinois, although its weak coking coals,
when mixed with others in by-product ovens, give suitable fuel for
blast-furnace use.
Feservrs of bitKminoiis vonl of rokimj grade in millions of long
ions.
Total
bitumi-
nous.
Fraction for
coking.
Two-
thirds
mineti.
Per
cent.
Coke-
Ponnsylvaniii
^
i
t
109,174
27. 300
•^8^ 8.515
18,200
1
00.
12,100
3.927
'855
sr>, 150
5,070
09.
Marvluiid
I
T,802
J.OoO
1,300
05.8
Virginia
i
22,391
7,404
4,970
24,y(X)
4,.'512
2, 400
02.
3,095
15,114
2,815
1,601
2,295
West Virginia
'
149, 120
1--== 37. 350
00.7
Eastern Kciitiit'k v
()7,087
4-
6.708
3.010
4—
0,377
4()0
02.4
Wc-stem Kontiickv
30. 104
02.4
^fcnncsstHi
-
25, .509
4,2.51
54
CJeorgia
920
300
50
153
Alabama
08,594
i- 20, 805
13,910
04.9
9,027
572,457,
120,059
1
80, 437
50,882
The production of pig iron by States in 1012—-the maximum year
as yet—is given in the statistics in the next table in millions of long
tons.
The figures are taken from the Mineral Resources for 1012 of
the United States Geological Survey.
If we assume that the coke
consumption per ton of pig
iron
is one ton
in those States where
Lake Superior ores or others ecpially
rich are used, one and three-
quarter tons in Alabama, and one and one-half tons in West Vir-
ginia and Virginia we can make a rough estimate of the coke con-
sumption for pig iron manufacture in a maximum year.
ANNUAL BEUOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
11)16.
Pig iron production in millions of long
tons^ hy
States,, 1912,
3Ub
Pig iron.
Coke con-
sumed.
Pennsylvania
12. 55
f).80
2.89
1.94
1.8B
1.77
.40
.34
.30
.27
.2(i
.22
.12
12.55
6.80
2.89
1.94
3.25
1.77
(9
.60
.30
.40
.39
.22
.15
Ohio
lUfnois
New York
Alabama
Indiana. Michigan
Missouri, Colorado, and California
Tennessee
Wisconsin and Minnesota
West Virginia
Virginia
Maryland
Others
29. 72
31.26
1 Omitted.
We have thus an apparent available coke supply of 50,882 million
tons, and a consumption for blast-furnace purposes, in our heaviest
year of production, of 81.26 millions.
There are thus over sixteen
hundred years’ supply at this rate.
In Pennsylvania, on the assumed
ratio of coking coal, there is about one thousand years’ supply.
These
time periods are so great that despite possible errors in assumptions;
despite increasing coke consumption with lowering of grade of ore;
and despite increasing output of pig iron, we seem justified in con-
cluding that the fuel supply
is rather more al)undant than the ore
supply.
The reserves of bituminous coal in 1912 were placed by the
volume on Mineral Eesources for that year at 1,651,057 millions of
short tons of which two thirds or 1,100,705 millions of short tons
could be mined.
With an annual production, as in 1912, of 450 mil-
lion tons, a life of nearly twenty-five hundred years would be indi-
cated.
Apparently coal for general
fuel will
last longer than coal
for coke.
THE INCUEASING STOCK OF SCRAP IRON.
Much of the iron or steel, once it is used, is lost by oxidation, wear
and tear, or by being thrown away.
A goodly proportion
is, how-
ever, returned to furnaces and worked over.
For this purpose, in
America, the electric furnace has proved of special advantage, as the
writer learns from Prof. J. W. Richards.
With growth of produc-
tion and with increasing attention to the prevention of waste, now
ISO generally manifested throughout the country, the return of old
iron and steel for re-treatment is likely to ease somewhat the strain
on the mines.
. IMPROVEMENT IN PROCESSES.
Electrical processes of snielting, in regions of great water powers
and low cost for current, have excited hopes of saving
fuel.
Th^
OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP.
307
fuel in the blast furnace accomplishes two purposes—the production
of a high temperature and the reduction of the iron oxide to the
metallic state.
The electric furnace could serve to replace the former
portion, but carbon for the reduction of the iron oxide would always
be necessary.
Some heat, of course, would be developed in the
re-
action itself, which practically implies the combustion of the carbon.
If we assume a practicable electric furnace, comparable so far as the
installation
is concerned with a blast furnace, we have to balance
against each other the cost of heat from combustion of coke and from
electric
current.
Thus
far coke has proved more
economical,
al-
though it is conceivable that countries like Sweden and Norway, with
abundant water power and ores, but without coal, might develop an
electric smelting industry.
Charcoal would probably then furnish
the reducing agent.
For some time to come, we can see little chance
for electric smelting in eastern North America.
Improvements are then reduced to those possible for the blast fur-
nace itself.
We are reminded of the great economies introduced by
the chilling and separation of the moisture in the air to be used in the
blast.
A great debt
is due Mr. James Gayley
for this invention,
which steadies the running of the furnace and keeps conditions uni-
form. We recall the use of the spent blast in internal-combustion
engines, and the economical generation of power in this way instead
of through the ordinary medium of steam.
The power is then avail-
able for all manner of applications around a works, and lowers costa
We note the recent and very encouraging experimental run of some
months at the Port Henry, N. Y., furnace, with large proportion of
titaniferous magnetite
in
the
charge.
The
reports
of Mr.
J.
E.
Bachman,' in charge of the furnace, do much to remove the stigma
from this variety of ore and to make available large re.serves now
looked upon with
suspicion.
By
just so much
ns these neglected
ores come into use the
life of the nontitaniferous varieties will be
prolonged.
Dr.
C. W. Hayes ^ estimated
the
titaniferous
ores
in
1909
at 90 million tons available and
128.5 million tons as not at
present available.
Dr. J. T. Singewald^ has concluded that in some
of the areas used in the calculations of Dr. Hayes,
tlie ores are too
low for probiible use.
These ores have not been very generally ex-
plored
as yet because of their bad
reputation, but the amount
is
quite certainly large.
A remote
possibility
for improvements
in the blast furnace but
one worthy of
careful consideration
w^as suggested by Mr.
J.
E.
Johnson in the address
at the annual meeting of the Mining and
Iron
Oct.
22, 1914,
p. 93G; Dec. 24, 1914,
p. 1470,
A complete report Is In
press
In the puhllcations of the Iron and
Steel
Institute.
*C. W. Hayes, Bulletin 394,
TJ.
S.
Geological Survey,
p. 102, 1909.
« J. T. Slngewald, Bulletin 04, Bureau of Mines,
p.
38,
1913,
308
ANNUAL KEFOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
Metallurgical Society of America, January 12, 1915, which has been
already cited.
The air passing through the furnace
is, by volume,
nearly
four-fifths inert nitrogen, which contributes nothing to the
reactions and
is
a
serious
absorber of
heat.
Were
it
possible to
relatively increase the proportion of oxygen, loss of heat might be
avoided and
fuel consumption reduced.
Mr. Johnson called atten-
tion
to the production of greatly enriched proportions of oxygen
by the expansion of liquid air under suitable control, as now used in
practicable
processes for obtaining oxygen on
the one hand and
nitrogen on the
other.
Were
it possible with the low-cost power,
to be developed by the products of the blast furnace, to manufacture
liquid air or to produce in the same general way a strongly enriched
oxygenated
air
for
the
intake, the
volume
of
atmospheric
gases
would be greatly reduced and the heat economies would ensue.
The
contrast presented by employing the coldest substance known
as a
means of facilitating one of the hottest I'eactions of teclmical prac-
tice is so novel as to arrest attention.
Costs, however, should
it ever
become practicable, place it in the remote future.
A more immediately practicable economy, involving the saving of
waste,
is the
use
of blast-furnace
cinder
for
the
manufacture
of
cement.
By just so much as this ordinarily rejected product can be
made a source of financial return, costs will be reduced.
While we
may not realize the w^himsical ideal presented by Mr. Johnson
in
the above address, when he pictured the furnace of the future as
yielding pig iron at the tap and cement at the cinder notch, yet we
may think of slag utilization as helping to usher in the next age of
the world, the one which
is rapidly displacing the present steel age—
the one which we all recognize as the inevitable age of cement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1902. Andrew
Carne??ie,
Rectorial Address,
University
of
St.
Andrews,
Oct.
22,
1902,
p.
36.
J. Stephen Jeans.
Staffordshire Iron and
Steel
Institute,
De(!.
13,
1002.
Iron and Coal Trad(‘.s Review, voL
6.5, pp. 1580, 1681.
1905. R. A. Hadtield.
Presidential Addres.s in the Journal of the Itritish Iron
and Steel
Institute, 1905,
I, pp. 56-57, 59.
N.
S.
Shaler.
“The Exhaustion of the World’s
Metals,’’
International
Quarterly,
II,
p. 230,
1905.
Llewellyn Smith,
A Blue Book of Iron Ore Deposits
in Foreign Coun-
tries, compiled for the London Board of Trade, 1905.
A.
B.
TOrnehohm,
“The
Iron
Ore
Supply
of
the
World,”
Teknisk
Tldskrift, Sept., 1905.
The Iron Age, Nov. 2, 1905, pp. 1158-1160.
1906. B. C. Eckel.
“ A Review of Conditions in the American Iron Industry,”
Engineering
Magazine,
June,
1906,
p.
521
;
U.
S.
Geological
Survey,
Bulletin
285,
pp. 172-179,
183-189,
1906.
d. IC
Leith.
“ Iron Ore Reserves,” Economic Geology,
I,
p.
360,
1906.
OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP.
309
1909.
J. G. Butler and John Birkinbine.
Brief hied with the Finance Committee
of the Unit(Ml States Senate in 1909
(cited in K. C. Eckel’s “Iron Ores,”
p. 347,
in 1914).
C. W. Hayes.
“ Iron Ores of the United
States,”
in Papers on the Con-
servation of Mineral Resources, Bulletin 394, U.
S. Geological Survey,
pp.
70-114,
1910. Janies
F. Kemp.
“Iron Ore Rej^erves
in
the United
States,”
In “Iron
Ore Reserves of the World,” vol. 2, pp. 753-778, Eleventh International
Geological
Congress,
Stockholm,
1910.
James
F. Kemp.
Discussion
of
the question
: What
shall
the
iron
In-
dustry of the future do for ore?
Symposium of representatives of six
cliief
producing
nations,
Sweden,
Spain,
France,
Germany,
Great
Britain, and the United States, Eleventh International Geological Con-
gress, Stockholm,
1910, fkunpte Rendu,
I, 321-328.
Mining Magazine,
London,
Nov.,
1910,
363-3G7.
1911.
C.
R. Van
Ilise,
C. K.
Leith, and W.
J. Mead.
“Reserves
in
the Lake
Sui>erior
District,” Monograph
52,
U.
S.
Geologual
Survey,
pp. 488-
495, 1911.
1914. E.
C.
Eclv(‘l.
“Iron
Ores,
Their
Occurrence,
Ahduation,
and
Control,”
1 ). 430,
tig. GO. New York, 1914, especially pt.
4, pp. 339-427.
73839 —SM 191G
21
ON THE OEKUN OF METEOIOTt
By
J'^lilKDEK II
r>KU\Vl<:iiTH.
Til tho IiDperiMl
(V)iirt Musoniu of National
illsLory
tlierc
is pre-
served
wliat.
is literally
a heavenly treasure.
Its pei'iiliar nature is
well known to the
prolessionals of cultured nations, and
to
all
in-
quiring friends of nature, while
it
is regarded by the great majority
of people more with the vague unceitainty with which one
is usually
accustomed to prevsent to strange, unusual things.
I can assert with
some satisfaction
that, thanks to the occasional court boards of ad-
ministration, to the iiitenclaiits and to the former keepers of the collec-
tion, we have
in this scientific treasure the largest and
scientifically
the most valuable eollectiou of meteorites, and the richest
in number
of falls in the world.
Px'causi* of this circumstance you will certainly
sympathize
with me
if
J,
as
the
present
superintendent
of
this
precious
collection,
consider
it my
])atriotic duty
at your worthy
and honorable iin itatioii to explain briefly one of tlic most interesting
chapters in the lore of meteorites.
The knowledge of st(»nes which have fallen from heaven extends
into
the
oldest
liistory
of humanity,
back
into
prehistoric
times.
Among the Chinese
tlie mention of lieaven stones goes back to 6,000
years, and the fact of falling stones has always been recognized by
the people of Asia Minor, by the Greeks and Eoinans, and
'sve must
not be surprised if tliese
messengers of heaven ” were generally re-
garded as divine
gifts.
But wuth the advance of Christianity an-
other opinion has heexjme prevalent.
The man}^ meteoric divinities
do not conform to
its teaching and the system of the Kornan estab-
lished church.
Gradually there was lost the oriental conception of
them as blessings, and people l>egan to regard them rather as
‘‘ prodi-
gies,” or miraculous events, until through the wdiole Middle Ages and
modern times the falling of meteorites was considered the foreboding
of approaching misfortune, and the occurrence occasioned in human
beings only a feeling of fear, horroi’, and terror.
^ Translation from tho Grenuan of a lecture Riven in the Scientific Club of Vienna on the
26th
of January,
1914.
311
312
ANNUAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916,
By the latter part of tlie eighteenth century the fact of the falling
of stones had hnally so far been forgotten that a fall which occurred
near Luce in France in 17G8 caused great embarrassment to the pro-
fessors and academicians at Paris, because they did not know what
to make of the event as related and the until then unknown material.
Lavoisier, at that time a young chemist, but
^^ ho afterwards became
famous, stated that the meteorite might be a kind of iron pyrites.
In Vienna, also, there existed at that time a complete disbelief in
meteorites.
The then
director of the coui t mineral
cabinet, Andr.
Xaver Stiitz, expressed himself concerning the mass of pure iron of
Agram, Avhicli fell in 1751, and with the ac([uisition of which our me-
teorite collection was founded, as follows;
Certainly (‘ven
tlio clenr beads of <;erniany in 1751, owinj; to Iho gross ignor-
ance prevailing at
tliat time
rc^gjirding natural
history and
practical
pbysi(*s,
may have
l)elieved
the dense
iron
mass(,'s
of Agram
am]
hhchstatlt
to have
fallen
from
heaven,
but
in our
times
it would
be unpardonable
to
consider
such fairy tales even probable.
A similar conception prevailed tilso in America, for when someone
told President JedTerson
in
1807 that two professors had described
the fall of a stone he declared
one can rather believe that two Yan-
kee professors lie tljan believe that stones
fall from heaven.”
The (iermaii
physicist
(’bladiii
in the year 1701
first eliallenged
this disbelief in mdeorites in his paper on
tlie
l\a]lns
ii'on, and
lie
commended meteorites to the scientilic investigation
wliieh through
the whole jhist century has been z.ealously kc[)t up and furthered by
certain scholars, es]K*eially here in Vienna.
Now, what do we denote as meteorites?
You
lia\c doubtless
all
observed
on
clear,
cloudless
nights
the
sudden
appearances
and
again disappearances of
light and
lire
in
tlie
lieavtnis.
Such
are
known to us as comets and meteors, and meteors are again
distin-
guished as vSternschnuppen
(shooting stars, ctoiles filantes), and as
Feuerkugeln
(lireballs or bolides).
The astronomers regard these
three heavenly bodies, which are not members of our
solai* system,
as identical, one with another.
They are connected by intergrada-
tional forms, and their varying appearances are but varying phases
of one and the same natural phenomenon.
This identity of shooting stars and of fireballs avg must, however,
to-day regard as quite uncertain, since there are circumstances in-
dicative of their independence of each other as well as of comets.
When fireballs coming from various directions in the heavens reach
the neighborhood of the earth, where on dark nights they afford to
human beings a sight arousing amazement through the lighting up of
the landscape over which they pass as bright as day, they are seen
to burst, usually with an explosion, throwing out streams of
fire,
accompanied by a noise comparable to the firing of musketry.
Dark-
OMOm OF METEORITES—BERWERTH.
313
ness follows and the solid masses foianing tlio kernel of the fireballs
fall to earth in st'parate fragments, or as a shower of stones.
These solid masses, consisting of stone or iron, which reach our
planet from space, and are ti*ansformed into balls of fire only in our
atmosphere,
we
call
meteorites.
Such
Weltspahne
(world
frag-
ments), as Chladni once called tl¥nn, have been given different names
at diffeixmt times according to the conception which people had of
theii' origin
or
their character, as baetylus or beseelte stones, sky
stones,
thunderstones
(ceraunites,
brontoliths),
thunderbolts,
air
stones, moonstones
(iiranolitlis), and at present they are often called
aeroliths, a name linst used by Blumenbach in 1804.
Concerning the origin of thesi'. stone and iron masses opinions have
greatly vai'ied from time to time.
When Chhidni’s epcK'h-making work (The Pallas Iron, 1794) over-
came the doul)t as to the falling of stone and iron masses from tlie
air, peo])le began
to seek explanations for the mysterious and
still
incomprehensilde phenomena
of
the
Feuerkiigeln
and
to
advance
opinions as to their origin.
Passing over the beautiful, mythical
conceptions of the oriental
peo])les, which have been already referred to, and the assumption in
the middle ages that they might l>e due to lightning, one can generally
divide into two groups those holding opinions as to the origin of
mete(>i*ites~tlnit
is, into supporters of the hypothesis that they came
fi'om space and did not belong originally to the earth and its atmos-
phere, and the supporters of the hypothesis that they did originally
belong to our planet.
Each of these two main groups falls again
into subgroups, first the supporters of the hy])othesis that the meteo-
rites come from unlimited space and the supportei^ of the hypothesis
tluit they ai’e ejected from lunar volcanoes.
The second large group
upholding the
terrestrial
oi'igiri of meteorites
is divided
into two
sections, those wdio think that they originated from the constituents
of the atmos})here and those wdio consider them ejected from terres-
trial volcanoes.
A suggestion of Proust that meteorites may come from the poles
of our eaiih because thei e the iron can not have oxidized, on account
of the eternal cold, may here be mentioned only as a curiosity.
Chladni named the suppoilers of the four special hypotheses cos-
mists,
lunarists,
atmospherists,
and
tellurists.
To
the
cosmists
Chladni himself belonged first of all.
He considered it possible that
the meteorites might be original or chaotic material (“ Urmaterie”)
that
is, aggregates of matter wliich existed in space and which had
never belonged to a larger world body, but which might furnish the
material from which sucli world bodies might be formed.
Many of
the nebula may be nothing else than such shining material spread
through enormous
spaces.
Originating from
these world
clouds
S14
annual KLPOET SMTTHSONUN institution,
1916.
(Weltworlken), comets
aiKt meteorites are
distingiiislied from one
another only through their relative size.
The formations occurring
at the boundary of our
atinospliere as
loose, dustdike, or gaseous
aggregates
lose
their
cosmic
velocity
through
its
resistance, and
finally, by the
ex])]osioiis taking ]dace, are cojnpacted
into a
solid
body.
Chladni, however, did not consider
it impossible
tluit the meteor-
ites miglit be remnants of a destroyed world body, as an illustration
of which he mentioned the disappearance of a planet between Jupiter
and Mars.
Olbers giue occasion for this discovei’v.
In portraying
the solar system
tlie space between Mars and Jupiter caused him
great
vexation, and he
anticipated
that
a
planet might be found
there.
This ingenious idea was soon afterwards verified by the dis-
covery
of
the
asteroids
Ceres,
1‘allas, Juno, and
Vesta, which he
now conceived to be broken pieces of the great planet missed by him.
The little planets
(asteroids), denoted hem as fragmc'uts, belong to
the
ring now
known
as
])lanetoids,
wliicli
a
hundred
years ago were reported
to be angular, not always of iinifonii size,
and therefore of irregrdar form and
variable
light
intensity.
We
shall
see
further on
that
very
re(*ently
E.
Suess has claimed the
vanished planet and the planetoids which
wei’e derived from
it as
the sources of our meteorites.
There were many
res|)ecied
adherents of
the
hypothesis of the
origin of
meteoi‘ites from the volcanoes
of the moon.
Telescopic
observation had at this time already given information as to the sur-
face of the moon, ^‘upon which there were overlap] )ing mountains,
large chains of mountainsextending for great distances, de])ressions,
craters, and planes,” so
v. Ende wi-ites in his book “Ueber Massen
und Steine die aus dem Monde auf die Erde herabgefallen sind,”
1904.
V. Ende endeavors to sti-engthcn (1d ad id's hypothesis and to
establish, or at least make probable, the connection between the earth
and
its satellites.
Olbers
first ex])ress('d
tlie moonstone hypothesis
on the occasion of the fall of a meteorite at Siena in 1795.
The great geometrician La|)lace expi'cssed the same supposition,
w^hich Blumenbach also took up with much approval and called
it
“the most plausible opinion concerning these things.”
Arago and
Smith were also of the same opinion, and
Berzelius,
too,
wuis an
active follower of the lunar hypothesis in
183G.
According to his
opinion the meteoric stones came from two different volcanoes on the
moon.
*****
But when it w’as established that a volcano on the
moon would not
possess
sufficient energy
to impart to an
ejected
block of stone the necessary initial velocity to reach our earth the
hypothesis of the lunar origin
fell into disfavor.
Strange to relate,
it has, however, even at the present day, some individual upholders
for example, the Dutclimaii Verbeeck, who considers that the glasses
OKIGIN OF METEORITES—RERWERTH.
315
(tektites) which nre conceived by Franz SuesB to be meteorites are
glass meteorites from the moon.
For the sake of justice 1 must also mention that the lunar hypothe-
sis had a predecessor in tlie writer Paolo Maria Terzago, who, in the
description (IGGO) of the fall of a stone at Milan in 1G50, at which a
Fran(‘iscan monk was killed, expresscal the opinion that the ^‘moon
was tlio cause of (lie falling of the stones.”
Tlie idea, according to whicli meteorites were formed out of con-
stituents of the atmosphere, was held only
so long as their com-
position was yet
little known.
It was soon
seen
that
iron, nickel,
chromium, silica,
etc., could not be contained
in the air, and Klap-
roth noted also that iron would necessarily be oxidized under these
conditions.
Many other reasons, such as the occurrence of the fire-
balls
at a great height, their velocity, and
occurrence
at
all
times
of the day and year, among other things, early withdrew every sup-
port from the hypothesis of the origin
of meteoric masses in the
atmosphere.
Of longer duration was the theory of their terrestrial origin—that
is, that
tli(\v had
a connection
with
the formation
of the
earth
even though not the ejecta of volcanoes
(with which, indeed, they
do
not
entirely
coincide).
A
terrestrial
derivation
in
this
sense
was
ascribed
to
meteorites by Lagrange
and
later
l)y
Tisseraud.
According to this they are said to have been thrown out of the in-
terior of our planet in the dim early ages with so great force that
tliey were carrit'd beyond the limit of
its attraction to form a ring
about
it,
like
that of
Saturn, out of winch fragments
fall
to the
earth again.
Such a (’once])tion with somewhat difl'erent foundation
we shall tind later heGl by Vh (Joldschmidt.
Little reference
is made to meteorites by astronomers at the be-
ginning of the last c(‘ntury.
The books on astronomy of those times
contain nothing
t\t all about fireballs.
Even Bode in his ‘‘Introduc-
tion to the Knowledge of the Starry ITeavens”
(18i23)
devotes only
the following lines to our subject:
The so-called
nyin.i[!: dragon, the leaping
^2:oat
(capra saltans),
torches, burn-
ing
beams,
and
other
shining
meteors
probably
have
the same
nattire and
consisteiKw in l)art as the falling stones, and are only distinguished from them
in size and shape.
Partly they may also consist of thick and viscous vapors of
the lower
air, widch
give
oiT a phosphorescent
light through a decomposition
of
their
original
materials and are blown away by
the wind
in
all
sorts
of
cliance forms and shapes.
Astronomic hypotheses as to the origin of meteorites did not de-
velop until a mnch later time, and took their rise from the idea that
meteorites, shooting stars, and comets were all of the same character.
Schiaparelli in 1871 suggested important reasons for the connection
between
the three kinds
of
])henomena,
reasons which were
also
316
ANKUAL BKPOBT SMITHSONTAK INSTITUTION,
1916.
presented with a few changes by the Viennese astronomer Weiss.
It
was thought that they could assume with some certainty that the
shooting stars are bodies as solid as are the meteorites which pene-
trate with cosmic velocity the atmosjihere of the earth, where they
become glowing in the heated air and begin to shine, and after be-
ing resolved to dust or consumed become extiiujt or pass out of the
atmosphere.
After it had been shown that swarms of sliooting stars have been
returning i^egularly for two and one-half thousand years and pro-
ceed from a definite point of radiation in the sky, then
it was con-
sidered the only
possibility
that
the swarms
of
meteors
circling
around the sun intercept the orbit of the earth
at some point, on
the approach to which, in conse(|nence of the density of the earth,
a
portion
of them
fall down upon our
iilanet
as
little
meteiiric
bodies.
From the period of rotation,
direction, and
other
factors
W’e have learned how to calculate the course of the iiadeors and have
found
that
their
orbits very
nearly
coincided
with
those
of
the
periodic comets.
Thus the Leonids move in the orbits of the comet
Tempel, 1806, the Perseids
in that of the comet
1802 HI, and the
Bielids of the 27th to 21)th of November
in
tlie course of the comet
Biela.
The agreement
is so consistently exact that a whole
series
of meteor streams can
with
great
j)robability
be
traend
back
to
orbits of known cornets.
Tluit comets are divided by the influence
of the sun or of the xilaiicts, as has happened to the comet Biela, or
altogether break to pieces and scatter themselves along the course
of the comets and form
a meteoric ring out
of
wliich come
the
swarms or shooting stars; all these coordinate occurrences tend very
c'onvincingly
to
identify
the
falling meteorites with
the
shooting
{Stars, and
to
the
belief,
therefore,
that
they
are
broken
pieces
of comets.
A difference between shooting stars and meteorites con-
sists, then, only in that the
first named pass noiselessly across the
heavens and disappear, while the
fireballs huil
their
missiles,
tlie
meteorites, with thundering noise upon the earth.
This theory
is
still ;held
in
esteem among astronomers, and
is
also taken up by
Trabert in his Textbook of Cosmic Physics, 1912.
The hypothesis
can be quite briefly expressed in the follow ing Avords: Comets wdiich
have become periodic split up into jieriodic swarms of shooting stars
which revolve in the courses of the mother comet.
The fireballs are,
then, nothing more nor
less than
sliooting
stars which have been
driven into lower layers of air and appear to us in larger sizes.
According to all these conceptions one would expect that at times
of the abundance of shooting
stars, especially of the Leonid and
Penseid swarms, there would occur an increase of meteorite
falls.
Among the about 350 known
falls some, to be sure, have fallen at
ORIGIN OF METEORITES—BERWERTH.
317
these times.
Thus the iron of Mazapil is said to harfe come from the
meteoric shower of the
27tli of NoA’^ember,
1885, and, according to
this,
is a fragment of the comet
Biela.
But
tliis must remain
a
mei*e assumption.
The time-table of meteorite falls gives proof that
the great majority of meteorites luiA^e not come to the surface of the
earth at the time of swarms of shooting stars.
In opposition to this briefly outlined theory, according to which
the meteorites represent a part of the shootli^g-star pluuiomena, an
hypothesis was proposed
in the seventies in the past century which
did not take its origin f i‘om astronomical assnm})tions.
It was based
on
a
mineralo-geologicail
l)asis, upon
the study of
the component
material of the
m(‘teorites, and
u])on the times of
arrival of me-
teorites
of
like
com]X)sition.
This
new
(volcanic)
hypothesis,
founded upon
adual
observations, was
presented
in
1875
by
G.
Tschermak,
of the Viennese Academy
of
Sciences, and was
later
through supplemental work augmented and established.
If Brew-
ster, L. Smith, Ilaidinger, and Daubree have claimed the origin of
meteorites thi’ough the dissolution of a lieavenly body, so the disin-
tegration of small
celestial
l)odies
is for the
first time ascribed by
Tschermak
to
a
volcanic
proc(‘SB.
From
the
sliajie
of
meteorites
it is to be concluded that they are actual ruins or bi'oken bits which
may come from larger j)lanetary massifs.
Kot only their shapes, but
also the slicken-sided surfaces occurring in meteorites point to frac-
turing in the mass, and many are like volcanic tuffs or clastic masses,
as
Haidinger
and
Reichenbach
have
already
suggested.
Where
Daubree leaA'os
it undecided whether tlie fragmentation of a world
lx)dy is brought about b}^ collision or by explosion, Tschermak based
his decision
tliat they
resulted from
ex})losive
destnictlon on the
physical
condition
of
the
meteorites, which
are
formed by
vol-
canic explosions unacconij>ani(Hl by
tlic pouring out of lava
just as
terrestrial stones which come from explosiA^e craters
(similar to the
Maaren of Eifel).
An explosive actiAity to
aaIiIcIi meteorites point
can
only
be
brought
about by
sudden
exjuansions
of
gases and
steam, among which hydrogen may
have
been
in
the
first
rank.
Vulcanism as
a cosmic phenomena
is the
destroyer
of
planetary
masses, as we learn from the constituents of meteorites, in harmony
with the solar development of stars, which all go through a volcanic
phase.
The
broken
bits
after
their
separation
are
arranged
in
swarms which cross the orbit of the eartli
in accordance
Avith law.
The most convincing examples for the existence of meteorite streams
are formed by the group of eukrites.
If one ascertains their orbits and tlie intersection which they make
Avith that of the earth, one finds that this intersection is progressiA^ely
retarded, which means that
tire line of nodes relative to the earth
318
AKNITAL BKPOBT BMITHSONIAK IKStlTUTIOK,
1916.
retrogrades.
From
the
calculation of
the
time
of
the nodes
of
intersection
and
comparison
with
observations
Tschermak
was
able yeai‘s ago to predict the next falling of a eukrite for about the
end of October, which
calculation was actually borne out by the
falling of the eukrite of Peramiho on the 20th of October, 1899.
For the four undoubtedly similar eukrites of Stannern, Jonzac,
Juvinas,
and
Peramiho,
the
retardation
of
the
intersection
was
found
pro])ortional
to the time by the formula
(E“longitude of
node) E— 2^10.G4-f l.()175t,
in
wdiich
t denotes the number
of
the
year minus 1800.
The
gi^eatest
difference
betw’een the observations and
the
calcu-
lation
is not more
tlian one and one-half
days.
From
the
deter-
mined return and the regular sliifting of the lines of nodes, which
yearly corresponds to
a change of
1'^
3G',
tliere
is therefore very
great piobability for the astronomic connection of the eukrites.
Although
V. Niessl did not
find the astronomic courses of these
eukrites to be identical, wliich means that they did not indicate the
same point of origin, still one can ahvays consider as open the possi-
bility that the Stannern, donzac, and Juvinas stones came from the
Siirne region
in space, wdien one considers that the testimony of eye-
witnesses as to the course of fii-eballs is subject to great error because
of the suddenness of the oc‘currence.
According
to
v.
Niessl^
the meteorite
falls move
in
hyperbolic
courses,
wdiich,
howxnT-r,
does
not
shut
out
the
possibility
that
meteorites occur w liich move in elliptical courses
lilce planets.
Firm
support also for this meteoric hypothesis, deduccal from indisputable
facts, comes from astronomic consideration.
More
recent
observa-
tions have showm that tliere is a ditference in kind betAveen the mate-
rial of meteorites and shooting-stars.
If on(‘, ai ranges the meteorites
according to their specific weight, a series results, wliich begins with
the carbonaceous forms, of the density 1.7 to 2.9.
Then follow those
bearing feldspar with the density 3 to 3.4, those containing bronzito
and olivine (mostly chondidtes)
wdtli the density 4 to
7, and finally
the irons of the density 7.5 to 7.8.
Carbonaceous
meteorites
* 1.7-2.9
Feldspar-bearing
meteorites
3.0-3.4
Bronzite-oUvine-bearing stones
(mostly chondrites)
4.0-7.0
Iron
-
7.5-7.8
In the face of the lesser densities, which are found in the moon
(8.4) in comparison wdth the earth
(5.0), and which decrease in the
1 Determination
of Meteor Orbits: Smithsonian MlBcellaneous
Collections, Vol.
66, No.
16, 1917 .—Teanslator.
ORIGIN OF METEORITES—BERWERTH.
319
outer planets of the solar system to 1.4 in the planet Jupiter and 1.1
even in Neptune
Density.
Earth
5.(5
Moon
a.4
Jupiter
1.4
Neptune
1.1
the supposition be(‘omes the greatest probability that in space parti-
cles are spread abroad
in clouds of loose consistency, which consist
of matter
like rock
dust,
salt-like compounds, carbon, and hydro-
carbons, which come into the solar system in streams and upon their
entrance are consumed, leaving behind carbonic acid, vai)or, and fine
dust.
The Tschermak
liypothesis mentioned
here
gains
in
im])ortance
wlien we consider the opinions of many astronomers of to-day, ac-
cording to which the completion of the heavenly bodies
is incon-
ceivable without vulcanism.
One need but observe the conditions
upon our earth, the moon, and the sun.
Also, we find on the comets
with
elliptic courses phenomena which may be
connected or com-
pared with volcanic occurrences.
Hertz considers the comet tails to
be
electric
waves,
(loldstein
considers them
kathode
tufts,
others
consider them alpha rays of helium, and Svante iVrrhenins declares
them of mechanical origin, formed through pressure of light radia-
tion.
He considers the particdes of the comets so tiny that they no
longer obey the law of gravitation, but are forced out into space by
the light rays of the sun, and by
electric* discharges in the heads of
the comets, which also work repulsively u])on the material forming
the
tail.
All these })heriomena arc straightway compared with the
great stresses in the interior of the planets, as with
volcanic forces,
which also Tschermak has applied to the explosive fragmentation of
small world bodies and by this means has ex})lained the origin of
meteorites.
Paying due res])ect to the opinion of Daubree on the relationship
of meteorites to planets and to Tschermak s derivation of meteorites
from small planetary bodies, E. Suess reminds us of the variability
in the
liglit of the
planetoids
as observed by
Seeliger and Wolf.
Since the course of the latter lies partly outside and partly inside
that of Mars, his view
is corroborated that between Mars and Jupiter
there has existed a unified planetary mass which, according to our
knowledge of the constituents of meteorites, must have come from
the basic rocks occurring in the kernel of the earth. We therefore
find here
Tscherrnak’s conception
applied
to the
dissolution of a
definite planet which Olbers missed 100 years ago and in the place
of which the planetoids were discovered.
Suess says:
^‘Meteorites
and planetoids are nothing else than the passing witnesses of an epi-
sode which has taken place in the history of our planetary system,”
320
ANNUAL K.EPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
The lively interest in the visitors to our solar realm which have
come to us has aroused numerous other investigators to take a stand
as to the origin of meteorites.
Goldschmidt applies his “ Komplikation
law,’^ which he has been able to prove in crystalline forms and musical
harmony—also to harmony in space—and relegates the formation of
meteorites to the time of the separation of the moon from the earth’s
sphere, at which time neither moon nor earth absoj'bed
all the dis-
rupted material, the residuals being condensed into dro])s which now
probably run their course as meteorites around the earth and
are
called cosmolites.
Svante Arrhenius, in a very recent work, puts the origin of meteor-
ites into the realm of nebula or nebulous stars beyond our solar sys-
tem.
He considers that the little j^articles separated out by tiie suns
through ray pressure meet in space and collect
into aggregates of
cosmic dust or meteor stones.
The stony aggregates not falling upon
the other worlds form a kind of haze, which
is the reason that the
largest part of the sky between the stars
is daitc.
If we recall the differences mentioned by Tsdiermak between slioot-
ing stars and meteorites, then the results of the investigation of the
American astronomer, W.
J. Pickering, give strength to the hyj)o-
thesis of Tschermak, since he has found that the (‘ourses of the shoot-
ing stars and meteorites have different fall curves and the meteorites
form a girdle like the asteroids.
He recognizes in the stony meteoi'-
ites similar orbits to those of the planets.
On the other liand, they
are conceived by Goldschmidt as products of separation at the time
of the formation of the moon, while the meteoric
ii ons, moving with
a greater velocity, are
l elegated to the comets.
If we pass in review the changing opinif)ns of the century regard-
ing the origin
of meteorites, we
shall
without
hesitation grant
to
them the right of membership in our solar system.
We shall con-
sider their stellar origin and their coming in frcuii strange worlds as
improbable, and shall marvel at them according to tlieir constitution
and their forms as broken bits of a world body destroyed by volcanic
events.
THE PKESENT STATE OF THE PROBLEM OF
EVOLUTION.*
By Prof. M. ('aullkby.
The exclianjxe of
proiVssoi-s behveen
the Sorbonne and Harvard
ITiiivcrfe'ity
for the
first time
biin<i:s
to Cambridge
a
professor of
science.
In a certain way I come in return for the visits which Prof.
M. Bocher and Prof. W. M. Davis have already made to the faculty
of sciences at
ihiris.
All my
])redecessoi’s belonged to our faculty
of letters.
All lune brought back a recollection of the hearty wel-
come which they receiMid, and what they told me contributed largely
in inducing me to acce[)t the mission which was offered to me.
I had
the assurance of good
will and generous sympathy from my
eol-
leagues as well as from my pupils.
In the beginning I must excuse myself for not being able to express
myself,
at
least
for the presxmt,
in
English.
The most important
point
in teaching
is chaumess in expressing tlioughts.
By speaking
to you in my own language 1 hope to succeed much better in a
diffi-
cult subject, and
for that reason
to obtain forgivness for the effort
which, to my regret, I occasion you.
The purpose of the exchange between
the two universities
is to
convey to the oTie the methods of teaching employed
in the other.
I have the honor to occupy at the University of Paris a chair of
biology especially devoted to the study of the evolution of organic
beings.
It is then lo the present state of this great problem that the
lectures which I am going to give will be dedicated.
I do not enter
upon this subject here Avithout some apprehension.
Certain of my
predecessors by the very nature of their subjects were able to have,
at least, the illusion that Europe is still the veritable center of learn-
ing.
But I have not this advantage.
The necessary conditions for
the development of the sciences are now at least as well fulfilled—
will even say better fulfilled—in the United States than in Europe,
and for many of the sciences Europeans coming to this country have
as much to learn as to teach.
This seems to me particularly the case
1 An Introductory lecture In a course offered by
I’rof. M. Caullery ns exchange professor
at Harvard University, Feb. 24, 191d.
Translated from the French by Mrs.
C. H. Grand-
gent.
Reprinted from
Science, April
21, 1916.
321
822
ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
in biology and especially in the questions connected with the problem
of evolution.
Besides, the advance of American science in these directions does
not date from yesterday.
In the study of paleontology, which has a
large jilace in the questions with which we are to concern ourselves,
your scholars have, for a long time, been working with activity and
considei’able success the marvellous layers of American deposits, and
have drawn from them, to cite only one instance, imignificent collec-
tions of reptiles and mammals, which wc come to admire in the mu-
seums on this side of the Atlantic.
Here more than anywhei'e else
ha\ e been enlarged the paths opened a century ago by (leoi*ge t^uvier.
In zoology, properly speaking, the museum of comparative zoology,
in which
I have the
lioiior to speak at this time, justly famous
in
Europe, bears witness to the importance and long standing of the re-
sults accomplished.
Louis Agassiz, more than half
a century ago,
was one of the most eminent names of his generation.
Later, when
the investigation of the great depths of the ocean marked an impor-
tant and cons€(|iient stage in the knowledge of earth and
life, Alex-
ander Agassiz, his son and illustrious successor, was one of the most
eager and skillful workers.
The expeditions of the LUnkv and of the
ATbatroHH are among those wdiicli have drawn from the deep the most
important and most precious materials, and their results liave been
the most thoroughly studied.
The personality of Alexander Agassiz,
whom I had the honor of meeting in Paris about LI years ago, made
upon me a striking impression.
His real laboratoiy was the ocean,
and he succeeded to the end of his life in maintaining an activity
that corres]xmded to its amplitude.
He was tiady the naturalist of
one of
the
gi’oat
sides of
nature.
Around
Louis and Alexander
Agassiz, the museum and the laboratory of comparative zoology of
Harvard College have hem for a long time a center of studies of the
first rank.
In the domain of embryology Charles S. Minot also has
carried on important work.
But it is especially at the present mo-
ment that American biological science has made an amazing advance
which expresses itself
in the excellence of publications and in the
results which they reveal by the number of collaborators, the activity
of societies, the number of laboratories, and the abundance of mate-
rial resources at their disposal.
Here occurs a special factor, which
has considerable importance, the enlightened and large generosity of
numerous patrons.
It
is incontestable that men of talent find more
easily in America than in Europe, and especially at the age of their
full activity, the cooperation without which their greatest efforts are
to a certain extent barren.
Now, at the point to which we have ar-
rived, the greater part of scientific problems demands the exercise of
considerable pecuniary resources and of collaborators of various ca-
PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY.
323
pabilities.
This
is particularly
true of biology, where, moreover,
many questions, notwithstanding their scientific importance, do not
lead to practical application, at any rate immediately. We succeed
too rarely in Europe in combining these resources, above all in com-
bining them
i*apidly enough.
The European public does not
suffi-
ciently realize their necessity and interest.
And the action of the
state necessarily lacks the
flexibility needful
for rapid
realization.
Thus Pasteur w^as able to organize the institution wdiich
beai*s his
name only at the end of his
life, and at the inauguration he wuis
heard
to
say mournfully,
enter here
defeated
by
Tiitie.”
In
America the ])owxu* and the eagerness Avhich private initiative gives
provide for this need.
Truly the greatest wonder
is that this liber-
ality is generally well conceived and well employed.
It
is also true that the problems of
tlve day
in con tern] )oraneous
biology
are
now’here
else
attackcnl
at the
y)r(‘seni
time
with
such
activity, perseverance, and
su(‘ccss as in the Enited
States.
As we
look at different points on the biological horizon we
s(‘e the studios
on the Mendelian theory of heredity in full dex eloj)ment in nnmljers
of laboratoi’ies.
It will be enough for me to eite
in this connection
the names of Messrs. Castle and East in this very spot, and that of
Mr. T.
11. Morgan, in New York.
In the realm of the physiology
and the structure of the cell and of the egg, the I’csearches of E. B.
Wilson, and of his pujuls on the chromosomes; of J. Loeb on experi-
mental parthenogenesis; of F. E.
Ifillie on the
fertilization of the
egg;
of
C'alkins, and
recently
of Woodruff,
on
the
senescence
of
the infusoria,
suffice to
vsliow the share which this country has had
in the advance of knowdedge.
And I ought also to mention numer-
ous Avorks on embryology and on the study
of the
filiation
of the
cells of the embryo
(cell lineage), on regeneration, on the behavior
of the lower organisms, on geographic distiubution, and the varia-
tions of the species studied from the most diverse sides;
all branches
of biology are liourisliing vigorously.
In addition, the Lnited States,
more than any other country, has
(level oj)ed
scientific
institutions
designed for the study of the application of biology to agriculture,
to fisheries, etc.
In the
fac^e of this situation, I wish to make
it clear at the outset
that I have not
the
least expectation of bringing here
a
solution
of the problem of evolution.
I have too
full a
realization of the
extent of the
scientific movement aroused by this question
in
the
United States, and I hope to derive great benefit myself from my
stay here, from
the contact which
is permitted me with my
col-
leagues and with
their laboratories.
This
latter advantage
is not
the
least which
arises from
the exchange
between
the two
uni-
versities,
Nor have I the expectation of bringing
to you
a new
324
ANNUAL EEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
solution of the problem, nor of examining
it from a special and
original point of view, such as might be the case in a single lecture
or a small number of lectures.
I
will
adhere
strictly
to
the
point
of
\iew
of
the
instiTictor,
taking the question
as a whole, expounding
it
in
its older aspect-s
as well as in its more recent ones.
The interest in these lectures
is,
above
all, in my opinion, in the coordination of facts and in their
critical examination.
As
tliis coordination
is influenced in a large
measure by the surrounding conditions, the view that a naturalist
has of them in l^aris ought to be interesting here.
In questions as
complicated and as undeveloped
as these
still
ar©, where we have
not reached a precise conclusion, the relations of
facts can not be
established in
a harsh and
une(iui vocal
fashion.
This
is
particu-
larly true of the problem of evolution at the point we have reached.
During the last few years very rapid and great progress has been
made in our knowledge
relative to certain kinds of
data, notably
heredity and variation.
But they have not failed
to shake mark-
edly the notions which pj-eviously seemed to be at the very founda-
tion of evolution.
One of my
coinjmtriots, an ardent
disciple of
Lamarck,
F.
I^e
Dantcc, wrote even
as
far
back
as
eight
years
ago a book bearing the signiiicant
title “La
Criso
dii Transform-
isrne,”^
in
wliich
he
brought
otit
the
contradictions
in
question,
contradictions which, amnding to him, were
io result in
the ruin
of the very idea of transformism.
Since that time opposition has
become
ev^en
mori‘ marked, and
at
tlic
present day,
either
tacitly
or explicitly, certain of the most authoritative meji, by their works,
have arrived very near to a conception which would be the negation
of transformism rather than its aflii'maiion.
The term “evolution,”
in French,
at
least, has had
liistorically
two contrary meanings.
In
tlie eighteenth century
it was the ex-
pression
of the theory of the preformation or “ emboitement ”
of
the germs, according to which the lot of every organism was deter-
mined from the beginning.
The succession of generations was only
the unfolding
(evolutio)
of parts that existed from the beginning.
In the nineteenth century, and
it
is in this sense that
it is always
used now,
it had an opposite sense;
it is the synonym of transform-
ism and it signifies the successive ti*ansforniation of animal or vege-
table organic types, not realized beforehand, in the course of the
history of the earth, under the influence of external causes.
Now,
if one admits the general value of certain of the ideas recently
e;s-
pressed, evolution would be only the unfolding of a series of phases
completely determined in the germs of primitive organisms.
It is a
reversion, under a modern form, to the idea which the word evolution
1 Nouvelle collection geientiflque/’ Parlts, Alcan.
PEOBLEM OP EVOLUTION—CAULLERY.
325
represented in the eighteenth century.
It is unnecessary to say that
I use the
'vvord evolution
in
its nineteenth-century
sense, which
is
synonymous with transformism.
It
is evident then that all
is far
from being clear in the present conception of transformism and that,
in consequence, an exposition of its various aspects and an effort to
coordinate them
is not a useless thing in a course of lectures.
Fur-
thermore a comprehensive glance at the
prinei|)al questions which
we shall have to examine will make my meaning clear and will give
me the chance to indicate the general plan of the course.
In spite of the contradictions to which I have just alluded, the
reality of transformism as an accomplivshed fact
is no longer
seri-
ously questioned.
We can make the statement that,
in the unani-
mous opinion of
biologists, evolution—that
is
to
say, the gradual
differentijition of organisms from common
ancestral forms— is the
only
rational and
scientific explanation
of the
diversity
of
fossil
and
living
beings.
All
the known
facts come
easily
under
this
hypothesis.
All
morpholog}^
in
its
different
aspects, comparative
anatomy, embryolog}% paleontology,
verifies
it.
By
virtue of
this
same hypothesis these different branches of mor])ho]ogy have made
an enormous progress since Darwin's day.
The significance of cer-
tain categories of facts, especially in the domain of embryology, may
liave been exaggerated.
Scientific men have
certainly overworked
the idea that the development of the individual, or ontogeny, was
an abridged repetition of phylogeny—that
is to say, of the several
states through which the species had passed—an idea whicli Haeckel
raised to the fundamental law of biogenesis and which a whole gen-
eration of naturalists accepted almost as a dogma.
Without doubt
ontogeny,
in
certain
cases shows
incontestable
traces
of
previous
states, and for that reason embryology fmnishes us with
palpable
proofs of evolution and with valuable information concerning the
affinities of groups.
But there can no longer
lie any
question of
systematically regarding individual development as
a repetition of
the history of the stock.
This conclusion results from the very prog-
ress made under the inspiration received from this imaginary law,
the law of biogenesis.
The
first part of the course will be devoted then to the consid-
eration
of the
general
data which morphology
furnishes toward
the support of the idea of evolution.
Thus we shall see what con-
ception comparative anatomy, embryology, and paleontology afford
us
of
the way
in which
evolution
is brought
about, and within
what
limits we may hope
to
reconstruct
it.
Evolution
is
essen-
tially a process which belongs to the past and even to a past extraor-
dinarily
distant.
It
is
a
reasonable
supposition
that
evolution
is going on to-day, but
let us remember that nothing authorizes us
to
believe that
Mdiat we may observe in the present epoch about
73839°--SM 1910
22
326
AN^NXJAL EEFOBT SMITHSOJflAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
organisms
will
necessarily explain the
succession
of
their former
states.
Evolution
is an
irreversible
process and one which
has
not progressed
at a uniform
rate.
We must
not, then, expect
to
verify necessarily by the present organisms
all the
facts disclosed
by morphology.
It follows in my opinion that morphological data
may
force upon us
indirectly certain conclusions even though we
should have no experimental proof of them in contemporary nature.
Because of this very
limitation which I have
just pointed
out,
much of the
difficulty of the study of the mechanism of evolution
arises and
to
this may
be
attributed many
of the profound
dif-
ferences among
naturalists on
the
subject
of
evolutionary mech-
anism.
The second part of the course
will be devoted
to the ex-
amination and the criticism of the solutions that have been proposed.
In
a
general way, the study
of
the mecluinism
of
evolution
is
that of the reciprocal influence of agents external to the organisms,
on the one hand, and
of the
living substance, properly speaking,
on the other hand.
There are, then,
if you wish, the external
fac-
tors which
together
constitute
the
environment, and
the
internal
factors which
are
the
specific
})roperties
of
the organism.
These
two
elements
are
very
unequally
accessible
to
us.
The
environ-
ment
is
susceptible
of being analyzed
witli
precision,
at
least
as
far as the present
is concerned, and we can surmise
it with enough
probability as to preceding periods.
We know very much less about
living matter, and especially about the way in wdiich
its properties
may have varied in the course of time.
Hence one meets with two
tendencies which have been encountered ever since the evolutionaiy
question
arose and which
are
still
very
definite and
very
contra-
dictory in their effects on
the general theories of evolution.
One
of those attributes a large share to the external factors and attempts
to explain facts by physicochemical actions which
are directly
ac-
cessible.
The other sees in internal
factors, in the intrinsic prop-
erties of the organism
itself, preponderant
if not exclusive agents.
The first tendency attracts us more because it gives a larger share
to analysis ; that is to say, to the truly scientific method.
The second
flatters our
ignorance
with
fallacious
verbal
explanations.
It
is
open
to
the
objections brought
against
vitalist
conceptions;
and
when,
as
is the
case of certain old and new
theories, we come to
restrict
the
effective
role
to
internal
factors
alone, we may
ask
ourselves whether there is a really essential difference between con-
ceptions of this nature and creationist ideas ; between declaring that
species have been created
successively and
arbitrarily by an
arbi-
<iraty sovereign will, without the external world having influenced
their structure, or maintaining that organic forms succeed one an-
other, derived, to be
sure, one from another but following a suc-
cession that
is
really determined
in advance and independent of
PBOBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY.
327
external contingencies.
Between such views there
is in reality no
considerable
difference.
Such
an
idea
substitutes
for
successive
creations one
initial creation with successive and continuing mani-
festations.
The present crisis of transformism, as Le Dantec and
others set
it
forth,
is the
conflict concerning the reciprocal value
of external and internal factors in evolution.
The two principal and classic solutions proposed to explain evo-
lution were based on the efficacy of external factors, both the theory
advanced by Lamarck
in
1800
in
his Philosophle
Zoologi(j[ue,
as
well as that of Darwin, formulated in 1859, in The Origin of Spe-
cies.
Lamarck starts in fact with the statement that the structure
of organisms
is in harmony with the conditions under which they
live and that it is adapted to these conditions.
This adaptation
is,
in his opinion, not an
a priori
fact, but a result.
The organism is
shaped by the environment; usage develops the organs in the indi-
vidual; without
usiige they become atrophied.
The
modiiications
thus acquired
are transmitted
to
posterity.
Adaj)tation
of
indi-
viduals, inheritance of acquired characteristics—these are the funda-
mental principles of Lamarckism.
Except for its verilication,
it is
the most complete scientific theory of transformism which has been
formulated, because
it looks to the very cause of the change of or-
ganisms by
its method of explaining adaptation.
Darwin adopted
the idea of Lamarck and admitted theoretically adaptation and the
inheritance of acquired characteristics, but he accorded to them only
a secondary importance in the accomplishment of evolution.
The
basis for him is the variability of oi*ganisms, a general characteristic
whose mechanism he did not try to determine and which he accepts
as a fact.
This being so, the essential factor of the gradual trans-
formation of species is the struggle for life between the individuals
within each species and between the different species.
The individ-
uals which present advantageous variations under the conditions in
which they live have more chance to survive and to reproduce them-
selves; those which, on the contrary, offer disadvantageous variations
run more chance
of being suppressed
without reproducing them-
selves.
There is established, then, automatically a choice between in-
dividuals, or, according to the accepted terminology, a natural selec-
tion^
a
choice which perpetuates the advantageous
variations and
eliminates the others.
And with this going on in each generation the
type
is transformed
little by
little.
Natural selection accumulates
the results of variation.
This is not the time to discuss Darwin’s theory.
I wish only to
observe at this time that it is less complete than that of Lamarck in
that it does not try to discover the cause of variations ; also that, like
that of Lamarck, it attributes a considerable participation to the con-
S28
AI^NUAL RJEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
(iitions outside the organism, since
it
is these finally which decide
the fate of the variations.
And one of the forms in which the oppo-
sition to the transformist ideas, at the time of Darwin, manifested
itself was the very argument that if organisms had varied
it was
only because of an internal principle, as Kolliker and Niigeli have
more particularly explained.
The biologists at the end of the nineteenth century were divided
with
regard
to
the mechanism
of
evolution
into
two
principal
groups,
following
either Lamarck
or Darwin.
Among
the
neo-
Lainarckians some have accorded to natural selection the value of a
secondary
factor, holding that the primary
factors are the
direct
modifying influences of
tlie surroundings which according to them
cause the
\’ariations.
Selection came in only secondarily, by
sort-
:ing out these variations and especially by eliminating some of them.
Such was the particular doctrine developed by my master, A. (xiard,
at the Sorboime.
Others have more
or
less
absolutely
refused
to
grant any value to selection.
Such was the case of the philosopher
Herbert Spencer.
We must also recognize
that, since the time of
Darwin, natural selection has remained a purely speculative idea and
that no one has been able to show its ellicacy in concrete indisputable
(ixamples.
The neo-Darwinists, on their
side, have
in
a
general
Avay gone
further than Darwin because they^ see in selection the exclusive factor
of evolution and deny all value to Lamarckian factors.
Iliis was the
doctrine of Wallace, and has been especially that of Weismaim.
I
will digress a moment to speak of the ideas of tliese last-mentioned
authors, because of the influence which they have cxeited and
still
exert, correctly in some respects, incorrectly in others, at least as I
think.
Weismann attacked the doctrine of the
inheritance
of acquired
characteristics and has incontestably shown the weakneSvS of the facts
which had been
cited before
his time in support of
this kind
of
Jieredity.
But ho went too far when he tried to show the impossi-
bility of this form of heredity.
In so doing, he starts from a concep-
tion which meets with great favor—the radical distinction between
the cells of the body |)roper, or soma^ and of the reproductive
ele-
ments, or germ cells.
He saw in these two categories distinct and in-
dependent entities, the one opposed to the other.
Sorm^ which con-
stitutes the
individual, properly
speaking,
is only
the temporary
and perishable envelope of the geriii^ which is itself a cellular auton-
omous immortal line, which is continuous through successive genera-
tions and forms the substratum of hereditary properties.
The germ
alone has some kind of absolute value.
The soTna is only an epiphe-
nomenon,
to use the language
of philosophers.
The soma
is, of
PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY.
329
course, modified by external conditions, but for one to speak of the
inheritance of acquired characteristics, the local modifications of the
B(yrm would have to be registered in the genn and reproduced in the
same form in the Boma of following generations in the absence of the
external cause which produced them in the
fii’st place.
Now, says
Weismaim, the possibility of such an inscription, as it were, upon the
germ of a modification undergone by the soma is not evident a priori,
and when we go over the facts we find none supporting this con-
clusion.
There are, indeed, modifications which appear in one gen-
eration and which are reproduced in the following generations; but
Weismann goes on to attempt to prove that at their first appearance
they were not the
efiect of external
factors on
tlic sonia^ but that
they proceeded from the veiy constitution
of the germ;
that they
were
not
really
acquired
and
somatic,
but
were
truly
innate
or
geiminal.
Such, reduc(‘d to its essential points,
is the negative contention of
the d(Kfrine of Weismann.
It rests upon the ahsolute and abstract
distinction between the sorrui and the (jerm.
In spite of the support
which this conception has had and still has, T consider it, for my part,
as unjustifiable in the degree of strictness which Weismann has attrib-
uted to
it.
It is true that the advance in embryology and cytology
often allows ns to identify the reproductive tissue and to follow
it
almost continuously through successive generations, but the concep-
tion of
its autonomy
is at least a physiological paradox.
Though
the continuity of the germ cells is sufficiently evident in many organ-
isms,
it
is more than doubtful
in
others, particularly
in
all those
which reproduce asexuaUy; that
is to say, many
large groups of
animals like the Cadenterata, the Bryozoa, the Tunicata, and many
plants.
This has more than the force of an exception
; it is a general
principle of the life of species.
One can not, then, say that the con-
ception
of Weismann
carries
full
conviction.
But
this conception
exercised a tyrannical influence upon the minds of contemporaneous
biologists, and it is exclusively througli it that mOvSt of them look at
the facts.
Weismaim, besides, exercised a considerable influence bycham|)ion-
ing a theory of heredity based
at the start on the preceding ideas.
This theory,
built
with undoubted
ingenuity and
adapted
to the
knowledge gained from the study of cell
division, turns out on the
other hand to agree with the recent works on heredity.
Lamarckism and Darwinism shared the support of biologists up to
the end
of the nineteenth century, discussion being in general re-
stricted to speculation.
The controversy begun in 1891 between Weis-
mann and Spencer, who represented the two extremes, gives an idea
of the extent to which one could go in this direction.
330
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
The last 20 years constitute indisputably a new period in the his-
tory of transformism where the field of discussion has been renewed,
and scientists liave sought to give
it a much more positive and ex-
perimental character.
Two kinds of investigation have been devel-
oped in this direction: On one hand the methodical study of varia-
tions, and on the other that of heredity and especial!}^ of hybridiza-
tion.
These two categories overlap.
Note that this new point of view is not, properly speaking, a study
of evolution.
According to
it, variation and heredity in themselves,
under present conditions, are analyzed
independently of
all hypo-
thetical!
previous
states
of
the
organism.
Afterwards the
results
obtained
with
the Lamarckian, Darwinian, and
other
succeeding
theories wdll be confronted.
The sum of these researches, which are now
in high favor,
is a
new and important branch of biology, which has received the name
of genetics.
It defines for us in particular the hitherto very vague
notion of heredity and seems certain to lead us to an analysis of the
properties of living substance somewhat comparable to that which
the atomic theory has afforded concerning organic (Lemistry.
. We
can not maintain too strongly
its great importance.
As far as the
theory of evolution is concerned, the results olitained up to this time
have
been
rather
disappointing.
Taken
together
the newly
dis-
covered facts have had
a more or less destructive trend.
In truth
the
results
obtained
do
not
agree
with any
of
the
general
con-
ceptions previously advanced and do not show us how evolution may
have come about.
They have a much greater tendency,
if we look
only to them, to suggest the idea of the absolute steadfastness of the
species.
We must
evidently
accept
these
facts such
as they
are.
But what
is their
significance?
On
tlie one hand
they
are
still
limited, on the other hand, as I have already stated above, and as I
shall try to show
in the following lectures, the advances made by
the study of heredity in organisms at the present time and under
the conditions in which we are placed, does not permit us to accept
ipso facto the doctrines of heredity for
all past time and under all
circumstances.
To* use a comparison which has only the force of a metaphor but
which
will
make my
thought
clear,
the
biologist who
studies
heredity is very much like a mathematician who
is studying a very
complex function with the aid of partial
differential equations and
who tries to analyze the properties and the function about a point
without being able as in the case of an elementary function to study
it in itself, directly, in
all
its
aspects.
The properties ascertained
about one point are not necessarily applicable to all space.
As far
as the organisms are concerned, the
conditions
of
their
variability have not certainly been the same in
all
periods.
The
PROBLEM OP EVOLUTIOlSr—CAULLERY.
331
idea of a progressive diminution of their variability has been often
expressed, notably by D. Rosa,
Le Dantec, according to his favorite
theoretical method in which he considers only the fundamental prin-
ciples of the problem, has tried to reconcile these facts with the La-
marckian doctrine in his book on La
Stabilite de la Vie.^
In the
transformation of organisms as well as in that of inert matter, he
regards every change as the passage from a
less stable to a more
stable state.
The many organisms, after having varied much and
rapidly, might then, perhaps, be for the present in a state of very
constant
stability, at least the greater part of them.
But for the
time being I must omit further consideration of this suggestion.
We shall have then
in the third part of the course to examine,
while bearing in mind the preceding opinions, the general
results
of recent researches in variation and heredity.
I shall now sum up
the principal lines of investigation preparatory to tracing the plan
of these lectures.
The methodical stud}’ of variations in animals and
in plants has
led us to recognize that the greater part of these variations are not
inherited.
If we apply to them the methods of the Belgian statis-
tician Quetelet, we shall perceive that for each property numerically
stated the different individuals of a species range themselves accord-
ing to the curve of the probability of error, the greatest number of
individuals
corresponding
to
a
certain
measure
wdiich
represents
what
is
called
the mean.
The term
flw(*tuati(>n^
is given
to those
variations that are on either side of the mean and the study of these
fluctuations, begun in England by Galton, has been developed and
systematized
bj’^ H. De Vries and Johannsen.
In
short,
it
is the whole
of the curve
of
fluctuations which
is
characteristic of heredity
in
a given organism, and not such and
such
a
particular measure corresponding to
a
[)oint
in
the
curve.
In cross-bred organisms there is, in each generation, an intermixture
of two very comjffex inheritances, since- these organisms result from
an infinite number of these intermixtures in former generations.
On
the
contrary, the problem
is very
simplified,
if one considers the
organisms regularly reproducing themselves by
self-fcililization as
is the case in certain plants.
Here there is no longer in each genera-
tion a combination of new lines, but a continuation of one and the
same
line.
It
is the same hereditary substance which perpetuates
itself.
The Danish
physiologist and
botanist Johannsen
attacked^
as you know, the problem in this way, by studying variation along
a series of generations in lines of beans, and the conclusion of his
researches, which have had in recent years a very great influence,
is
that each pure line gives a curve of specie^ fluctuations under special
^ ** Biblloth^ue sclentlfique internationale/’ Paris, Alcan.
332
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
oorulitiom.
The variations that we observe in the action of external
agents explain the different reactions of the hereditary substance to
the conditions of the environment, but this substance itself remains
unaltered.
The consequence is that, in what since the time of Linn6
we have considered a species, and have admitted to be a more or less
real entity, there
is an infinity of lines, more or less different among
themselves
in
their hereditary properties, which
are fixed and
in-
dependent of environment.
This
it is that Johannsen calls the bio-
tyfe^ or geryotype; a species is nothing but the sum of an infinity of
genotypes differing very
little from one another.
H. De Vries on
his
side reached
analogous views wdiich prove
to harmonize with
the
results and
ideas formulated some 40 years ago by
a French
botanist, Jordan, an unyielding adversary of transformism.
Jordan,
too, by means of well-ordered
cultures, had analyzed
a
species of
crucifer
{Draba verm)
in 200 elementary
species independent of
one another.
He desei'ves to be considered
in any case as the pre-
cursor of the ideas of which T have just given a synopsis.
It is not, then, in ordinary varibility, as
it was known up to this
time, that one
can, following the ideas of De Vines and Johaim-
sen, hope to
find the key
to evolution, since
variations can not be
the
starting
point
for
permanent
changes.
Examining
a
plant
{(Enothera lamarcMiina)
^ De Vries thought he had found this key
in
abrupt
transformations
succeeding
one
another
in
organisms,
under conditions which he has not been able to determine and wdiich
remain mysterious.
The abrupt and immediately hereditary varia-
tions he named imitaiiom and set them in opposition to fluctuations
(i.
e., common variations).
According to him, evolution
is not con-
tinuous but operates through mutations.
The theory of mutations
has been, since 1901, the occasion of an enormous number of experi-
mental studies and of controversies, into which
I shall not enter at
this time, but I shall finally endeavor to extract the results won by
this method of work.
Let us note that,
if De Vries and the muta-
tionists do not formally deny the intervention of external factors in
the production of mutations, the role of these factors
is no longer
very clearly or directly apparent, and some deny it more or less fully.
In short, systematic study has led to an antithesis between flmtua-
tions produced under the influence of the environment but not heredi-
tary, and 7nut(dions not directly dependent upon the environment but
upon heredity. We shall have to discuss the value of this distinction,
the extent and the importance of mutations.
Another and very effective branch of research which has developed
since 1900 and which dominates the study of biology
just now,
is
the study of hybridization, which has led to the doctrine known
as Mendelism.
Sometimes the name genetics
is specifically applied
to it.
PROBLEM OP EVOLUTION—CAULLEBY.
333
Toward 1860 the study of hybridization had led two botanists, the
Austrian monk Gregor Mendel and the French botanist Naudin/
simultaneously but quite independently, to conceptions which did not
particularly attract the attention of their contemporaries, but which
were brought to
light again
in
1900, and which then foimed the
starting point of very many and important investigations.
The ex-
perimental study of Mendelian heredity has been carried on, espe-
cially here in Harvard, with great success by Mr. Castle on various
mammals and by Mr. East on plants.
This topic, therefore, is famil-
iar to the students of biology in this university.
I shall sjxiak of it
for the j)resent, only to state the general results.
Let me recall to your
minds as briefly as possible the essentials of Mendelism.
According
to this doctrine most of the properties Avhich we can distinguish in
organisms are transmitted from one generation to another as distinct
units.
We are
led to believe that they
exist autonomously
in the
sexual elements or gametes, and we can, therefore, by proper crossing,
group such and such properties in a single individual, or, on the con-
trary, we can separate them.
The biologist
deals with these unit
characteristics as the chemist does with atoms or with lateral chains,
in
a complex organic compound.
The
pro])erties which we distin-
guish thus are nothing but the very indirect external expression of
constituent
characteristics of the fundamental
living substance of
the species.
But we imagine, and
it is in this that the enormous im-
portance of Mendelism consists, that
it has been the means of giving
us a more precise idea than we have had heretofore of a substantial
basis for heredity.
In itself Mendelism
is only symbolism, like the
atomic theory in chemistry, but the case of chemistry shows what
can be driiwn from a well-conceived symbolism, and the Mendelian
symbolism becomes more perfect each day in its form, in
its concep-
tion, and in its application.
The recent works of T. H. Morgan ^ ar 3
particulai*ly interesting in this respect.
Further, the facts furnished by Mendelism agree well with those of
cytology.
The results are explained easily enough,
if we accord to
the chromatine
in the nucleus, and particularly to chromosomes,
ii
special
value in heredity.
The agreement of cytology and of Men-
delism in incontestably a very convincing fact and a guide in present
research.
Blit if we return now to the study of evolution, the data of Mendel-
ism embarrass ns also very considerably.
All that
it shows us, in
fact,
is
the conservation
of
existing
properties.
Many
variations
which might have seemed to be new properties are simply traced to
previously
unobserved
combinations
of
factors
already
existing.
^ “ Nouvelles Recherchos sur rnybrl(Ut<5 dans
les
Vfigl^taiix.”
Nouvolles Arch, du Mug.
Hist.
Nat.,
Paria, Tome
1,
1805,
cf.
p.
1.5G.
s* Cf. Morgan, Sturtevant, Muller aud Bridges, “The Meeiiauism of Mendelian Heredity/*
New York,
1916.
884
AKKITAL EUPOET SMITOSOKIAN INSTITUTIOIir,
1916.
This has indeed seriously impaired the mutation theory of De Vries,
the fundamental example of the (Emothera lamarckiana seeming to be
not a special type of variation, but an example of complex hybridiza-
tion.
The authors who have especially studied Mendelian heredity
find themselves obliged to attribute all the observed facts to combina-
tions of already existing factors, or to the loss of factors, a conception
which seems to me a natural consequence of the symbolism adopted,
but which hardly satisfies the intelligence.
In any case, we do not
see in the facts emerging from the study of Mendelism, how evolu-
tion, in the sense that morphology suggests, can have come about.
And it comes to pass that some of the biologists of greatest authority
in the study of Mendelian heredity are led, with regard to evolution,
either to more or less complete agnosticism, or to the expression of
ideas quite opposed to those of the preceding generation
; ideas which
would almost take us back to creationism.
Lamarckism and Darwinism are e(pially affected by these views.
The inheritance of acquired characters
is condemned and natural
selection declared unable to produce a lasting and progressive change
in organisms.
The facts of adaptation are explained by a previous
realization of structures which are found secondarily in harmony with
varied
surroundings.
That
is
the
idea which
different
biologists
have reached and which M. Cuenot in particular has developed sys-
tematically.^
Two
recent and
particularly
significant examples
of
these two
tendencies are furnished us by W. Bateson and by J. P. Lotzy.
In
his Problems of Genetics, Bateson declares that we must recognize
our almost entire ignorance of the processes of evolution, and in his
presidential
address
at the meeting of the British
Association
in
Australia, in 1914, he goes so far as to express the idea tliat evolu-
tion might be considered as the progressive unrolling of an initial
complexity, containing, from the first, wdthin itself, all the scope, the
diversity, and all the diffei*entiation now presented by living beings.
As Mr. Castle cleverly expressed
it, carrying tlie idea to
its logical
issue, man might be regarded as a simplified ameba,
a conclusion
which may well give us pause.
Here we clearly recognize, on the
other hand, modernized in form, but identical in principle, the con-
ception of the
emboitement ” of the germs, and of preformation,
ideas
to which,
as
I have reminded
you,
the
eighteenth
century
applied the name evolution.
It
is a conception
diametrically op-
posed to that of the transformism of the nineteenth century.
Jdr. Lotzy, struck by the results of the crossing of distinct species
of
has reached in the
last three years the conclusion
thEt a species is fixed and that crossing is the only source of produc-
4
“na Gen^se des
eap&ccs
anImaleR.”
Paris,
Blbllothfeque
Sdentlflquo Interna-
tAlCliJi), 1911.—“TMorie de la pr^adaptation/’ Sdentla, Tome 16, p. 60, 1914.
PEOBLEM OP EVOLUTION—CAtTLLERY.
336
tion of new
forms.
Hybridization among
species, when
it
yields
fertile offspring, may, according to him, give rise,
all at once, to a
whole series of new forms, whose mutual relations and differential
characteristics correspond exactly to what the natural species show.
However subversive and
delusive ideas of
this kind, positive or
negative,
appear
to
generations
saturated
with Lamarckism
and
Darwinism, we must not lose sight of the fact that they were formu-
lated by eminent biologists, and that they are the result of long and
minute experimental researches and that many of the facts on which
they rest may be considered as firmly established.
But without thinking of rebelling against the facts resulting from
genetic studies, we may question whether they have so general a sig-
nificance.
1
have
already more than
once
pointed
out
that the
present aspect of organic heredity does not oblige us to conclude that
it has always been the same.
We may ask ourselves whether condi-
tions, which have not yet been realized in experiment, do not either
modify
directly
the germinal
substance
itself,
or
the
correlation
existing between the parts of the soma, and indirectly through them
the germinal substance.
The facts which the study of internal secre-
tions are just beginning to reveal, perhaps indicate a possibility of
this kind.
Even
if we admit that evolution proceeds only discon-
tinuously by mutations, we
still have to discover the mechanism of
the production of these mutations.
In short, we may believe that,
with heredity and variations acting as recent researches have shown
them to act, there are nevertheless conditions that are
still unknown
and that they have been realized for each series of organisms only at
certain
periods,
as seems to be suggested by
paleontology, and in
which the constitution and properties of hereditary substances are
changeable.
Of course these are purely hypothetical conjectures, but
such conjectures must be made if we wish to reconcile two categories
of already acquired data which we are obliged to recognize as facts.
On the one hand we have the results of modern genetics which of
themselves lead to conceptions of fixity, and on the other hand, the
mass of morphological data which, considered from a rational point
of view, seem to me to possess the value of stubborn facts in support
of the transformist conception; I will even go so far as to say in
support of a transformism more or less Lamarckian.
It seemed to me necessaiy to devote the first meeting of the course
to this general analysis of the conditions under which the problem
of transformism now presents itself.
I believe that this analysis is
the justification of the course itself.
It shows the advantage of con-
fronting in a series of lectures the old classic data with the* modem
tendencies,
all of which have to be brought into agreement.
The
crisis of transformism which Le Dantec announced some eight years
ago is very much more acute and more in evidence now than it was
then.
somp: consti)]':uati()ns on stoitt in bikds.
By Dr.
.1. 0. Lewis,
R. A. O.
Tl., Mclhourne.
[With
T)
plntos.]
That continual adjustment, so necessary for life, between internal
relations of an organisTU and the external world would be im]>ossible
were
it not for the communion of the sense oi'gans.
They stand, as
it were, midway between the orj>:anism and its surroundings, keeping
the internal relations aware of and alive to the external happenings
and conditions.
These functions probably arose with the necessity
for adaptation to environment and
its ever-changing demands, and
in
the
struggle
for
existence
they
arc
necessary
fa etui’s
for
the
survival of the rac'e.
Of the different special
senses, hearing and sight stand apart in
the degree of
s])ecialization, and
this
specialization,
again,
varies
greatly
in
the
divisions
of the animal kingdom.
In
the
animal
world, for examj^le, we find all stages from blindness to acute vision.
Where the sight
is poor, smell and hearing
are,
in compensation,
extremely
acute.
The vision of the rhinoceros
is limited
to some
50 yards or so and
is poor even for that short range, but the acute-
ness of the sense of smell makes good the sight deficiency.
In birds
specialization of sight reaches
its highest degree
of development;
and though hearing
is fairly acute, the sense of smell
is certainly
vestigial.
One feature of the functions of hearing and sight
is the
projection
of
their sensory impulses.
Taking
siglit, we
find that
light reflected from a distant object is picked up by the cornea and
lens and brought into focus at a point on the retina.
The stimulation
of the numerous endings of the optic nerve sets up an activity which,
after passing through many systems of
relays,
reaches the
sight
centers in the brain, giving rise to a complex chemical action in the
cells, where the myriad impulses are figured out into a light pattern
ih the image of the original object.
Though the action setting up
these impulses originates in the brain, where the image
is
really
1 Keprlutcd from the JSmu, YoU
15, Pt,
4,
April,
1910.
837
338
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
synthetized, the sensation is projected to the object from which the
light
is reflected. A similar projection occurs with the function of
hearing, though perhaps not so definite in its localization.
If we consider the eye as an optical apparatus, looking at it from
a mechanical point of view, ive find that it can be likened with advan-
tage to a camera, the convergence of rays being brouglit about by
the lens and the cornea, the retina taking the place of the sensitized
plate.
This convergence of the diverging rays of light into focus
on the retina from objects at varying distances is termed accommo-
dation and corresponds roughly to the focusing of a camera.
The
process of accommodation differs greatly in the different classes of
the animal kingdom.
In terrestrial forms, where there is media of
very much less density outside the eye—namely, the air—the princi-
pal convergence is done by the cornea, the outer transjiarent covering
of the eye, the amount of convergence depending upon the laws of
refraction governing light passing from a
l(*ss dense to denser media.
Though the lens also acts to a
lesser extent in the same way, the
corneal convergence is the more important in these forms, the special
important function of the lens being the alteration of focus.
On the
other hand, in aquatic forms, such as
fish, no corneal convergence,
or almost none,
is present, the media—namely, sea
water, or even
fresh water—being of practically the same density as the media of
the
eye
itself.
In
these
forms
convergence
must,
therefore,
be
brought about by the lens only, and for that purpose a spherical lens
is present.
The physiology of accommodation
in birds
is remarkably com-
plicated, differing in many respects from that found in the mam-
mals.
In the latter, or to be more correct, in the terrestrial forms
alteration of focus
is brought about by
alteration in the shape of
the lens.
This structure when focused for near objects becomes more
convex, particularly on the anterior surface.
There is no change in
shape of the transparent front part of the eye.
In
birds, on the
other hand, with the exception of some of the night fliers, though like
in man and other animals, the eye is normally focused for distance,
accommodation
is a more complex
process, there being change
in
shape both of the lens itself and of the eyeball as a whole.
It fur-
ther differs in that it is a positive process, relaxation of the muscle
focusing the eye for nearer points.
In birds there are found two main types of eyes, though
inter*^
mediate forms exist—namely, the tubular
eye, with rounded
lens,
which allows for a normal near vision such as in the night-flyihg
birds; and the other, the almost spherical eye, with flattened
lens,
characteristic
of
high-soaring
birds
of
prey,
and
consequently
adapted for distant vision (ph 1).
Smithsonian Roport, 191C.—Lowls.
1. l\\oof Kniu (lisscftt d to>>lio\v uitUTior and
]H)^U'ru)l clianihor
ot
sliowiii^^
\\cll-
i)(‘('tou, aluK'st
^.plu'rifal
llul-
lens.
'J\\
[)('
()l oyo jiurniallv
Iocu.s.m'iJ
R)r (lislaijcc.
Plate
1.
2.
(ilobcs
<)l
1Iu‘('y<“of n UoriKal Owl.
Skull disst'ctcal
auay
l(t .show ooiii paral i\ o
m/.o
ol
cvt*-;
(.o Hk*
brain,
t'oriica n'iMo\
(.'(1 Irooi
iii'iii v\v.
S[)(‘rniiiai .show.s
1 ho
liibiilar v\c
(if
(itvir-aiahU'd
liiyhl
biid.s,
llu'
va|iabK- of
lorward
visjdu, boili
aeeiii.i; praof
it ally lh(>
.saliK' ru'ld ol
\
I ^loll.
3. rialu AVandcrcr.
Type of total monocular vi.siuu.
both
visual lields distinct.
Australian Barn Owl.
Showing' eyes c:ipublti ol I'orwanl double vision.
Plate
3.
Nankeen Kestrel.
fciliuvviiiK cyo.s ca[)ul)lf
a biuglo ohjoct with both i-yos, tliuugh lolal vi.aul lli'hi.s
vary greatly.
Plate
Crested
Pigeon.
0^ SIGHT |N BIRDS—LEWIS.
339
There is little to be said of the iris in birds apart from the fact
that the movement of this curtain or diaphragm
is voluntary, the
pupil
widening
or
closing
at
will.
Apart
from
the
voluntary
action, closing of the pupil or a stopping-down process occurs in
the presence
of strong
light, and
is,
therefore,
reflex
in
nature,
widening of the pupil being noticed
in weak
light and
also
for
distant vision.
The retina—the sensitive plate, as it were, of the eye—consists of
a layer of
fine nerve endings which
in most animals conform to
two well-marked types—rods and cones.
In birds it has been for
a
long time thought
that
this layer
consisted
of
rods
only, but
closer examination shows that cones are present, though very much
reduced
in number.
There
is also a belief
existent, with perhaps
some reason, that the function of the cones is associated with differ^
entiation
of
colors or the formation
of visual
purple, while rods
determine movement, form, and shape.
This
is the layer which
is
stimulated by
the photo-chemical
action
of
light,
the
sensitizing
substance being found in the external layer of the retina and called,
for convenience,
visual
purple.
It
is believed that this substance
changes under the effect of light, and the chemical changes effected
act on and stimulate the nerve endings, giving rise to the particular
sensation.
In vertebrates this retina is not without its drawbacks.
There
is a well-marked blind spot where the optic nerve branches
out
into
its numerous endings,
this area being particularly large
where the pecten
is well developed.
Further, many blood vessels
ramify over the surface of the retina, and here, also, light
is pre-
vented from falling on and being registered by the sensitive layer.
It is well knowm that in man there is a central small area where
sight is keenest.
This
is called the fovea centroHh^ and here only
rods are present.
In birds
it
is believed that there are two such
areas
in each
eye, one on
either
side of the
pecten.
It may be
stated here that the pecten is a pigmented, vascular structure lying
in the posterior chamber of the eye, protruding forward from the
papilla of the optic nerve
(pi.
1,
fig.
1).
The size varies consider-
ably in different species, extending in some almost to the posterior
surface of the lens, while in others it is small and inconspicuous.
It
is absent in one bird—namely, the Apteryx—and is practically absent
in the Nankeen night heron {Nycticorax codedonicuB)
The function
of the pecten has always been a matter of controversy.
There seeto
to be no special habits or conditions in birds possessing this structhfe
of equal size and shape, while birds with simil&r hahiti Ifeqw great
variations.
One theory was that
it was protective^
til?,
retina from the action of excessive light, in othjlr Wpi#, f
Ita i|<p»cture being vascular Suggests some functions asi^iat^d
the
or nutrition of the eyeball
In accommodifeion for mar*
340
ANNUAL BEPOKT BMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
objects it has been found that there is, with the passage backward of
the posterior surface of the cornea, the transference of fluid from the
anterior chamber.
This
is shown by injecting methylene blue into
the anterior chamber and stimulating the nerves of accommodation,
then noting the course of the fluid.
Admitting then
that there
is a transference
of
fluid from one
chamber to another to maintain an unvarying intraocular pressure,
some governor must be present to eflfect this quick interchange, and
it
is believed that the pecten acts in this way.
In support of this
theory it can be shown that in high-flying l)irds, birds of rapid flight,
birds of prey where the eves have to be accommodated to extremely
rapid alteration of focus, the pecten is well developed.
It
is, on the
other hand, comparatively small
in nocturnal
birds.
Against this
theory
it may
be
stated that
reptiles,
or some
reptiles,
])Ossess
a
pecten, and in these animals the above conditions hardly exist.
Tlie
important point
is that the presence of
this large pecten creates a
large blind area
in the eye, and as it
is heavily pigmented
all light
falling on
it
is naturally absorbed.
It explains to some extent the
constant shifting of the head when a bird
is on the watch, as the
visual
field
is
consideral)ly
limited,
the
portion
obstructed
being
toward the npper outer field of vision.
Before leaving the retina
it
should be mentioned that the presence of
oil globules in this layer
has been known for a long time.
These globules are colored red and
yellow and are found only in birds.
They appear to exert no effect
on color vision, as they are in no way identical in composition with
the visual purple or sensitizing substance.
‘
The numerous fibers from the endings of the rods and cx)nes col-
lect to form the optic nerves.
The nerve from each eye converges
and meets at what is known as the optic chiasma, where they unite
and again
separate.
In
all
animals where
binocular vision
takes
place, or to be more conect, where there
is total binocular vision,
there is partial decussation of the fiber.
Those fibers leading from
the right half of the right eye pass to the right side of the brain,
while the fibers from the left side of the right eye cross over at the
chiasma to the left side of the brain.
The amount
of
decussation
varies
accordingly with the power
of binocular vision.
In some animals where partial binocular vision
is possible, though not usual, as in the horse and some rodents, only
a few fibers do not decussate.
In animals incapable of any binocular
vision complete decussation
takes
place.
This
latter condition
is
found in birds, or nearly
all birds, the fibers entirely crossing over
at the chiasma.
One must first get a grasp of the true meaning of
bihocukr vision to appreciate the difference between pure binocular
yiaion and seeing the same object with both eyes.
If we hold a piece
of paper between the eyes so as to view, say, a red area with the
341
COlJrSIPERATIOISrS OK SIGHT IK BIRDS—LEWIS.
right eye and a yellow area with the left, we do not see the two sepa-
rate colored spots, but a spot of the color equalling the blending of
the pigments; this is due to a superimposing of the images registered.
In animals and birds where the axes of the eyes are not parallel
it
means that the image of an object falling on the riglU half of the
right eye
falls on the
left half of the
left
eye.
Only
in animals
where the axes of the eyes are parallel do the images fall on the same
half of each eye, notably in human beings and monke^^s, thus making
possible true binocular vision.
In other words,
in birds, with the
possible exception of some of the birds of prey and some nocturnal
birds,
the
siglit or visual
field
consists of two separate views not
capable of being su])erimposcd and not stereoscopic in effect.
The advantage of observing the same object with ])()th eyes is that
it permits of greater concentration once an object or victim has been
perceived, and it is tints found in eagles, liaAvks, etc., Avlicre acuity and
concentration are so necesvsary for their existence.
In man the stereo-
scopic vision gives him the judgment of distance, and
it
is chiefly by
this and, to a smaller extent, by accommodation, tliat distance
is ac-
curately estimated.
On
tlie other hand, birds, or most birds, have
to depend n]xm accommodation for their judgment of distance possi-
bly by the focusing movement of the lens brought about b,y the action
of Crampton's muscle, the pull being so strong in some species that
a ring of bony lamimv
is provided
in
the
sclerotic
coat near the
corneal margin to prevent alteration in shape of that part of the eye.
Monocular vision has a great advantage of giving a far more ex-
tensive scope of vision.
It
is a valuable asset for
tlie birds which
must maintain a convStant lookout for the approach of danger, and
for that reason
it
is found mainly in those birds of poor defense,
whose safety lies in speedy detection and evasion of their enemies.
In these birds there
is the range of two extensive visual fields, each
being equally recorded and scrutinized.
The moment an object of
interest is detected the bird does not direct both eyes toward
it, but
there is a concentration of one eye, the vision of the other being sup-
pressed at will.
In some diseases of maix where
t he axis of one eye
has departed from the
parallel of the other, each eye
sees a
field,
which does not correspond with
the
other, yet diplopia, or double
vision,
is noi present, ns the one or the other field of vision
is sup-
pressed according to the automatic concentration in one or the other
eye.
Note
a group of pheasants or pigeons watching the same ob-
3^6t! one eye oply will be directed toward the position.
Watch a
fowTor a pigeon gazing upward at a hawk; one eye will be skyward,
^he other tqward*the ground.
In such cases the vision of the down-
ward eye is being suppressed.
If suppression were not possible
ill
biMs a position similar to diplopia would be present.
An idea of
this condition can be gained by pressing one’s eye, thus shifting the
.
73889^^8111916
23
S42
ANNUAL REPOKT SMiraSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1016.
visual
axis of one
eye, when
a double image
is obtained.
In the
human it is possible to suppress the vision by exercise and education,
otherwise the eye must be closed—thus, in shooting or looking down
a microscope—but by a continual effort at concentration it is possible
to keep both eyes open and to suppress the vision of one.
When we come to acuity of
x ision in birds one must immediately
recognize a superiority over the rest of the jinimal kingdom.
There
is no doubt that they possess an acuity almost immeasurable compared
with our own standard.
Normal sight
in man gives an
acuity of
about
1 minute in degiues of the circle, which means that at 6 meters
we can distinguish clearly enough to identify letters in lines
1 centi-
meter in width.
Man and monkeys are perhaps
in advance of the
rest of the mammals, but fall exti-emelv short of the standard found
in birds.
Speaking roughly,
it
is justifiable to say that birds possess
about a hundred times the degree of acuity found
in man.
Visual
acuity for moving objects is much more keen.
This probably accounts
for (he habit of small animals or birds wishing
tf> escape detection
becoming immobile, their protective coloring blending with the sur-
)’Oundings.
Peep through the smallest hole in a fowl-yard fence, and one will
find that some old hen has perceived the action.
An instance of the
remarkable visual acuity can be seen in the vulture and
its habits.
On the death of an animal there may not be a vulture in sight, and in
a few hours’ time many will have arrived at the
feast.
These birds
I become aware of a dead beast not by smell (as that sense is vestigial),
but by sight.
Vultures are extremely high
fliers, only one bird out-
soaring them—namely, the adjutant.
It is pro))ably that the nearest
vulture sights the animal and descends to the carcass.
The bird’s
action is observed by the vulture farther away, which
is likewise led
lo the scene, and so
it goes on.
In this way
it is believed that birds
come from
a distance of from 50 to 100 miles by their observation of
each other’s action. A fact pointing to their ability to locate a carcass
was observed in one of the outbreaks of rinderpest in Natal.
It was
found that if a carcass were covered by branches immediately after
death, so as to obscure
it from the sight of the birds,
it was never
disturbed by
vultures.
Though there is no means of measuring accurately the visual acuity
of birds, a fair idea may be obtained by observation of their habits.
A great brown kingfi.sher {Dewelo gigas)^ from a position on a post
where
it can inspect newly plowed land, seems to have no difficulty
in locating the exposed part of a worm from any distance up to 100
yards.
Watch an old hen in charge of a few chicks, and nothing
overhead, be
it ever so small, will escape her notice.
Acuity for stationary objects, though not so finely sensitive as for
those moving, is still remarkable.
Experiments have been made with
CONSIDERATIONS ON SIGHT IN BIRDS—LEWIS.
343
pigeons, feeding them on a board on wheat, among which
a per-
centage of the grains have been stuck by adhesive substance.
One
mistake
is sufficient to prevent them again making the error, small,
slight alteration from the natural position of the grain giving them
the
clue.
Many similar cases could be quoted.
The vision of noc-
turnal birds is enhanced
l)y the size of the eyeball itself and the con-
vexity of the cornea, which
collects more light from an object than
tliat
witli
l('ss convexity.
They present,
too, the maj'kedly tubular
eye.
The
])upil
in these birds
is capable of great dilatation.
The
poorness of vision of these birds in the daytime is accounted for by the
fact that the eye is normally focused for objects comparatively near
.and,
again, because
of
the amount of stoojung dowm necessary to
exclude the strong
liglit.
The eyes of these birds are probably what
are known
as dark-adapted
eyes, and
the attempt to see in bright
sunlight has an (dTect similar to that which we experience on emerg-
ing from a dark room into the sunlight.
This
is not due so much to
the contraction of the ]>u])il as to arrangement of the protective pig-
ment around the endings of the optic nerve.
The power of individual movement of the eyes is greater in birds
than in man, extensive divergent jnovement being possible, while con-
vergent movement
is seen as in the human being.
But, in spite of
this,
tlie amount present
is not sufficient for the needs of the bird,
which nearly always moves the head to shift the direction of gaze.
Of
the
accessory
structures of
the eye
not much need be
said.
The
eyelitls present
little differing from mammals, with the excep-
tion
of the
absence of eyelashes and
the
greater mobility
of the
lower
lid.
The third
eyelid, known
as the
nictitating membrane,
is
Avell developed
in
birds, constantly sweeping the surface
of the
cornea and keeping
it free of small particles,
etc.
In mammals
it
is not mo\ed
voluntarily, but by pi^essure exerted by the backward
movement
of the eye
its^‘lf.
This membrane
in birds
is moved by
two voluntary muscles, which bring it across the eye with lightning-
like rapidity.
In aquatic birds
it invests the eye while submerged,
and
is then
trans[)arent,
to allow
vision without endangering the
sensitive surface of the globe.
We come now
to
a more interesting though more
difficult prob-
lem—that
of
color
vision.
If
one
accepts
the
Young-Helmholtz
theory,
it must be taken
that white light consists of the combina-
tion of three primary colors, namely, red, green, and
violet.
Later
works seem to incline toward the older division according to New-
ton—that
the
primary
colors
included
red,
orange,
yellow,
green,
blue, indigo, and
violet.
In other words, tke blue and yellow have
as much right to be considered as primary colors as the other three.
The existence of color vision in animals
is, of course, very difficult to
344
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
191G.
determine.
It appears, however, that with trained dogs and horses
there
is no
difliciilty at all in teaching them to distinguish between
the
saturated
colors.
The
preference
of some
birds, notably
the
Bower Birds, for objects of a certain color and the gcmeral evoliL
tion of color in the different s])ccies must point to an appreciation of
ditTerent shades.
Color sensation must be appreciated by the stimu-
lation of waves of varying lengths.
In man
it varies from about
770
[JL to 396
[i., the latter being the extreme of light registered at the
violet end of the spectrum.
It would appear,
if we adopt the Young-Helmholtz theory, that
man has
a trichromatic vision, and that
all the sliades appreciated
are due to the degree in which the three classes of nerve
fibei*s are
stimulated.
Yellow, for example,
is caused by an equal stimulation
of the sets of fibers for the red and green percipients.
When red
is
seen the fibers percipient of red are strongly stimulated, the others
only weakly.
Color blindness
is an interesting side study
in
tliis
respect, particularly when we come to the color vision of lurds.
In
man dichromatic
vision
appears most commonly with
a
l)lindness
for red or green, the violet blind being rare.
In red or green blind-
ness the subject confuses reds and greens, and in
a mixture of colors
including
tliese
colors
other than red or green
are the
only
ones
appreciated.
Now,
it has been shown by feeding experiments
that birds
are
blind in the violet end of the sjiectrum.
In other words, if we accept
the Young-IIelmholtz theory they have a dichromatic vision.
Their
color vision would be restricted to red and green and the mixtures
of
tliese colors.
They would bo blind to violet and to the
s])ectral
violet in blue, indigo, and yellow.
Such a conclusion would be dis-
astrous to our ilieory of selection
in the coloration of birds, where
many blues and shades of blue are seen.
It would mean that the
development of color
in the evolution of the [)resent-day bird was
merely incidental and apparently without reason.
The flaw in the
reasoning probably
lies in onr uc(;eptance of
tlie Young-Helmholtz
theory instead of recognizing the other colors as primary.
Again,
the conclusion obtained from the feeding experiments may be faulty.
The birds are fed in spectral red light and in spectral green, where
they pick up the grains readily; but when taken to spectral violet
remain still, fail to see the grains, and arc to all intents and purposes
in darkness.
A man color blind in red or in green, though not seeing these colors
as a normal person would see them, still sees the objects, but is blind
to the color only.
His vision extends right to the red end of the
spectrum, though not recognizing the red
there, so that the waves
stimulate the eye, though not giving the color sense.
It'is probable
that
ifl birds the sight
is keyed to a higher pitch than in man, and
CONSIDERATIONS ON SIGHT IN BIRDS—LEWIS.
345
that the retina is not stimulated by wave lengths as short as that of
the violet, while yet possessing the wliolc of the range of colors as
far as the
\’i()let.
In man we know that the eye
is blind beyond the
two limits of red and viohit, but we arc able to ascertain the j)resence
of ulti'a red and ulti'a violet rays that the retina does not register.
There
is
still
a great field for investigation
into the function of
sight.
So far the work done
is mainly comi)arative, and must be
based on the
lines fotind existent in the human
subject, whei'e the
subjective assistance is of great value.
l>ut of the conditions in birds
Me can only theorize, M'hile there may be present conditions outside
our comprehension of the powers of the eye.
'Jliei-e
is
still unuli
to be
learned
concei'ning accommodation, monocular
vision,
color
vision, and the function of the pecten.
PIKATES OF THE DEEP—STORIES OF THE SQUID AND
OCTOPUS.
By Paul Bartsch,
Curator of Marine Invertolmiics,
(I. S. National Muficurn.
[With 19plat(‘S.l
INTUODUCTTON.
The largest, the most highly organized, as well as intelligent, and
therefore, most interesting invertebrate creatures of the sea belong to
the
class of organisms known as Cephalopods,
a group of marine
molliusks embracing the Nautilus, Squid, Cuttleiish, Octopus, Argo-
naut, as
Avell as the
Nautiloids, Ammonites, and Belemnites of the
ancient seas.
The old forms, geologically speaking,
as far as known, were
all
sliell-bearing oi'ganisms.
Their changing from the crani])ed condi-
tion of an inclosing and confining exoskeleton or shell
to an endo-
skeleton or pen, or even no skeleton, came only in very recent times
and
carried
in
its
train
of development not only
possibilities of
bodily expansion, as shown by the giant squid of our seas, but pro-
duced even gi*eater and far more important consequences, namely,
the development of a highly specialized brain, which to-day easily
places this group in the first rank of all the invertebrate dwellers of
the sea when viewed from the standpoint of mentation.
Compared with our squids, the chambered Nautilus, the
relic of
the most ancient stock, is an extremely stupid animal.
^^\ST HISTORY.
In order to follow the customary line of the biographer, we must
first give a bit of attention to the ancestors of our subjects and to
this alone one might well devote the
entire space
allotted
to our
sketch.
Paleontology has taught us that these wonderful creatures
347
348
AliTKtJAL HJRPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, IMO.
can boast of a long line of progenitors; indeed, there afe few groups
that can compare with them in this respect.
For millions upon mil-
lions of years ago, or to be more precise, in Tipper Cambrian times,
there existed a small nautiloid animal in the seas, wliose deposits are
known as the Chau-mi-tien limestone near Tsi-nan, Shantung, China.
The shell of this little animal, which was christened Cyrtoceras cam-
Ina by T)r. Walcott in 1905,"
is only 7 millimeters in length and 3
millimeters in diameter
(fig. 1).
Ever since that time, and probably long before this tiny, flexed, but
noncoiled cliambered nautiloid ancestor of the (l^plialopoda existed,
chambered nautili were lining somewhere in our
seas.
Tlie 0/airkian period ushered in a num])er
of
families, each
with
lU genera
and
species.
The Canadian added materially to these, but the
greatest
differentiation of
all took place
in the
Ordoxician and Silurian, after which the decline
of the order began, i-esulting finallx^ in the rem-
nant of four closely
allied
sjiecies belonging to
the single now existing genus Nautilus.
Tn
all,
about 3,000 sjiecies lune been named and to their
number new foians are constantly being adiled by
the patient paleontologist.
In all these forms we
have the
shell divided
into chamliers
l>y trans-
verse
concave
wse])ta
whose
margins
may
be
straight or undulate; a si])huncle or tube extends
from chamber to cham])er cciinecting them with
each other.
The range of variation in sliape and
pocia, Suio vK'w, X
5.
size
IS quite great.
There are straight cones, as
End view, X
7.
Ortlioceras
;
flexed
forms,
as
in
Cyrtocera^
loosely coiled foims, as in Sphyradoceras; (dosely coded forms, as in
Nautilus;
or
even
closely
coiled
and
finally
solute
shells,
as
in
Ophidioceras and Lituites.
The sculpture, too, presents no end of
variations,
for some
shells
are smooth,
others
axially
or
spirally
striate, or channeled; or
lirate, or threaded,
ribbed, or
keeled, or
marked by combinations of these elements, some even have tubercles
and bosses, but whatever tlie sculpture or size, which varies from the
7-millimeter ancestor to the 14-foot or more long cones of Endoceras,
one word characterizes the entire group, and that is elegance
(pi. 1).
During the XTppier Silurian period a new offshoot of the Cepha-
lopod stock developed, a stalk which has far excelled the Nautiloids
in numbers as well as in diversity of sirnctui'c. We refer to the order
Ammonoidea,
‘‘ the Ammon’s horns,” of which probably more than
Fi(/
1.
Cmiocaa^ cam-
hria Walcott.
The an-
costor of Ihe Cepbilo
iProc. V. S. Nat. Mas., Vol. 29,
p. 22, 1905.
AMMONOIDrS,
1
.
Plii/IIno iir^ hf/i
I
III
I
2 .
T 1.
1
i/i/t ^ mh nut its i\'( )i
]).
!jitm
,
ii<hi(ji
(<)['|it
7.
I I'l m U
! s
fitl n niltil )! s
i >{)\\\,
),
s
I'lnilhin !•
iifijrlmtcii m
Icdl
].
',i.
Muciosrii /ihi/i s
it a nil
Jo.
^cpl.i
()1
I
! ms lul.Kji
{
^
)\)\
1,1.
II
Miiihifiutitns
iii/liihint
Sou'.
I'J.
Hopll/is
tubi ini/<tlii'< ruw,
Jo
l)<itii i/h tci ms
jiKi iiiii'ji
t
i
; chlol li,
}.
ME SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BABTSCH.
349
6,000 species^are known.
Here form, complexity of septation, and
external sculpture ran riot, or, may we say, attained an overspeciali-
zation which soon
spelled
exit, for the group reached
its highest
development in the upper Trias and disappeared suddenly and com-
pletely at the close of the Cretaceous.
In size their shells vary from
the dimension of a pea to more than 6 feet in diameter.
Plate 2
will give the reader a little more intimate view of the group.
The third order, Belemnoidea, of the Cephalopoda, is of consider-
ably less antiquity, dating back only to the Ti'iassic period
Avith not
a single living represcmtatii'e, for the
little cluimbc]*ed Spirula has
been
definitely
disposed among
the modem
10-footed
members,
though the i)aleontologists still classify it with the Belemnoidea.
It
is among tluvse Belemnoids that we have to seek the ancestors of our
squids and cuttleiishes for, like them, they have an inUuaial shell, but
of much greater complexity.
They
also
i)ossessed the ink bag, a
character ])resent in all our modern (^e]3halopods excepting the Nau-
tilus.
It
is quite possible that tluvse members were as abundant in
these later seas as
theii* ancestoi's Avcre in their time and
as their
descendants are to-day, but they had little of fossilizable material to
leave beliind them at death, and thus have left a rather poor, scat-
tered and
fragmentary
recoi’d
of
their
existence.
Judging
fi’om
some of the pens, however,
it
is well to assume that the soft body
inelosiiig them may have compared favorably in size with the mem-
bers of the now existing fauna.
Some of tliese ])ens are called fossil
‘Hhnnder bolts”
b}^ the uninitiated.
Plate
shows a
selection of
these remains.
We next eome to the modern dwellers of the
seas, our
pirates
of the d(‘ep.”
In these Ave have either an internal skeleton or none
at
all.
In the squids the shell is embedded in the dorsal part of the
mantle and frequently reduced to a mere chitinoid remnant, called
the pen
(pi. 4, fig. 1) from its resemblance to the quill pens of old.
At times this is decidedly reinforced by calcareous material, as shown
by the cuttlebone
(pi. 4, fig. 2)
Avhicli wg are accustomed to furnish
our canaries, for this is the skeleton of our cuttlefish.
The only coiled
or chambered
test
is found in Spinila, but here
it serves not as a
container, but is contained Avithin the mantle.
The shell of the beauti-
ful Paper Nautilus or Argonaut
is not a skeletal shell at
all, but a
mere case used by the female for the protection of her eggs.
In all these animals the body is enveloiiied in a soft mantle.
The
head is strongly differentiated from the rest of the body and is sur-
rounded by a circle of 8 or 10 sucker-bearing arms or feet which, in
reality, are modified elements of Avhat corresponds to the anterior
part of the foot in other mollusks.
It is the position of these feet
about the head of tliese animals that has gained for them the name
350
AHNXJAL B^POBT SMITHSOITUK INSTITUTIOl^,
1916.
Cephalopoda, head- footed.
The mouth is situated in the middle of
the tentacular disk and is armed with a pair of formidable parrot-
beak^Uke
jaws.
Not
least
conspicuous
are
the two
large,
highly
specialised eyes situated on the side of the head.
Behind the head
is a constricted neck.
Here we find a cleft, the communicating orifice
between the exterior and the mantle cavity
; here also is inserted the
tubular siphon which, in reality, is
tlie modified posterior
pai't of
the foot and serves as the chief organ of locomotion, for much of the
Cephalopod swimming
is accomplished by the
rapid
expulsion of
water through
this organ by means of the sudden contraction of
the muscular mantle.
The posterior portion of the body may be globular, conic, spindle,
or lance shaped, or cylindric;
it may or may not have lateral flukes,
which may serve as organs of locomotion; or may be modified
to
form
a
sucker,
as
in
Spirilla.
The
internal
organization
is
also
interesting, but we shall content ourselves with the simple statement
that the sexes
are
distinct and
that the
rather complex
brain
is
shielded
in most of them by a cranial
cartilage
that
protects the
principal nerve centers,
incloses the auditory organs, and supports
the very highly developed eyes.
An interesting structui’e found
in
all the living forms, except the Nautilus, is the ink bag, a glandular
sac and a reservoir connected by a duct with the rectum near the
anus.
Tliis oi‘gan produces a dark fluid which the animal is capable
of discharging
at
will.
It
is usually
ejected when
the animal
is
pursued and effectively enwraps it in an impenetrable smudge, thus
aiding it to make good its escape.
The secretion of the Ck^])halop()d
ink bag forms an imt)ortant element of commerce and our arts, where
it is better known under the name of sepia and india ink.
The living Cephalopods, excepting the Nautilus, are easily divided
into two groups or orders.
One of these, Decapoda, embj*aces
all
the members having 10 feet, while the members of the other order,
Octopoda, have but eight
(pi. 5).
Beautifully
preserved
specimens
of
scjuids have
been
found
in
those remarkable reliquaries, the Solenhofen lithographic limestone
deposits of Bavaria, the hardened ooze of an ancient sea, which has
contributed so many chapters to our knowledge of the past.
These
remains proclaim the presence of the order in the Lower Jurassic.
Plate
6
is
a
photograjfli
of
a
specimen,
U.
S.
Nat. Mus.
Cat.
No. 28382, which comes from this formation at Eichstatt and shows
the perfect manner in which the soft, enfolding ooze has preserved
its record for us.
FACTS AND FANCIES.
Bize^ power, speed, beauty, and
intelligence have ever been the
elements that have elicited the admiration of man.
Add to this the
THE
SQtriI> AND OCTOPU^BAETSCH.
351
mystery of the sea and the toothsomeness of our beasts, and you have
a setting with possibilities tliat seek a rival.
No Avonder, then, that
we
find the ancient writers and bards and
all those of years be-
tween them and our modern penman singing songs and spinning
yarns about our Cephaloi)ods, for they possess all the qualifications
denoted above.
Passing through the literature of the ages, one finds
myths and fancies so wonderfully intertwined with a basis of facts,
that even the knowing, prosaic but incisive naturalist finds it difficult
to pass judgment on what is fact or fiction.
One thing, however, is
certain, and that is that all the legends and mytlis appear as clumsy
sailor yarns Avhen compared with the facts which are Ijeiiig slowly
revealed by the painstaking students of the group.
The early writings fre(iuently combine in their discussion of some
one of these animals, characteristics that belong to widely different
orders.
Not only
tliat, ))ut the earlier authors even assigned to the
Physalia or Portuguese Man-o’-War, and the beautiful little Velella,
attributes belonging to the Argonaiita and the Chamliered Nautilus,
for
the
fairy
sails
that were
assigned
to
these
animals
ai’e
un?
doubtedly
the
Avonderfully
colored
floats
of
the
lowly
orgaui/'^^
Hydrozoans
(})h 7).
We quote from Pliny:
Thk Nautilus, or Sailing Polypus.
Anioii^ tbo most remarkable curiosities
is the animal which has
name of
Nautilus, or, as s\une people call
it, the Pompilos.
L>ins with the
1
upward,
it
rises
to
tlio surface
of
the water,
raisinj?
itself
little by
liUi^^»
while, by
means of a certain conduit
in
its body,
it dischargees
all the
this
being got
rid
of
like so mucli Idlge-water as
it were,
it
finds
n*^^
difiiculty
in
sailing along.
Then, extending backwards
its two front arms,
ic
stretches out
between tliem a membrane of marvehais tliinness, whicli acts
ni-f
spread
out to the wind, widle with the rest of its arms
it paddles along
steering
itself with
its tail in the middle, which acts as a rudder.
Thi4^ does
it make
its way along the deep, mimicking the appearance of a
Hglit
bark;
while
if anything chances
to cause
It alarm
in
an
instant u
tfA'aws
in
the
water and sinks to the bottom.
The Chambered
Nautilus
lives
in
the
tropical
v^estern
fWific,
usually at a depth of a hundred or more feet, and, all myths to t|ie
contrary, has ne\er been known to sail the surface of the sea
(pi. 8).
We quote more from the same authority, this time a story relating
to a gigantic octopus:
At Cartel a,
in the preserves there, a polypus was in the habit of coming from
the sea to llie pickling tubs, that were left open, and devouring the fish laid in
salt there—for
it
is quite astonishing how eagerly
all sea animals follow even
the very smell of salted condiments
; so much so, that it is for this reason that
the fishermen take care to rub the insiile of the wicker fish kipes with them*
At last by its repeated thefts and immoderate depredations
It drew down ppon#
852
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMIMSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
itself the wrath
of the keepers of the works.
Palisades were placed before
them, but these the polypus managal to get over by the aid of a
tre<% and
it
was only caught at last by calling in the assistance of trained dogs, which sur-
rounded
It at night as
it was returning to
its prey
; upon which
the keepers,
awakened by the noise, wore struck with alarm at the novelty of the sight pre-
sented.
First of
all, the size of the polypus was enormous beyond
all conoei>
tion
; and then
it was covered
all over with dried brine and
(\xhalod
a most
dreadful stench.
Who could have expected
to
find
a polypus
there or could
have
recogniz(‘d
it as such under these circumstances?
They
really thought
that they were joining battle with some monster, for at one instant
it would
drive off
tlie dogs by
its horrible fumes and lash at them with
tla^ extremities
of
its
feelers,
wliile
at auotluT
it would
strike them with
its stronger arms,
giving blows with so many chibs, as
it were; and
it was only with the greatest
difiioulty
tliat
it could be dispatched with the aid of a considerable number of
three-pronged fish siiears.
The head of this animal was shewn to Lueullus;
it
was in size as large as a cask of
lP,r> gallons and had a heard
(tentacles), to use
the expressions of Trehius himself, which could
Inirdly be encircled with
l)oth
arms,
full of knots, like those upon a club, and 80
f(*et
in length;
tlu* snck(a*s,
or
calicules,
ns
large
tis an urn, resembled a basin
in
shape,
wliile
tin? teeth
again were of a
corresponding
hirg(*ness;
its
remains,
vliii'li
win’e
(*arefuily
preserved us a curiosity, weighed
7(X) pounds.
Denys Montfort, who spent many year.s in ardent study of Cepfinlo-
po(j,.and devoted a whole volume^ to tlic publication of his results,
cites i-imerons incidents of marvelous encounters lietwi^en man and
some oithe larger members of this group.
We shall
(piote a few
selection
•
An old dptain
naiiKHl Jolui Magnus Dens, who resided
in Dunkirk, related
that,
sailiiii
^^^ve between
tin*
isle of
St. Helena and
Africa,
near
the
coast
the ship wa- becalmed.
He took advantage of this calm to send nu*n over
tlie
side
to deaf
grass
wiiieh
accumulates
iK'ar
tlie water
line
on
long
voyage.s.-
TIP
v/c're standing on stag(‘S suspondiHl near the water’s edge,
scraping with
scrapers, wluui suddenly a Iiuge cuttlefish appeared at the
water’s edge
tlirowiiig one of
Ids arms about two
of
tlie men,
tore the
unfortunates,
their stage, from
the side of the vessel and dragged them
into the water.
same time
it threw another arm about a man wlio was
Just mounting
main rigging; but
liere
its arm became entangled with the
shrouds an^^ ratlines,
Jind
it was Tinahle to disentangle
itself.
Tlie man, who
was bein& severely
scpiei^zcvl, cried out for help, and the crew immediately ran
to his itxssistanco.
Several threw harpoons into the body of the beast, winch was
now rising along the ship’s side; others with ax<^s cut in pieces
tlie arm which
heM the man to the rigging and took the unfortunate dowm on deck.
This done, tlie cuttle sank down, but the captain payed out on the lines which
were fast to the liarpooiis, in the hope that presently he would be al)le to drag
the beast up again and recover the two men wlio bad been dragged down.
In
fact, at first he was able to drag the animal toward the surface; but presently
the huge beast again sank down, and they were obliged to pay out; line after line,
till at last, having but a little left, they were forced to hold on; and now four of
the harpoons drew out, while the fifth line broke, and thus
all hope of saving
tho unfortunates or killing the monster was lost.
^ Hlstoire Naturelle I)es Mollusques, Tome 2, Paris, Aa. X,
SmithsoiiMn R
pnit,
— R;irtsch.
Plate
6.
A Fossil Squid from the Solenhofen Limestones of Bavaria.
THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH.
353
This should ho followed by the illustration of the sailing
vessel
attacked by a huge octopus, also taken from Montfort, wliich
is said
to he a facsimile of a painting that he saw
in the Chapel
of
St.
Thomas, in St. Malos, a French seaport, and of which he relates the
following stoiy, told by some of the crow of the vessel to which the
adventure
it depicts happened
(pi. 0)
:
The
sliif)
\v;is <»n the west African ennst.
Slu* liad just 1ak('n
in
lier car^^o of
slaves,
ivory, ami
^^ohl dust, and
the men were heaving up
the anchor, when
suddenly a
iiuaistrous
outtlofish
apix^ared on
top of the water and
slun^
its
arms about two of the masts.
The tips of tlie arms rea<‘hed to the mastheadvS,
and the weii^ht of the cuttle dratraotl the ship over, so that she lay on her beam-
ends and was near Imng eapsi/.ed.
The crew seized axes and
kni^'es, and cut
away at the arms of the nenistcr
; but, despairing of escape,
called ui)on
tlieir
patron
saint,
St.
Tlioimas,
to help them.
Their praycTs seemed
to give them
renewed courage, for
tlu'y persinered, and
finally
siiece(‘ded in cutting
off the
anus, when tlu' animal sank and the ’vessel righted.
Now, when the vessol reinrned
to
8t. Malos the crew, grateful for
tlieir de-
liverance fnun so hideous a <Ianger, m;irche<I in procession to the chapel of their
patron saint, wlmiv they offered a solemn thanksgiving, and afterwanis had a
painting imnle representing the
coiillict with the
cuttle, and which was hung
in the chapel.
But let Montfort, who was once painfully bitten in the side by an
octopus, vhosc bite, he says,
is not iioisonous, relate one of his own
expeiiences
On one occasion a huge mastiff which accompanied
m(' on my explorations
drew my attention by his excited barking.
Wlani
I came to the roclcs I found
a
cuttlefish, whose arms were 3 feet long.
He was defendiiig himself against
the violent attacks of the dog, an animal of immense size and strength and un-
daunted courage, which had
rd ready once saved my
life when attacked by a
wolf.
The dog ran around
the
cuttle,
vainly
atltmijiting
to
seize
the arms,
which followed him with singular dexpTity and lashed him over the back like
whips.
1 looked on a minute
in great astonisliment
at
the
di^xtcrity
()f the
cuttle, which S(,‘emed
fiiU of rage, and showed no desire
io
refri'at, though the
water was just behind
it.
AVhen
it saw me
it sei'iued for
tlu^
first time some-
what intimidated.
There was a change
in
its
tactics.
TIk' arms struck out
less often, and
it endeavored to drag itself to
th(‘ shore.
ScH'ing this, niy brave
dog seemed encouraged.
Watching a chance, he leaped wilhin the arms and
fastened his teeth In one, quite near the body.
Instantly four arms were drawn up and twined rigidly about
tlie dog, who
struggled vainly to free himself, ami, for once losing his courage, uttered pite-
ous howls and
cries
for
help.
IMeantinie
the
cuttle,
wliose huge protruding
eyes seemed actually to flash fire, and whose body had turned many colors, from
dark violet to bright scarlet, was drawing itself with considerable speed toward
the water, dragging with
little
effort the heavy body
of my struggling dog.
TJie rough rocky ground helped him to drag the weight along, by giving his
arms secure holds.
Already
the monster had reached the water
side, when
I
could no longer
bear the sight, and rushed to the help
<>f niy faithful dog.
I seized two of the
arms of the
cuttle,
and, bracing my
feet fihnly against a
solid
roefc pulled
With
all my strength.
I succeeded in tearing loose these arms.
The aniinal
354
aWNtjal eeport smitiisokiak iNstiTtrnoN', 1916.
stnipTcclofl,
uttered cries of rage which resembled the growl of a
fierce watch*
dog, and
finally attacked me,
too, throwing two of its arms about my person.
But my l)rave dog had not been idle.
Gathering courage from my •advance, he
had succeeded in quite tearing off with his strong teeth two of the arms of the
cuttle
; and with another struggle he was free.
Then, with a fury which I never
saw
eqtialed,
lie attacked thO disabled monster, which we together soon over-
powered.
I determined
nevc
i* again to attack an auinuil of this kind unarmed, or
to
venture to close (luarters with
it.
Beale,
an
English
physician, who made
a
w^haling
voyage
in
1831-32, described an octopus adventure worth relating.
^^dnle upon
the Bonin
Islands,
searching
for
shells upon
the
rooks which
had been h^ft by the reciuling sea tide, I was much astonished at st*eing at my
feet a most extraordinary looking animal crawling toward the surf which had
only just left
it.
I had never seen one like it iinder such circumstances before;
it therefore appeared
tlie more remarkable.
It was creeping on
its eight
legs,
which, from their soft and
llexlble nature, Inuit considerably under
tlu‘ weight
of
its body, so
tliat
it was
lifted by the
eflVu't of
its
t(Mitaculae only a small
distance from the rocks.
It appeanvl much alarmed
at seedng me, and made
every
effort
to
escape,
while
I was
not
imu'h
in
the humor
to
(sideavor
to
capture so ugly a custona^r, whose api>earance excited a feeling of disgust not
immixed with fear.
I, however, endeavored
to prevent
its escape by pressing
on one of its legs with my foot; but although I made use of considerable force
for that purpose,
its strength was so great that
it several times quiekly
liber-
ated
its members, in spite of all the efl'orts I could employ in
this way on wet,
slippery rocks.
I now laid hold of one of the tentacles with my hand and held
it
firmly,
so that the limb appeared
as
if
it would
be
torn asunder by pur
united strength.
I soon gave
it a powerful jerk, wishing to disengage
it from
the
rocks
to which
it
clung
so
forcibly by
its
suckers.
This
it
effectually
resisted; but the moment after the apparently enraged animal
lifted
its head,
with
its large eyes projecting from the middle of
its body, and
letting go
its
hold on the rocks sudflenly sprang upon iny arm, which I had previously bared
to iny shouhler for
tlie purpose of thrusting into holes in the rocks to discover
shells.
It clung with
its suckers with great i)ower, endeavoring to get its beak,
which
I could now see betwe^cn the roots of its arms,
In
,a position to bite.
A
sensation
of horror pervaded my whole frame when
I found
this monstrous
animal
had
affixed
itself
so
firmly
to my
arm.
Its
cold,
slimy
grasp was
extremely sickening; and
I immediately called aloud
to the captain, who was
also searching for shells at some distance, to come to my release from my dis-
gusting assailant.
He quickly arrived, and taking me down to the boat, during
which time
I was employed in keeping the beak away from ray hand, quickly
released me by destroying my tormentor with the boat knife, when I disengaged
it by portions at a time.
This animal must have measured across
its expanded
arms about 4
feet, while
its bo<ly was not larger than a large clenched hand.
It was that species of sepia which Is called by whalers “ rock squid.”
And yet another narrative is taken from Cassell’s Natural History
The following account of a marine diver, attacked by an octopus, exhibits th©
behavto
of
these
animals toward
any
being
that
intrudes
upon
them
in
itheir
ngtive
element
4th
November,
1879,
Mr.
J.
Smale,
Government
was at work at the bottom of the tideway of the River Moune* Mel-
Having placed a charge
of dynamite between two
large
stones,
and exploded
it, and on descending again found one of the ston^
Nautilus
pompilus
L.
Showing
Trap
Used
by
the
Fil’pinos
for
their
Capture
F
nim
*•
on
Liviiiu'
Xau-ihi'-,”
by
P,
i.^nford
Aiiioiw-
m
Xonir
ilin
.
vd.
n.
l'«)]
THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH.
855
thrown out, which he sent up, and then hooked on
to another, but could not
start
it, and having descended
again, the current being pretty strong at the
time, he stretched himself out on the stone, and reaching his right arm down
to f(vl
if he could get another small charge under
it, not being able to do this
ill any
other
position.
“My
arm,” he
says, “was
scarcely
down,
however,
bcfon^ T found that
it was held by something, and the action of the water was
stirring up the loose clay, and therefore
I could not see distinctly
for a few
minutes, hut when
it did (;lear away I saw, to my horror,
tlu? arm of a large
(x topus
eiitwiiKMl round
miiio
like a boa
constrictor, and
just then
he
fixed
soiiH' of his suckers on the hack of my hand, and the pain was intense.
I
felt
as
if my hand was being pulled to pieces, and the more 1 tried to take
it away
tli(^ greater the pain becamts and, from past experience,
I knew
this method
would he
useless.
But what was
I
to do,
lying in this position?
I had the
gn atest dilTiciilty In keeping my feet down, as the air rushed along the interior
of my dress and inflated
it, and
if my
feet had got uppermost I should soon
have become insi^nsibh', held
in such a position, and
if I had given the signal
to be
pulled up
the brute would
have held on and
the
chancesi would have
been that
I should have had a broken arm.
I had a iiammer down by me but
could not reach
it to us(‘
it on the brute.
There w^as a small iron bar not far
from mo, and with my
feet
I dragged
this along until
I could reach
it with
my
left
hand.
And now
the
fight commenced
;
the more
I
struck him
the
tighter
he
s(jiieezod,
until my arm
got
quite benumbed,
but
after
awhile
I
found the grip began to relax a
little,
])ut he held on until
I had almost cut
him to pieces, and
tlien he relaxed his hold from the r(X?k and I pulled him up,
I can assure you I was completely exhausted, having been in that position for
over 20 minutes.
I brought the animal
up, or rather a part of
it.
We laid
him out and he mf‘asured over 8
feet
across, and
I
feel
perfectly convinced
that this fellow could have l\eld down five or six men.
It is only when a person
g(‘ts a grip from these brutes tliat one realizes their strength, and
it was lucky
for me that
I was not an amateur, for
I can assure you that I had the greatest
struggle to get clear of
it that I have ever had with any animal under water.
Here
is
still
another yarn by
Aldrovandi, who
speaks
of
the
possum-playing of the octopus:
An octopus, considered dead, was placed in a kettle and hung over the
fiie,
became
revived,
and
gained
sufiicient
strength
to
leave
the
kettle,
climb
through the chimney, and seat himself upon the roof, where, after considerable
hunting, he was discovered.
While Pennant
states, on authority of a friend long resident in
the East Indies, that
in
those
seas,
the eight-armed
cuttlefish
has been found
of such
size
as
to
measure 12
feet
in breadth
across the central
part, while each arm was 54
feet in length; thus making
it extend, from point to point, about 120 feet
(pi*
10 ).
He further states that
the natives of the Indinn Isles, when sailing in their canoes, always take care
to be provided with Imtchets, in order immediately to cut off the arms of such
of these animals as happen to fling them over the sides of the canoe, lest they
should pull It under water and sink It.
Quite
an
excellent
picture
made
by
Gustave
Dor4
showing
Gilliatt’s fight with the
devilfish in Yictor Hugo’s Toilei^ /Qf tim
AKKtlAy# EBFOEX SMITHSOHIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Soa is here reproduced
(pi. 11), but we regret greatly that the au-
thor’s powers of observation were not on a par with his wonderfi
‘
gift of dramatic
diction, for
a
trifle more knowledge would
Ic
raised this cliapter from the limbo of
silly yarns
to a produc
worthy of Victor Hugo.
Tla*
lowing statement, vhich we
(]
from
tlio» above
vvoik,
coi
not
a
single atom
of
trull
though
the
author
attoiup
strengthen his case by
ieh‘
to men
of
science,
from
v\
works
he
undoubtedly
gleaned
some of
his rare information:
The muscles
swell, the fibers of the
body
are
(oiUorted,
the
sKln
crtukH
under
the
loathsome
oppression,
the
blood
spill ts out and
min^los horribly
With the Ijmph of the monster, which
clings
to
its
victim
innumerable
hideous mouths
The hydra
Incoriio-
latcs
its(‘lf v\ith the man, the man he-
comes one with the h.\dia.
The siiectre
lies upon jou,
the
tiger can only
de-
vour jou; the devilfish
hoinblo, sncKs
>our lifeblood aw.iy
lie diavvs .voii to
him,
and ‘into
himself,
while
hound
down, glued
to the gionnd,
powerless,
joii
f(‘el
j ourself
gradually
emptied
into
this horrible pouch, which
is the
monster.
It would be unfair to leave the
Octopoda
without
calling
atten-
tion to the efforts of some of the
modern story
tellers.
We
select
for this purpose a clipping from
the San Francisco Chronicle,
re-
produced
in
figure
2.
This
is a
marvelous
combination
of
crab
and octopus; the artist has termi-
nated not only every one of the
eight arms
in a pair of pincers,
but he has even modified the body
into a claw.
An endless number of instances might be quoted from the daily
relating
struggles
between man
and
the
octopus,
not
all
ifi
wliicii have terminated as favorably
as those which we have
Smithsoninn
Rf>por+,
~-Raito<'li
Plate
9.
THE SQUID AKD OCTOJ^US-~-BARTSCH.
357
The octopus is carnivorous, and hence must seek his animal prey.
He lives chiefly on mollusks and
fish, and even Pliny, in the long
ago, shows a remarkable knowledge of their habits, for he states
They
feed upon
the
flesh of
shellfish,
the
shells of which they can
easily
break
in
the embrace
of
their arms;
hence
it
is
that
their
retreat may be
easily detected by the pieces of shell which lie before
it.
*
*
*
In Its own
domestic
matters
it
manifests
considerable
intelligem’e.
It
carries
its
prey
to
its home, and
after
eating?
all
the
flesh, throws out
the
debris, and
then
pursues such smnll
fish as may chance to swim toward them.
It also <*hanges
its color according to the aspect of the place where
it
is, and more especially
when
it
is alarmed.
The octopus, however,
is not always the hunter, but frequently
the hunted.
Not
least among his enemies
is nuin,
for
since very
ancient times he has been considered a choice morsel in many coun-
tries.
The (Ireeks and Romans considered them the
finest
fish in
the
sea.
Pliny
tells us
that
the gourmands
of Rome
ate
every
variety of octopus known in the Mediterranean.
They were cooked
in a pie, the arms being cut off, and the body filled with spices; and
the Romans were
so careful
in their preparation that their cooks
used pieces of bamboo for drawing the body, instead of knives of
iron, which were supposed to communicate an
ill flavor to the de-
licious morsel.
How highly the cuttle was esteemed by the Greeks
is evident from a story told of Philoxenus of
Syracuse, who, de-
siring a delicious dinner, caused a polypus of three feet spread to
be prepared
for the
principal
dish.
He ate
it
alone,
all but the
head, and was taken
so
sick in consequence of his surfeit that
a
jdiysician was
called.
On
being
bluntly
told
that
his
case was
desperate, and that ho had but a few hours to live, Philoxenus called
for the head which had been left over from dinner, ate that, and
resigned himself to his fate, saying that he left nothing on the earth
wdiich seemed to him worthy of regret.
The methods employed in their capture vary with the people pur-
suing them.
Aristotle
tells us that the
cuttlefish and the octopus
may be caught by bait.
The octopus, in fact, clings so tightly to the
rocks that
it can not be pulled off, but remains attached even when
the knife has been employed to sever it; and yet, if you apply fleabane
to the creature, it drops off at the very smell of it.
This procedure is
still common on
the Mediterranean
shores, where
either
fleabane
{Inula coryza)
or the even handier drug tobacco
is used for this
purpose.
Simmonds, in his Commercial Products of the Sea, gives the fol-
lowing quotation from Vice Consul Green’s report on octopus fish-
ing on the Tunisian coast in modern times
On the
first arrival of the Octopodia in the shallows they keep
in masses
or shoals, but speedily separate in search of shelter among the rooks hear the
beach, covered by only l or 2 feet of water, and In the stony localities prepared
73839®—BM 1916
24
358
ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
191®.
for them by the fishermen in order to frustrate the depositing of their spawn.
Polypi are taken in deep water by means of earthen jars strung together and
lowered to the bottom of the sea, where they are allowed to remain for a cer-
tain number or hours, and
in which the animals introduce themselves.
Fre-
quently from 8
to
10 polypi are taken from every
jar
at each
visit
of
the
fishermen.
In less deep water earthenware drainpii)es are placed side by side
for distances frequently exceeding half a mile in length, and in these also they
enter and are token by the fishermen.
As they are attracted by white and
all
smooth
and
bright
substances,
the
natives
deck
places
in
the
creeks
and
hollows in the rocks with white rocks and shells, over which the polypi spread
themselves and are caught from four up to eight at a time.
But the most suc-
cessful manner of securing them
is pursued by the inhabitants of ivarkeuah,
who form long lanes and labyrinths In the shallows by planting the butt ends
of palm branches at short distances from each other, and
these constructions
extend over spaces of two or more miles.
On the ebb of the tide (the fall here is
about 10 feet) the OctopodiJi are found in the pools inside the inclosures and are
easily collected by the fishermen, who string them
in bunches of 50 each, and
from 8
to 10 of these buriclies,
called
“ risina,” are secured daily during the
season by every boat’s crew of four men.
The simplest method, probably, is that used by tlie Filipinos.
Well
do I recall my first octopus hunt with them in the southern islands.
It was a dark night.
The good ship Albaiross lay
peacefully
at
anchor some half mile
olf a Moro
village, wdiosc dim
outline
w^as
faintly silhouetted against the sky. We had just finished oiir dinner,
returned
to the
declc to take up submarine light
fisliing, when we
noticed a torchlight iirocession proceeding from the village down the
sand spit that fringed a reef.
The orderliness of the i^rocedure soon
changed to what one at our distance might have considered some wild
ceremonial dance.
Our curiosity being tlioronghly aroused, we lowered
a boat and
soon joined the party of men and boys, who were edad in the con-
ventional G-string costume, each provided witli a torch varying from
about 4 to 6 inches in diameter and prol)ably 10 to 12 feet in length,
made of
slender segments of dried,
split
bamlioo,
carried on
the
left shoulder,
held by
the
left hand, and
lighted
in
front.
The
right hand was reserved for the ever-present bolo or a spear.
The
light of these torches would show through the shallow water and
thus reveal the luckless devil
fish, which seemed
to have forsaken
the secure caverns of the reef and to have gone a-hunting on
the
shallow flats within.
They are curious creatures, and their humped-
up attitude and large eyes render them rather mirth provoking at
such times.
But there
is
little time given
to contemplating, for a
native bolo or spear brings him in and he is promptly strung on a
string, where he may continue
to
sejuirm
with
his
fellow
caffcil^es until dead.
Wa i^ecured enough specimens that night
to enable us to spare
some to the cook) for Ming assured us that they were
‘‘ vely good.”
So they were—rather) I should say
it was, for I chewed a i^ngle
An Octopus Feeding on
Fish.
r i('niiiur
II.
i;(‘\ oil
ponuEsiun, Irum
‘
l>t‘iu/.oiis ol Hu*
I )frp,” 1)V
h i.iiiU T.
lliillt'ii.
t'u., piiljlisluTs.
[*>1111
]
3
use.
Here
avo
W iitelied
llie na-
tives fishing for
tlie
octopus
on
tlie inside of the
ward tlie steamer
P^'
^ ”
entrance
to
the
^
beanti ful
1^ i t i
^
' ^;|
'
t .
:
Hay and Ila rbor.
^
The natives liere take a specimen of a large,
"r
.
repulsive-looking Holothurian and tic it to a
line with a sinker.
This
is lowered among
rV'trt'
the crevices of the reef.
If it finds a cavity
with an octopus the animal at once leaves
^•2,.
Hie premises and
is then easily speared
b}’'
the man in the bow of the canoe.
There
is
evidently something about the Ilolotliurian
I
that is so intensely distasteful to the octupus
that he at once forsakes his lair.
quite a picture to see these fishermen
as the3^ work in the very teeth of the pound-
.^SKlv
jug surf with a craft so frail that one eon-
PiG.
3.^Torc:hiight octopus
stantly woiidors how they manage to keep it
hunt in the Philippines.
from being dashed to pieces.
The following is a (quotation taken from an article by Dr.
II. M.
Smith on “Japan, the Paramount Fishing Nation,”^ which shows
how the Japanese fishermen catch these animals:
The ectopas or
devilfish
is abundant and
is an important food product in
^Tapan, although ray personal opinion
is that
It does not appeal strongly to the
Pig. 3.—Torchlight octopus
hunt in the Philippines.
^Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, July, 1904,
p,
119.
360
annual REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916.
American palate.
The octopus is caught in various ways, one of the most Inter-
esting of which
Is by the use of earthenware pots, which are lowered
to the
bottom by means of cords; they are entered by the octopuses, wldch, having
insinuated
themselves,
are
reluctfint
to withdraw,
so
that
the
pots may be
pulled to the surface before the animals try to escape.
I bring up this fishery
in order to refer to a very ingenious corollary, which was first mentioned to me
by a professor in the imperial university and later
verified by myself.
More
than a century ago a vessel laden with a very valuable cargo
of porcelains from Korea destined for the imperial household
was
wrecked
in
th<i
luhind
Sen;
the
captain
and
other
officers did what seems to have been a favorite amusement of
the olden days; namely, they committed suicide just before
the vessel sank in deep water,
llecentiy
tlie lisliermen have
been recovering pieces of this })ottery, which now has an ap-
preciated
value, by tying strings
to octopuses and lowering
them
in
the
vicinity of the wreck,
Tlie animals enter the
vessels and retain their hold of them wliile being drawn
to
the surface.
Several pieces of this porcelain which
I saw
were gems, seeming but little the worse for their prolonged
submergence.
To
show
how
extensive
the
octopus
fishei*ies
are we again quote from Vice Consul
(ireen’s
re-
port
in
Sirnmonds’s Commercial
Products
of
the
Sea,
who
furnishes
some
interesting
iiarticulars
as to the
fishing and trade
in cephalopods
in
the Tunis
waters:
Fro.
4. — Fishing
for
CK’topus
on
tho reef
at
(3uam.
Octopodla and polypi are the trade names under which tliese cephalopods are
known in the I^evant and Greek markets, where they are solely imported for
consumption during Lent, the Orthodox Cliurch not including them in the pro-
hibition against the use of flesh In seasons of religious abstinence.
In a good
eeason the several villages on the island of Karkenali supply about 3,000 hun-
dredweight, and the Juhah waters a tldrd part of tliis quantity.
In an average
year th® yield will he uncU;r 2,000 hundredweight, and in one of scarcity 1,000
hundredweight.
On the shores from the village of Luesa to that of Ohenies, In
the Oulf of Khabs, the natives collect from 4 to 5 hundredweight of cuttlefish a
day duflng the season, but this supply generally serves for the consumption of
An Encounter with a Giant Squid.
THE SQHm AHD OCTOPITS—^BAETSOH,
861
the regency.
The remaining coast and islands may be calculated to furnish a
minimum of 650 to 700 hundredweight of dried molluscs.
The Tunisian Government claims a third of
all the polypi fished upon
its coast.
The
sell-
ing price varies considerably according to tbe
size, supply, and demand, but at Sfax a pair
of them may cost, as circumstances rule, from
Od. to Is. 3d.; however, the i)i’eiiarat(>ry mace-
rat iou, by
beating
on
a
stone
slab
or
rock,
roqniroti
bchn'e drying
entails
a
small
addl-
liomd expense and brings the extremes of low
and high prices to 25 or 50 sliillings per hundredweight.
To
the cost price must be added an export duty
of
5s. Id. and
the purchaser ought to be careful to receive Ids merchandise
from tbe seller during dry weather, as a damp day will add
from 4
to 5 per cent
to the weigld
of every hundredweight.
From two to three public
sales of dried polypi take place
in a season on the Island of Karkonnh;
these are regulated
according to the abundance of the
fish.
The average i>rice of
tbe last six years has been: During the
first sah', from 45 to
50
shillings per
liiindred weight
;
second
sale,
35
to 45
shil-
lings;
third
sale, 25 to 30
shillings.
A few
first
iiarcels,
iu
order to secure an early market, have, how(‘ver, occasionally
been sold for £5 the luiiidredweiglit.
Malta
receives
the
largest
share
of the Tunisian
polypi,
hut they are only sent to that island for ultimate transmis-
sion to Greece and other parts of the Levant.
I/ortngal is one
of the few countries that competes with Tunis
iu supplying
the Greek markets with
x'lolypi.
In Greece
they
are
either
sold, after being pickled, at from £12 ICs. to £15 Os. the cantar
of 170 iiounds,
or,
iu their original dried
state, from £12 to
£11; but tlu'se prices fluctuate according to the favorable or
uiifa\orable results of the seasou’s
fishing.
We must not forget that while we see little of dried
or pickled octopi in our own count ry except in
tlie
Ej
Chinese, Greek, and
Italian markets of New York,
Boston, San
Francisco, and
Cliicago,
it
would
he
difficult to find a food dealer in the oriental markets
lacking in these choice dainties.
So much, then, for the octopus, the
animal that in modern times has become
the emblem of selfishness and iniquity.
Let us next turn to the decapods, our
squids and
cuttlefishes,
for
it
is
here
that we find the most wonderful mem-
bers of the group.
Inch for inch, the
squids will compete in swimming power with any other creature that
lives in the sea.
Well do I recall the rude awakening to which I was subjected when
I tried to capture some slender Loligopsoid squids in the southern
Fig.
5.—Fishing
for
octopus
Japan.
362
annual BKPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916 .
Philippines,
I had always been told that squids were old-fashioned,
antiquated relics of the past, whose very method of backward pro-
gression marked them
as
unfit competitors
with
other marine animals.
It was on board the Al-
hatross
in
the
harbor
of
Jolo on a dark night, with
tlie sea as smooth as glass.
We were
fisliing with the
submarine light, a mere IG-
candlepower electric bulb inclosed in a glass globe
connected
to
a
water-tight
cable.
It
should bo
stated that the sea about Jolo Harbor was found
to be one of the richest plankton-bearing pieces of
water that
it has been my good fortune to
visit;
and where you have an abundance of microscopic
life, there, too, will you find the larger forms that
subsist upon
it.
A swish or two of the light and a
raising and loAvering of it at once attracted a cloud
of minute
forms, then
larger elements came,
in
part attracted by the light and in part by the food.
The protozoans accumulating about the globe were
soon
followed by worms and
crustaceans,
wliose
tangential
course would
soon have
carried them
beyond our light were
it not that the fascination
curves
it more and more and apparently renders
the animal unable to escape from the charm that
draws, and bends
its path to spin about the globe.
Thus we soon found millions of creatures drawn
into
a
spinning
vortex
about
our
light—the
“ wheel of life,” as some one has aptly termed
it.
But new members were soon added; small
fish of
various kinds, a school of sardines dashing madly
after the small crustaceans and worms, and
still
|
larger
and
larger
fish
at
'
1
greater distances from the
light, always preying upon
the
lesser
circle
within;
now
and
then
even
the
”1-^ ’t*-
shadowy outline of a large
'
shark
injected
itself
into
Fig. C.- Fishing with octopus in Japan.
the distant reaches of our lamp.
It was a mad dance, this whirling,
circling
host
of
creatures.
Soon
a new
element
entered;
living
THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BAETSCH.
363
arrows,
a
school
of
Loligopsis
shooting
across
oiir
lighted
field,
apparently not so much attracted by the light as by the feast before
them.
They were wonderful creatures, unlike anything
else; they
shot forward or back like a shuttle, with lightning rapidity.
Not
only that, but they were able to divert their course into any direction
with equal speed.
Shooting forward, their tentacles would seize a
small fish, and instantly they would come to a full stop, only to dart
baclrvvard
like a flash
at the least sign of danger.
Kill,
kill,
kill;
they were bloodthirsty pirates. A bite in the neck, and the fish was
done for; but the sport continued, and, likely as not, the fish would
be dropped and ajiother seized and dispatched.
Never before nor
since have I seen anything
tliat appeared to me more beautifully
equipped for an acpiatic existence than these scpiids.
Fre(juently-
yes, very frecpiently—their impetuous darts would carry them away
above the surface of the sea;
flying squids, when the pumping of
their siphons produced a popping .sound.
I tried to jig .some of them, having heard that the Newfoundland
fishermen cnqiloy a sinker with a series of hooks attached to it, which
they bob
uj) and down
in the water, thereby attracting the squids
and hooking
them.
Biitj our
Sulu squids
refused
to bo hooked.
They would dash up to the contrivance, follow
it at a stife distance,
but
disdained
to
be
caught.
They
would
even
snatch
from
the
hooks the small
fish used
as a bait, and make good
their escape.
Even the expert jiggei's aboard failed to
cat(‘h them.
The bright
idea
to
flojit a pocket net from the beam and have them enmesh
themselves in it occinT-ed to someone.
This was tried, and we found
that our squids possessed an
intelligence equal
to
their lightning
movements.
Did they enmesh themselvevS?
Oh, no; not one of the
thousand or inoi'o that composed the school, but they seemed to enjoy
shooting through a hole in our seine and it was a comical as well as
wonderful sight to see them dart through this opening not more than
18 inches in diameter, like arrows fired from a rapid-fire machine
gun.
Now and then the whole school would come near the .surface
and pause, then again it would sink to
a, depth beyond our range of
vision.
Then they would
line up on the far side of our net, sink
below it, and shoot up on our side, to make an assault upon the small
fish fry which attempted to escape by breaking from the water.
We
finally
did capture some by
carefully watching the speedy
flight of an individual near the surface and (|uickly casting our dip
net ahead of him.
But three nights’ eft'orts of a half a dozen fisher-
men yielded only a couple of dozen specimens.
These were wonderful nights in the Sulu Sea
!
Turn off the elec-
tric current, and where a moment before you saw a mass of circling
life, you now have a glowing wliirlpool, each spark an atom of life.
364
ANNUAL BNPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
while bright phosphorescent streaks mark the movement of the larger
forms, themselves luminous or rendered so by exciting their smaller
neighbors to Hash as they come in contact.
An endless array of species has been made known by our scien-
tists—species large and small, slender and
stout, long and short;
species with wondrous eyes and blind species, many of the deep-sea
forms beaiing complex luminous organs, and all of tlieni possessing
wondei’fully developed chromato|)hores which can be contract(‘d or
enlarged at the animars will.
The contraction may reduce them to
a mere dot, or they may be expanded to 20 times that diameter.
The
changes in the contraction
of thousands of these minute pigment
cells, some of which are rosin colored, others yellow, blue-green, or
brown, ])roduce the
flashes and changes of
color that have gained
the name of “ chameleons of the sea ” for our vsquids.
The literature of the past abounds in sea-serpent myths, which in
a large measure are traceable to giant squids.
For these are the only
known animal whose arms can, without distortion, be made to assume
a scr{)entine form.
This
is clearly shown by our sketch which
is
propojf ioned, excepting partly the thickness of the tentacular arms,
which has been slightly increased, after measurements of an actual
specimen.
The
ex])anded end
of
these
long
arms, studded
with
suckers, might easily be mistaken
for the bearded or maned head,
usually assigned to the serpent.
There Avould be enough basis in a
short view of such a vision at long range to enal)]e the untrained
mind
to su])p]y more than enough detail from the imagination
to
create a kraken, kraxen, krabben, korven, ankertrold, soe-horven, a
haf-gua, soe ormeii, hor\'en, aale-tust, or sea scu*i)ent.
Anolhiu' thing
very suggestive
in
sui)port of this explanation
is the fact that
tlie
known distribution of the giant squids
is coextensive with the
re-
gions from which the abo\u-named beasts have been
imported.
It
is also interesting to note that the size of these mystic animals has
decreased with increased ocean travel and general education.
While
sea serpents are annually reported in sea-serpent season, no one ex-
cept the fearless sailors of old who braved the dangers of the deep
in their small
vessels, ha^’e been favored with such visions as one
finds related by the Rt. Rev. Erich Pontoppidan, Bishop of Bergen
in Norway, and member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Copen-
hagen, in his Natural History of Norway.
We (juote from a trans-
lation published in London in 1755 (pp. 199-200)
:
Another drawing also, wliich appears raore distinct with regard to the form
of this creature, was talcen from the reverend Mr. Egede’s joiii-nal of the Green-
land mission, where the account stands thus in page G: “On the Gth of July,
1.734, there appeared a very large and frightful sea monster, whkdi raised Itself
up so high out of the water that its head reached above our maintop.
It has a
THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH.
365
sharp snout, and spouted water like a whale, and very broad paws.
The body
seemed to be covau’ed with
sc'ales, and the skin was uneven and wrinkled, and
the lower part was formed like a snake.
After some time
tlie creature plunj^ed backward
into
th(‘ water and
tlien
turned
its
tail up above
tlu; surface a whole ship length from
tho head.
The
followin^^ evenirif,^ we had very bad weather.
So far Mr. Uaede.
The drawinj?
annexed ^ives me
th(‘ greatest reason
to conclude
(what by other accounts
I
have
thoii^,dit ])robable)
Unit there are sea snakes,
like other
lish, of dilTerent
soi'ts.
That which IMr. K^^ede saw, and probably
all those who saih‘d
witli him,
had under its body two
flaps, or perhaps two broad
tins
;
lh(‘ head was
Ionian*
and the body thicker and much sliortcw than those sea snalo‘s of which
1 liave
had
the most
consisliait
accounts.
Thouj;h one
v'an
not have an
oiiixndunity
of taking' the t‘xact dimensions of this creature, yet
all that
liav(‘ seen
it are
ouariimous in
atlirminj.r, as far as they can
jud^^re at a
distance,
it apinnirs to
!k‘ of the lenj^th of a
cable,
i.
e., KK) fathoms, or (iOO Kn;j:lish feet;
thjit
it
lies
on
file surface of the water (when
it
is very calm)
in many
folds, and
Unit
there are, in a line witli the head, some small ])ar(s of tlu^ liack to he si*eu above
Fio.
7.—(liaiit squid
hi
role of sea serpent.
the surfac(‘ of the water when
it moves or bends.
Tliese at a distance ap^iear
like so many casks or hoa’slieads tloatinj; in a
line, with a considerable distance
lietween each
of
tliem.
IMr. Tuchsen, of Ilernx', whom
I mentioned above,
is
the only
piu'.son, of the many correspoudeiits
1
liave,
that
informs me
lie has
observed the difference between the body and Uie
tail
of this creature as to
thickness.
It appears that this creature does not.
like the
eel
or land snake,
ta])er
^rmlualiy
to
a
point,
hut
the body, which
looks
to
he
as
hi;?
as two
ho}j;>sheads,
;;rows remarkably small
at once Jnst where the
tail
begins.
The
head in
all the kinds has a high and broad forehead, but
in some a
pointed
sntint, though in others that is Hat, like that of a cow or a
hors(‘, with large
nostrils, and several
stiff hairs standing out on each side like whiskers.
It
is snjiposed that the sea snakes have a very
cpiick smell, which we may
conclude from
this,
that they
are observed
to
lly
fimin
the
smell
of
castor.
Upon
this
account,
those that go out on Stor-Kggen
to
lish
in
tlie summer,
always provide themselves with tliese animals.
They add, that the eyes of this
creature are very
large, and of a blue color, and look
like a couple of bright
pewter plates.
Tiie whole animal
is of a dark-brown
color, but
it
is speckled
and variegatiHl with light streakes or spots, that shine like tortoise shell.
It is
of a darker hue about the eyes and month than elsewhere, and appears in that
part a good deal like those horses, which w^e call moors heads.
366
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
I do not find by any of my correspondents, that they spout the water out of
tlieir nostrils like the whale, only In tliat one instance related by Mr. Egede, as
mentioned above
; but when
it approaches,
it puts the water in great agitation,
and makes
It run
like the current at a mill.
Those on our coast
differ
like-
wise from tiic Clreenland sea snakes, with regard to the skin, which is as smooth
as glass, and has not the least wrinkle, but about the neck, where there
is a
kind of a mane, which looks
like
a parcel of seaweeds hanging down
to the
water.
The observer undoubtedly mistook the tail of a giant squid for the
head of the serpent and the flukes for the limbs.
We quote again
(pp. 2O2~20B)
One of the aforesaid Nortli traders, wlio says that he has been near enough
to some of those sea snakes
(alive)
to feel tlieir sniootli skin, informs me, that
sometimes they
will raise up their frightful
heads, and snap a man out of a
boat, without hurting the rest; but
I
will not atlirm
this for a truth, because
it is not certain that they are a fish of prey.
Yet this, and their enmity to man-
kind, can be no more determined, than that of the land snake, by the werds of
the proph(‘t Amos
(chap,
ix, v.8)
: “And though
tliey be
liiil from my
siglit
in
the bottom
of
tlie sea, thence
will
I commaml
tlie
serj)ent, and be shall
bite
them.”
And again
(p. 207f Magnus,
in his llistor. Septentrion. Lib.
21.
c. 24, speaks of a Norwegian sea snake 80 feet long, but not thicker
than a child’s arm.
He says:
This creature, was put
to such pain by
the
cralis
fastening
on,
it,
that
it
writhed
itself into a hundred
shaiies.
I
liave never
lu'ard of
this sort from
any other person, and should hardly believe the good Oiaus,
if he did not say
that he
affirmed
this from
his own
exiierlence.
*
*
*
The
disproportion
betwixt the thickness of a child's arm, and a length of SO feel, makes me think
there must be an error of the press
in
tlie place,
for
xl. perhaps should he
xi.
ells, or 22 feed
; a more proportionable length, for the thickness.
AnH yet good Olaus’s obser^'ation may not have been so very wrong,
in fact much nearer the truth than the above listed yarns, in all prob-
ability it represented the tentacular arms of a giant squid.
To show the keenness of observation of early seamen, we quote
the following from the same source
(pp. 211-213)
Our fishermen unanimously
affirm, and without
the least variation
in
their
accounts,
that when
tliey row
out
several
miles
to
sea,
particularly
in
the
hot summer days, and by their .situation
(which
tliey know by taking a view
of certain points
of land)
expect
to
find 80 or
1(K) fathoms
water,
it
often
happens that they do not find above 20 or 30, and sometimes
less.
At these
places they generally
find the greatest plenty of
fish, especially cod and
ling.
Their
lines,
they
say,
are no sooner out than they may draw them up with
the hooks
all full of fish
; by this they judge that the kraken
is at the bottom.
They say this creature causes those unnatural shallows mentioned above, and
prevents their sounding.
These the fisiiermen are always glad to find, looking
upon them as a means of their taking abundance of
fisli.
There are sometimes
20 boats or more got together and throwing out their lines at a moderate dis-
tance from
each
other;
and
the
only
thing
they
then
have
to
observe
Is
whether
the depth
continues
the
same, wldch
tliey know by
tlieir
lines,
or
THE SQtJTD AND OCTOPUS—BAETSCH.
367
whether
it grows shallower by their seeming to have
less water.
If this last
be the
ease,
they End
that the kraken
is raising himself nearer
the
surface,
and then
it
is not time for them
to stay any longer.
They immediately leave
off lishing, take to tludr oars, and get away as fast as
tliey can.
When they
have reached the usual
dei)th of
tlu^ jdace and find themselves out of danger,
they
lie upon
their oars, and
in a few minutes after they see
this enormous
monster <rome up
to the surface of the water.
lie there shows himself
sutli-
ciently, though
his whole body does not appear,
which,
in
all
likelihood,
no
human eye evtu* beheld, excei)ting the young of
tliis
si)eci(‘S, which shall
afttu*-
wards he spoken
of.
Its ba(± or upper part, which seems to be in appearance
about
an
English mile and a
half
in clreumfereuoe—some
say
more,
but
I
choose
the
least
for greater certaiuty—looks
at
lirst
like a number
of small
islands surrounded
with
something
that
lloats and
llucUiates
like
seaweeds.
Here and there a larger rising
is observed
like sand hunks, on which various
kinds of small
tislies are seen continually
I(‘aping about
till
they
roll
off into
the water from the sides of
it.
At last several bright points of iiorns appeal-,
which grow thicker and thicker the higher they
rise above the surface of the
water, and sometimes
they
stand up
as high and
as
larger
as
the masts
of
middle-sized vessels.
It seems these are the creature’s arms,
and,
it
is
said,
if
tliey were
to lay
hold of the largest man-of-war they would pull
it down
to the bottom.
After
this monster
has
been
on
the
surface
of
the
water
a
sliort
time
it
begins
slowly
to sink again, and
tlien
the danger
is as great as
hefon*, because
the
motion
of
his sinking causes such
a
swell
lii
the
sea
aial
sucJi an eddy
or
whirlpool that
it draws everything down with
it,
like the current of the river
Male, which
has been
described
in
Its
projier
place.
As
this (mormons
sim
animal,
in
all
probability, may he reckoimd of the Polyp(\
or
of the
starlish
kind, as shall
liereafter he more
fully
proved,
it seems
that the
]>arts
wiiich
are s(‘en rising at
its phmsuri', and are called arms, are properly
tlu‘ teutacula,
or
feeling instruments,
calksl horns as
well as arms.
With
these
tliey move
themselves and likewise gather in their food.
liesides
these,
for
this
last purpose
the great
Orejitor has
also
given
this
creature a strong and
iieculiar seent, whicli
it can emit at certain tinms, and
by means of which
it beguiles and draws other
ffsh
to
(*ome
in
lu'a])S about
it.
This animal has another strange pro[)erty, knowu by the ('xperkua^e of a
great many
old fishermen.
They
observe
that
for some months
the kraken,
or
krahheii,
is
continually
eating and
in other
montlis
lu? always
voids
his
excrements.
During this evacuation the surface of
tlie water
is
color(xl with
the excrement and
appears
(piite
thick and
turbid.
This
imiddlness
is
said
to
be
so
very
agreeable
to
the
smell
or
taste
of
other
fishes,
or
to
both,
that
tht*y
gather
tog(ffher from
all
parts
to
it
and
keep
for
that
purpose
directly
over
tlie
kraken.
He then
opens
his
arms,
or
horns,
seizes
and
sWtill(->ws his welcome guests, and converts them, after the due time, by diges-
tion,
into a bait for other
fish of the same kind.
I
relate what
is
afiirmed
by many, hut
1 can not give too certain assurances of
this particular
as
I
can of the existence of this suri>rising creature, though I do not find anything
in
it absolutely contriiry to nature.
As we can hardly expect au opportunity
to examine
this enormous
sea
animal
alive,
I am
the more
couc(^rned
that
nobody embraced that opportunity which, according to the following account,
once did and perhaps never more may offer of seeing entire wlien dead.
The
Rev,
Mr.
Frils,
consistorial
assessor,
uiiiiister
of
Bodoen,
in
Nordlaiid, and
vicar of the college for promoting Christian knowledge, gave me at
the latter
end of last year, when he was at Bergen, this
relation, which
I deliver again
on his credit.
368
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
In the year 1680 a krake (perhaps a young and careless one) came into the
water
that
runs
between
the
rocks and
clitTs
in
the
parish
of
Alstahoug,
though the general custom of that creature
is
to keep always several leagues
from
land, and
therefore
of course they must
tile
there.
It happened
that
its extended long arms,
or
antennae, which
this creature seems
to
use
like
the
snail—in
turning
about—caught
hold
of some
trees
standing
near
the
water, which might easily have been torn up by the
roots; but besides
this,
as
It was found afterwards, he entangled himself In some openings or
clefts
in the
rock, and
therein
stuck
so
fast, and hung
so
unfortunately,
that
he
could
not work
himself
out,
hut
perished
and
putritied
on
the
spot.
The
carcass,
which was
a
long
while decaying and
tilled
a
great
part
of
that
narrow channel, made
it almost impassable by
its intolerable
stoiich.
Let US now turn from these distorted and fanciful images to the
animals that are responsible for them.
Prof. A. E.
Verrill,
in his
Fic.
8.—Jaws of the giant squid.
Half natural
size.
report on the cephalopods of the
northeastern
coast
of
America,
published
in the annual
report of the Commissioner of Fish and
Fisheries for 1879, tells us many interesting things about the Ameri-
can members of the group.
Among other thizigs he presents a table
on page 22 which gives measurements of the various giant squids
that he had examined to
date.
The
largest
of
these had
a
total
length of 55
feet.
The length of the teiilacular arms of this speci-
men are cited as 35 feet, while the length of the body from tip of
tail to the base of the arms is given as 20 feet.
The greatest length
of tentacular arms mentioned in the table
is 37 and the greatest
Circumference of the body as 12
feet.
The diameter of the largest
gitcker
is given
as about
2.25 inches, and the bx’eadth of the eye
Opening is 7 by 9 inches.
Smithsonian Repnrt, 10 16
Raiti.Lli
Plate
1 5.
Plate 16.
THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—^BARTSCH,
360
In another place he states:
A specimen was found
alive
in
slmllow water
at Coombs Cove and
cap-
tured:
Concerning
this
one
I
Iiave
seen
only
newspaper
accounts.
It
Is
stated
that
its body measured
iO
feet
in
length and was “nearly
as large
around
as
a hogshead ”
(10
to 12
feet)
;
its two long arms
(of which only
one remained)
were 42
feet
in length and “as large as a man’s wrist”;
its
sliort arms were 6
fet't in lengtli hut al)out 0 inches in diameter,
“ very stout
and strong ”
;
the suckers had a serrated edge.
The tentacular
ai'ms of
this specimen would have had
a spread
of
<S1
feet.
Hut
1 have somewhere
seen measurements
cited of a
specimen that carried the extension beyond the
lOO-foot mark. A
splendid
basis
for
sea-serpent
yarns.
We
again
quote from Dr.
Verrill
I have been informed by many
otlier lishermon
(lint these “big squids,” as
they call th(;m, are occasionally taken on the Orand Banks and used for bait.
Others stale that they have seen them
in
(hat
region
without
iieing
able
to
caiitnre.
tlH'iii.
Nearly
all
the
siieci-
meiis
hitlualo
taken
aiiiiear
to
have
iieen
mor(‘
or
h'ss disabled when
first
observed;
otiierwise
tliey
jiroliahly
would
not
apjx'ar
at.
tlie
surface
in
tlH3 daytime.
From the fact that they
have mostly come ashore
in (he night
1
infer
that
they
iniialiit,
ehielly
the
very deep and cold
fiords of Newfoundland and come up
to the surface only
in the night.
That they may
at
times be
a danger
to man
is shown by
the
following statement which we quote from Dr. VerrilFs paper:
Fk;.
0.—Suckers of the giant
squid.
Half
iiatunil size.
1. i4oiu long arm.
2. From
short arm.
Tlu' following extract
is from a letter written by (he Rev.
lU. Harvey
to Dr.
J. W.
Dawson,
and
published
in
the
IMoiitreal
Gazette,
February
26,
1874:
“ Two fishermen were out
in a small punt on
OctolK'r
26,
1873,
off Portugal
Cove, Conception Hay, about U miles from Saint Jolui’s.
Oliserving some object
floating on
th<' water at a short distance, they rowed toward
it, supposing
it to
he a large sail or the debris of a wreck.
On reaching it one of the men struck it
witli
his
gaff, when immediately
it .showed signs of
life,
reared
a parrotlike
beak, which they declare was ‘as big as a 6-gallou
keg,’ with which
it struck
the bottom
of
the boat
violently.
It tlnm shot out from about
its head two
huge livid arms and began
to twine them around
tiie boat.
One of the men
seized a small ax and severed both arms as they lay over the gunwale of the
boat; wliereupou the fish moved
off and ejected an immense quantity of Inky
fluid, which darliened
the water
for two or three hundred yards.
The men
saw
it for a short time afterwards, and observed its tail in the air, which they
declare was 10 feet
a(‘ross.
They estimate the body
to have been 60 feet in
length, 5 feet
in diameter, of the same shape and color as the common
sciuld,
and they observed that it moved in the same way as the squid, both backward
and forward.
“ One of the arms which they brought ashore was unfortunately destroyed,
as they were ignorant of
its importance
; but the clergyman of the village as-
370
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
sures me it was 10 inches in diameter and 6 feet in
leiij^tli.
The other arm was
brouj;i:iit
to
Saint
John’s, but
not before 6
feet
of
it were
destroyed.
For-
tunately,
I heard of
it and took measures to have
it preserved.
Mr. Murray,
of the
j2:eologiciil survey, and
I afterwards examined
it carefully, had
It pho-
tographed, and immersed in alcohol
;
it is now in our museum.
It measured 10
feet, is of a pale, pink color, entirely cartilaginous, tough, and pliant as leather,
and very strong.”
In a letter dated November 27, 1877, Mr. Harvey gives an account of another
si)eclmen,
which was
stranded
on
the
shore
at
Taince
Oov(‘,
Smiths
Sound,
Trinity Hay, about 20 miles farther up the bay than the locality of the Catalina
Bay specimen
(No. 11).
He received his information from Mr. John Duffet, a
resident of the locality, who was one of the persons who found and measured
it.
His account
is as follows: “On November
21, 1877, early
in the morning,
a ‘big squid’ was seen on the beach, at Lance
(^/ove,
still alive and struggling
desperately to escape.
It had been borne in by a ‘spring tide’ and a high
in-
shore wind.
In its struggles to get off
it ploughed up a trench or furrow about
30 feet long and of considerable depth by
the stream of water that
it ejected
with great force from
its siphon.
When the tide receded
it died.
Mr.
Duffet
measured
it carefully, and found that the body was nearly 11
feet long
(prob-
ably
including
the
bead)
;
tlie
tentacular
arms,
33
feet
long.
H('
did
not
measure the short arms, hut estimated
tlaun
at 13
feet, and
that
they
w(‘re
much thicker than a man's thigh at their bases.
The i>eople ent the body open
and
it was
!oCt on the bench.
It
is an ont-of-tiie-way place, and no one knew
that
it was of any value.
Othorwi.se,
it could easily have been brought to St
John's, with
only
the eyes
destroyi'd and
the body
ojxmcd.”
It was
subse-
quently carried off by the tide, and no portion was scoured.
From
Capt,
J. W,
Collins,
of
the United
States
Fish
(.’oiinnission,
I
learn
that in October, 1875, an unusual number of giant
sq\iids were found floating
at the
surface on
the Grand Banks, hut mostly
entirely
dead and more
or
less
mutilated
by
birds and
fishes.
In
very few
cases
they were
not
quite
dead, but
entirely
disabled.
These were seen
cbiclly between
north
latitude
44® and 44®
30’, and between west longitude 49®
.30' and 49®
50'.
He believes
that between 25 and 30 specimens were secured by the
licet from
Glou(*ester,
Mass., and that
Jis many more were probably obtained by the vessels from other
places.
They w(we cut up and
xised
as
bait
for
codfish.
For
this use
they
are of considerable value to the fishermen.
Capt. Collins was at that time
in
command of the schooner Howard,
w’hich
secured
five
of
these
giant
squids.
These were mostly from 10 to 15 feet long, not including the arms, and aver-
aged about 18 inches
in diameter.
Tlie arms were almost always
mutilated.
The portion that was left was usually 3 to 4 feet long, and
at the base about
us large as a man’s thigh.
One specimen, when ent up, was packe<I inpi a
large* hogshead-tidi, having a
capacity of about 75 galh)ns, which
it
filled.
This tub was known to bold 700
pounds of codfish.
The gravity of the Architeuthis is probably about the same
as that of the fish.
This wouhl indicate more nearly the actual weight of one
of these creatures than any of Die mere estimates that have been made, which
are usually much too great.
Allowing for the parts of the arms that hatl been
destroyed this specimen would, probably, have weighed nearly
1,0(K) pounds.
Among the numerous other vessels
tliat ‘were fortunate in securing this kind
of bait Capt, Collins mentions the following:
THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH.
371
The schooner Sarah P, Aycft Capt. Oukly, took one or two.
The
JJ, R. Nicker-
son, Caj)t. McDonald, secured one that had its arms and was not entirely dead,
so that
it was harpooned.
Its tentacular arms were 36 feet long.
Tlie schooner Truga bigzanda, Capt. Mallory, secured three in one afternoon.
These were 8 to 12 feet long, not including the arras.
These statements are conhrined by other fishermen, some of whom state that
the “big squids” were also common during the same season at the “Flemish
Cap,” a bank situated some distance northeast from the Grand Banks.
The cause of so great a mortality among these great Oephalopods can only
be conjectured.
It may have been due to some disease epidemic among them,
or to an unusual i)revalence of deadly parasites or other enemies.
It is worth
while, however, to recall the fact that these were observed at about the same
time,
in autumn, when most of the .specimens have been found
cast ashore
in
Newfoundland in different years.
This time may, perhaps, be just subsequent
to their season for repi'oduction, whcai they would bo so much weakened as to
be more easily overpowered by parasites, disease, or other unfavorable condi-
tions.
Aside
from man
tlie sperm
whale
is undoubtedly
the
greatest
enemy possessed by these monstrous animals, for
it
is well knowm
tliat parts of them are usually found in the stomach or are vomited
by the sperm whale when the animal
is captured by wdialers.
We
quote from The Depths of the Ocean, by Sir John Murray and Dr.
tiohan Hjort (pp. 651-652)
On
the
15th
of August
the Miehael
Sarn
arrived
in
Mofjord
ou
tlie
cast
coast of Iceland, and visited the local wdialing station.
On the shore were two
freshly
caught
whales,
one
a
north-caper,
the
other
a
cachalot.
Inspecting
the cachalot
1 saw around
its enormous jaws several long parallel strii)es con-
sisting,
as
closer
.scrutiny
revealed,
of
great
luimbers
of
circular
scars
or
wounds about 27 mm,
in diameter.
It occurred to me that these scars must
hav(‘ Ixnm
left hy the suckers of a giant squid, and following up
this
idea
I
found
in the whale’s mouth a piece of a squid
tentacle 17 cm.
in maximum
diameter.
In
the stomach
of
the whale many
squid-heaks
of
various
sizes
were found,
the
largest measuring 9 cm.
in
length,
besides some
fish
bones,
and the men who had shot the whale told me that in
its death
flurry
it dis-
gorged the arm of a squid 6 meters long.
Our illustration
(pi. 15)
sliows the sucker scars in the skin.
An encounter between a sperm whale and giant squid
is described
in Frank T. Bullen’s book on The Cruise of the Cachalot, from which
we quote (pp. 143-144).
At about
11
p. m.
I was leaning over the
lee
rail,
gazing
steadily
at the
bright surface of the sea, when^ ihe intense radiance of the tropical moon made
a broad path
like a pavement
of burnished
silver.
Eyes that saw not, mind
only
confusedly
conscious
of my
surroundings,
were
mine;
but
suddenly
I
started
to my
feet
with
an
exclamation, and
stared
with
all
ray might
(A
the strangest
sight
I ever saw.
There was a
violent commotion
In
the sea
right where
the moon’s rays were
concentrated,
so
great
that, remembering
our position, I was
i\t
first inclined to alarm
all hands; for
I had often heard
of volcanic islands suddenly lifting their heads from the depths below, or dis-
372
Alfl^L REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
appearing in a moment, and, with Sumatra’s chain of active volcanoes so near,
I
felt doubtful indeed of what was now happening.
Getting the night glasses
out of the cabin scuttle, where they were always hung in readii\ess,
I focussed
them on
the
troubled
spot,
perfectly
satisfied by
a
short examination
that
neither volcano nor t^artluiiiake had anything to do with what was going on; yet
so vast were the forces engaged that I might well have been excused for my first
supposition.
A very
largo sperm whale was locked
in deadly
conflict with a
cuttle-fish, or
sipiid, almost as large as
himself, whose interminable tentacles
seemed
to enhice the whole
of his groat body.
The head
of the whale
espe-
cially seemed a perfect m'twork of writhing arras—naturally,
1 suppose, for
It
appeared as
if the whale liad
tlie
tail part of
tlie mollusc in
his jaws, and,
in
a
businesslike,
methodical
way, was sawing through
it.
By
the
side
of
the
hlac'k columnar head
of the whale appeared
the
liead of the
great
squid,
as
awful an object
tis one could well imagine even in a fevered dream.
Judging
as
carefully
as possible,
I estimated
it
to be at least as
large as one of our
pipes, which contained MHO gallons; but
it may have been, and probably was,
a good deal larger.
The eyes wei’e very remarkable from tludr size and black-
ness, wbich, contrasted with the
livid whiteness of the
head, made
theur
ap-
pearance
all the more
striking.
They were
at
least a
foot
in diameter, and
seen
under
such
conditions
looked
decidiMliy
eerie
and
hol>g()blin-Uke.
All
around
the
coml)atants
were numerous
shai-ks,
like
jaelmls
around
a
lion,
ready
to share
the
feast and
api>arently
assisting
in
destruction
of
the
huge cei)halopod.
So the titanic struggle went on
in
pcu’fect
silence as far as
we were concermvl, because, even had
tlun-e Ix^m nny
noise, our distance from
the scene of conflict would not have permitted us to liear
it.
Tt is quite possible that the animal observed was an octopus, which
would
better
fit the geographical
position of the
conflict than the
squid.
Such a fight
is depicted
in chapter
11, The Autobiograpliy
of a Sjierm Whale, Frank T. Bnllen’s ‘^Denizens of the Deep,” from
which we have taken plate 17.
It
is probable, from various observations, that this and the other species of
squids are partially nocturnal
in
their
habits,
or at
least are more active
in
the night tlum
in the day.
Those that are caught
in the pounds and
weirs
mostly
enter
in
the
night,
evidently
while swimming
along
the
sliores
in
“schools.”
They are often found
in the morning stranded on
the beaches in
immense numbers, espetaully when there
Is a
full moon, ami
it
is thought by
many of the fishermen that this
is because, like many other nocturnal animals,
they have the habit of turning toward and gazing at a
briglU,
ligiit, and since
fhey swim backwards
they
get ashore on
the beaches
opix>s!te
the
position
of the moon.
This
liabit
is also sometimes taken advantage of by the
fislier-
men, who capture them for bait for rod
fish; they go out
in dark nights with
torches
in
their boats and by advancing slowly toward
a beach
drive them
ashore.
That Cephalopods furnished an attractive bait for fish was known
to the ancients, for Aristotle tells ns:
For this reason fishermen roast the fleshy parts of the cuttlefish and use
It
as bait on account of its smell, for fish are peculiarly attracted by it; they also
halt® the ^ctupus and bait their fish baskets or weels with
it entirely, as they
say, on account of
Its smell.
Snmthsonian Report,
1 9
1 e:.~Bar1sch.
Plate
18.
An Impaled Squid Shooting Water from the Siphon.
’
t OLluU y
J.ile in
AiiM'iic.'i, Aiij^lLst,
i'.K)!.
THE SQTTID AND OCTOPUS—BABTSCH.
m
Our American cod fishermen will thoroughly agree with him, but
they will say that baking or roasting
is not
essential, that salting
even
will
do.
Let us quote again from Simmonds’s Commercial
Products of the Sea:
The squids form an important element In the North American fisheries.
The
common
Lolij:;o
is
(ho
favorite food of the
cod, and
is
therefore
itself fished
for bait
One-half of all the cod taken on the banks of Newfoundland are said
to be caught by
it.
When the vast slioals of this mollusk approach the coast
hundreds
of
vessels
are ready
to capture them, forming an extensive
cuttle
fishery,
engaging
500
sail
of French,
English,
and American
ships.
During
violent gales of wind hundreds of tons of them are often thrown up together
in beds on the flat beaches, the decay of whi(‘h spreads an intolerable ehluvium
around.
They must themselves he consumed
in enormous numbers, for
it has
been estimated that a single squid
will lay in one season 40,000 eggs.
A recent iiKiuiry at the Bureau of Fisheries yielded the statement
that about 3,000,000 pounds were captured
annually, estimated to
have a value of about $43,500.
Sixty-six per cent are caught in traps
in moss chiefly about Cape Cod, though many are obtained
in the
same manner
all the way from Maine to Maryland.
Considerable
quantities also ai*e obtained by American fishing vessels on the coasts
of Canada and jNewfoundlaiid.
These are not noted
in
t’le above
statistics.
To a considerable extent in former times, but only to a
limited extent recently, squids have been caught by means of
jigs,
a
collection
of hooks
arrangi'd
in
circular form
along
a
central
weight.
Jigs are dangled in the water at the end of short lines and
attract the squids which
ai’e caught when they attempt to seize them.
On our
west
coast squids
are caught
for
food
purposes,
being
chiefly used by tlie ()i‘iental element of the population.
All through
the soutli
seas, the Philippines, and Japan, as well as the adjacent
mainland countries, one may see split and
di ied
cuttlefish hung in
the stores and otlered foi- sale as an element of proteid food.
In the
Mediterranean countries, where they are also used as food, they ai'e
usually pickled.
Nor
is the
flesh the only element of commercial
value, for the cuttlefish bone forms quite an element of commerce.
It is not only used as an adjunct to the canary’s cage, but in powdered
form has served as a fine polishing powder, a fine dentifrice, and an
ingredient of medicine.
The ladies of ancient days knew
it also, for
they were accustomed to use the burned
product, known to them
as pearl powder, as an aid to complexion.
In later days this was
even improved upon by the addition of a bit of carmine to form the
^so-called French
rouge.
Sepia and India ink have been already
referred to and need no further mention here.
We will close our sketch with some extracts from a chariijing ar-
ticle, ‘‘First Photographs Ever Made of a Paper Nautilus,” pub-
73839“—SM 1916
25
874
A^rKUAL BfiPOBT SMITHSOKIAK INSTITUTION,
1916.
lished by Charles Frederick Holder, in Volume
15, No.
4, 1909, of
Country Life in America, which gives one a glimpse of the marvelous
beauty of some of these pirates of the deep.
The
terra paper nautilus suggests the dainty structure
in which the animal
lives
at times—a
fragile,
involuted, vase-like
object, deeply
fluted and
coiled,
the keel or edge sharp, having double points, while all over the calcareous and
pearly
shell are deep graceful and branched radiations.
The general color
is
a delicate gray, the opening in the side of nacre, heavily coated, in sharp con-
trast
to
the horny
translucent
shell paper.
The
keel
is tinted a rich brown
that often extends an inch or two up the side of the
shell, which may be 2
or 8 or 9 inches
across.
The shell
is not
to be compared with the ordinary
covering of mollusks, as
it
is not essential
to the animal
;
it
is only a dainty
object having the shape of a
shell, formed by the animal for the protection of
its eggs.
It
is, then, a nest and
in no way connected with the animal, as
in
the case of the pearly nautilus, where the animal forms partitions as
it grows
and
is connected wllii them all by a fleshy pedicle or cord.
The paper nautilus
can dart out of
its fairy ship at a second’s notice.
(xluncing
into
the
shell we may
see
a
yellow hunch
of
miniature
grapes
hanging from
the
interior
wall—the eggs—and perched
in
front
of them
Is
the argonaut, looking very much like an octopus or deviltish.
From the number
of empty
shells found upon Santa Catalina beaches
in winter and summer
it
might bo assumed
that the argonaut
deserts
the
shell
at
times and
lives a
roving,
octopuslike
life.
In appearance
it Is one of the most beautiful of all animals as
it rests in
its
shell, trembling with color, as waves of rose, yellow, green, violet, and
all tints
of brown are continually sweeping over it; now irised in the most delicate shade
of blue, now brown or
gi’eon, changing to rose, vivid scarlet, or molten
silver.
So sensitive
is
it that every convulsive movement of the mantle of my paper
nautilus in taking water to brentlie and forcing
it out of the siphon caused a
wave of color to pass over the entire body.
Wlien the water was talcen in the
color cells contracted, leaving
it pale for a fracdion of a second; when
it was
forced out they
evidently
relax^nl and
the entire surface was
suffused with
color to disappear as quickly, giving a continuous lieat-lightnlng
eflX^ct.
Of the three living specimens that I have ke>pt
in confinement one was 4 or
5
inches long, another S or
9.
The small one was extremely
active, leaving
it« shell to crawl about its prison and darting back with great agility, directing
Its funnel backward at the cluster nf eggs hanging in
thff interior of
tlie shell,
always paying the most assiduous attention to them
to prevent the intrusion
of any parasite or enemy.
It would
recline against the weed-covered rock wat(‘lnng me or eyeing my
hand as
it moved about, blushing, paling, displaying remarkable semsitivcnesa,
and when
I touched the
shell would protest by pumping
violently,
shooting
the shell backward and,
if I held on, aiming the siphon at my hand and pump-
ing water at
it, on one occasion
filling the water with an extraordimiry volley
or cloud of ink.
But ordinarily this argonaut did not resent my friendly ad^
vances and when touched
it would twine
its tentacles about
iny
fingers,
liold
them
closely, and
rise partly from the
shell, the big black and
silver staring#
eye evidently watching every movement.
The speed with which the argonaut could move backward, propelled by
its
siphon, was remarkable when seen from the
side, but when
it was observed
from behind
it was seen
to be a perfect racing machine;
the sharp
keel
of
the shell covered by the extraordinary velamentous arms presented a perfectly
Sm ithsf
an Report, 1916 — Bortsch.
Plate 19.
1. The Argonaut and Her Egg Case.
I'roin “
Kir.sl
J'li()li)L;rai)lis
I’A'or M.idn (»f a
l*:ip('r Nniil
by CharL-s F. lloldor, C’aiiiiliy Life
in Amonra, iM'btuury,
lao'J.
2. A Fish Trap on the Cape Cod Coast,
in which Large Numbers of Squid are
Caught.
From
Kiii|4 Herring: An Aeeounl. of tho ^Vorld's MosI, Valuable- Fish, cte./’ by Hugh M. vSinith.
Matiuiuil Geographic Magaziiio. Aueiisl..
I'loo
THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH.
375
smooth
surface, and
tlie
slip^htest current from
the
siphon was
sufficient
to
send
it
along,
the
entire
animal being
concealed,
the
tentacles
not
trailing
behind, as often described
When the argonaut left the shell
it crawled about
in the position of an octopus, mouth down, but Avhen In the shell
its favoiite
position
apparently was
^\lth
its mouth
pointing
directly
upward,
the
h\o
dorsal or upper arms thrown back, or it would fasten
itself to the glass of the
tank by
the two large arms and gradually expand them
until
they were as
large ns the
shell
itself, piesenting a
rippling
iilti irnanne blue on the outer
side and iridescent tiostcd sil\er on the other
THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE DIATOMS.
By Aijjekt IVIann.
[With 6 plates.]
Scientific study
is constantly giving einpliasis to the fact that in
nature
tliei-e
is
little,
if any, relationship between
size and impor-
tance.
Charles Darwin long ago made it plain that among the m3'riad
of living creatures tlte earthworm pla.ys a very important role in the
economy of nature', especially as applied to mankind, and is in fact
a greater animal than the elephant.
The lowly gra.ss outweighs in
importance the loftiest tree of the forest.
A brilliant
series of dis-
coveries
led by Pasteur has revealed
to us that the most gigantic
j)owei%
in some
cases
beneficent,
in others
baleful,
is exercised by
the minutest of
all living things, the bacteria.
It
is, therefore, not
to be wondered at tliat tlie plants here under consideration, although
as a
<*lass
(juite
invisiide to
the naked
eye, and many
of them
so
minute that a hundred can be laid upon the head of a common pin,
are at the same
tiiiK' of great economic imi)ortance.
Put for a long time the attention of mankind was diverted from
the more practical values that we are here to consider by that most
striking characteristic of these
])Iants, their surprising beauty and
the
unequaled
complexit}"
of
(heir
ornamentation.
Coupled
with
their minuteness
tliere
is a daintiness of structure and an
artistic
diversity of design among the six thousand and odd species which
has doubtless been the cause whv until recent times they have been
objects of merely esthetic interest.
They have never been neglected,
for from the time of the invention of the microscope they have been
the darlings of the microscopists; but only to-day are they begin-
ning to be recognized as an important factor in the welfare of the
human
race.
Each diatom plant secretes for
itself an incasing box or
invest-
ment of pure silica, somewhat as a clam or oyster secretes its shell;
and these
crystalline
walls, within which the tiny
living plant
is
housed, are sculptured and carved with such bewildering com})lexity
of design and yet with such
])erfection of finish that their attrac-
tiveness has absorbed the attention of students to the detriment of
their many less spectacular qualities.
377
378
AN^nJAL REPORT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Only one practical use has been developed from this esthetic study
of the diatoms; they have been long recognized as the most accurate
and satisfactory test objects for determining the perfection of micro-
scopic lenses and accessories, the ability of any microscope to render
visible the
fine lace ornamentation which overspreads some of the
species being the best index of its optical excellence.
As a conse-
quence of this, all microscopes are to-day tested with one or both of
two
species of
diatoms,
PleAirosigimi angulatum^
or Amphipleuni
pelluiida.
One of the oldest of the economic uses of diatoms has been that
of employing fossil diatom earth as a polishing powder, especially
in metal work.
These organisms appeared
geologically about the
middle
of the
Cretaceous period, and
although,
therefore, among
the later of the now existing forms of plant life, their prolific multi-
plication has resulted, during former periods of time, in the forma-
tion of enormous fossil beds composed of the silica remains of these
minute
aquatic
plants.
Such beds arc found
all
over the world,
famous
deposits being located
at Luneburg, Germany:
liilin, Bo-
hemia;
Sendai, Japan; Ananino, Russia; Oamaru, New Zealand;
Moron, Spain; Keene, N. H.
; Nottingham, Md.
; the coast of Cali-
fornia, and many other places of minor importance.
The
first con-
siderable
fossil
deposit
of diatomaceous earth used was confused
with a polishing material called
rottenstone,” mined at Tripoli, in
Africa, and
it was therefore referred to in commerce by the same
name,
Tripoli powder,” and is in fact so sold in di'ug stores at the
present time.
Its high abrasive value comes from the fact that the
material, silica, has a high degree of hardness and the grain of the
diatom powder is so fine as to produce as a polish the highesli luster.
Its extreme fineness of texture
is shown by a computation made by
Ehrenberg, that in
1 cubic inch of the Bilin diatom earth there are
40,000,000 individuals.
This abrasive quality of the diatoms has led to their use for other
purposes than metal
polishing, as for example, for tooth powder.
One of the widely advertised tooth powder preparations upon the
market
is composed entirely of diatomaceous earth.
It can not be
said that
this
is a good material
for the purpose, as the cutting
quality of this siliceous substance is too great to be used constantly
upon the thin layer of enamel of the teeth.
It
is, however, interest-
ing to think that many of the users of this diatom dentifrice would
be amazed if they could see the thousands of exquisite gern-like organ-
ics lying upon their tooth brush and used as a toilet preparation.
As a curious instance of perverted use,
it might be well here to.
mention the fact that diatomaceous earth was at one time extensively
eaten by the impoverished and half-starved
tribes inhabiting the
remoter portions of eastern Europe and Asia.
Generally the diatom
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OP DIATOMS—MAN:^.
379
earth was mixed with flour, and although the nutritive value of this
added substance is practically nothing, the advantage of its use was
an actual one; because, when the normal requirement of the human
stomach for a
square meal ” is a (juart, and the available flour for
that meal is a half pint, the unfortunate consumer gets at least the
semblance of a full dinner by adding to his food supply thiee times
its volume of harmless and inert matter.
This
is probably the ex-
planation of tlie custom of those tribes Imown as the “ earth eaters.”
A number of years ago and shortly after the invention of nitro-
glycerine, the diatoms came into an economic use of great importance,
namely,
the manufacture
of
dynamite.
This
substance,
so
great
a blessing and a curse to mankind, is essentially nothing but nitro-
glycerine absorbed into the cavities of dried diatom earth.
As each
diatom plant is a microscopically small silica box, the walls of which
arc
perforated with
intensely minute
openings, the diatom
earth
serves to isolate tiny particles of nitroglycerine in such a way as to
render the liijuid practically a solid and at the same time to obviate
the dangerous quality of free nitroglycerine of exploding by means
of shock and'at low temperatures.
To-day, although diatomaceous
earth
is used to a considenible extent as an element in nitroglycerine
explosives, it has been somewhat replaced by other substances, as for
example, wood meal.
If the meaning of the word economic
is not too
rigidly taken
and may include our increased facility in certain lines of research, it
is proper to mention among the economic uses of these plants their
value
in
the
determination of
certain problems
of oceanography,
especially
in the determination of the direction and
the extent of
the great ocean currents.
Those familiar with this phase of research
are aware of the great difliculties attendant upon the accurate meas-
urement of the extent and speed of an ocean current, duo to the fact
that the vessel from which such observations have to be made is itself
a drifting object, acted upon by the current in question, as well as
by the wind and other forces difficult to compute.
Could the ship
be anchored, this disadvantage would vanish; but inasmuch as this
phase
of
oceanographic
research
is
carried on
in
the deep
seas,
anchoring is not practicable.
These organisms, on account of their
peculiar structure, composition, and
size, lend themselves perfectly
to studies of this kind.
It is perhaps safe to say that they are the
only
organisms
which meet
fully
the
requirements.
Being com-
posed in part of an indestructible substance, they do not suffer the
rapid decay of many of the microscopic organisms of the sea.
This
is equally true of other marine organisms incased in silica ; but none
of these have a second characteristic of the diatoms which is of equal
importance, namely, a minuteness of size sufficient to enable them to
be carried hundreds or thousands of miles by ocean currents.
Such
380
ANlsUJAL REPOR'r SMrmsONIAN IKSTITUTION,
1916.
animal denizens of tlic sea as the Kadiolaria are as immortal as to
their
silica encasements
as are the diatoms; but
their larger bulk
and more massive construction precipitates them to the bottom, while
the diatoms are held in suspension like the finest dust for an indefi-
nite distance.
When we add to these two qualities a third one, the
large number of well-defined species, differing in kind according to
the parts of the world in which they are found, we see that the pres-
ence of these organisms in an ocean current, even thousands of miles
from land, will often indicate the direction, the extent, and to some
degree the speed of
tlie current by which they are borne along.
It
should be here stated as a factor in this problem tliat the diatom flora
of any part of the world is always peculiar to that locality, just as
the land flora varies at difl’erent latitudes and on the different con-
tinents.
Thus we have a north and south arctic, a north and south
temperate, and a torrid diatom flora, which are in strong contrast to
each other and which, wherever met with, indicate tlie j)lace of their
origin.
In the same way the fresh-water forms, which are poured
in large quantities into the sea by the rivers, are still more distinctive,
and each section of the coast of our continent has at least some of
these plants to be found nowhere else u]')on the earth.
The student of these minute plants
is constantly made aware of
this sharp distinction of the diatom flora of one
j^aid, of the world
from that of the rest.
Let us take some examj)les: A recent study of
some living material from the Hawaiian Islands yielded a largo and
elaborately ornamented diatom, Biddvlphm imperkilh^ and
seai'ch
through diatom literature revealed
this in an obscuie monograph,
where it was recorded that it also had been found
at (he Sandwich
Islands.”
Doubtless the locality of the original s])ecimeii was prac-
tically that of the one later found.
Another species was named by a
Philadelphia diatomist as ha ving been found in a gathering at Mjig-
dalena Bay, Lower California, and marked
as “very
rare.”
The
writer subsequently found
it to be very pleiitifid in a dredging of
the
XT.
S.
S. Albatross^ and, by comparison with the record
of the
original discovery,
it was shown that the two localities were within
a mile of each other.
The writer named a new species discoA cred in
the Arctic Sea, and subsequently, in a study of the dust collected in
pockets on the ice flcxis of the Arctic, this diatom was rediscovered
and on comparison
it was found that the latitude and longitude of
the two were
practically identical.
Material s(Hnired by the Smith-
sonian Institution adjacent to the openings of the Panama Canal and
previous to
its completion has yielded
a
great many remarkable
forms..
A
rare
species known
as
Pleurosigrrui
Hpectdlrile
occurs
abundantly in one of the gatherings.
This was previously reported
by Prof. Grunow, of Vienna, as occurring along the coast of Brazil
that is to say, it is a coastal, middle Atlantic diatom.
An even more
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DIATOMS—MANN.
381
rare form known as (JdmpyloUyliis striatus was recently rediscovered
in an irrigation ditch leading from the Everglades, in Florida.
It
was first found by Mr. Shadlndt, of England, on some mahogany logs
shipped to London from the shores of Honduras; in other words, it
is a Gulf of Mexico diatom.
An argument, and doubtless a valid one, to support the theory of
Prof. Nansen
that
a
current
passes noHhward from
the Bering
Strait across tlie north polar region and southward along the western
shores of Xojnvay
is based upon the
fact that the diatom
flora of
Bering Sea was found by Prof. Nansen to be singularly similar to
that of Greenland and the Norwegian coast, thereby indicating a con-
nection between these apparently remote localities.
From
su(d\ ex>
ami)les as tlie foiegoing it is reasonable to believe that when the nor-
mal diatom floras of the dilTerent seas have been investigated and the
local diatom
floras of the shallower waters, and
especially of the
ri\'ers of tlie land, shall be Imown, we can tell by samples taken at re-
mote points of the ocean the parts of the earth traversed by the cur-
rent in whi(‘h are found the specimens in question.
In this same way
a problem of no little importance to ocean travel becomes one of easy
and certain solution, naniel}^ the area of contact between the cold
Arctic water of the north and the waim watei*s of the Gulf Sti’eam off
the coast of Newfoundland, this contact being the cause of the dan-
gerous
fogs prevalent
in that
locality;
for a sample of sea water
taken anywhei’e in that neighborhood must reveal at once to a diatom
expei't whether the waler came southward from the Ar(‘tic, or north-
ward on the current of the Gulf Stream, or is a blending of the two.
A consideration
of the economic value of the diatoms
requires
merdion of some' minor uses.
The large diatom beds* of the western
part of tlie United States, and especially those along the Pacific coast,
where there are
clitFs sevei’al hundred
feet in height almost wholly
mad(i of this material, are coming to be of commercial value because
of the use of this substance as a substitute for asbestos or in combi-
nation with jislx'stos as a nonconducting coating for steam pipes, as
a
filler for refrigerators, and for many other uses where a noncom-
bustiblc rnaUuial
is needed.
Fossil diatom deposits are also of value
to the art of pottery making, being combined with various other in-
gredients
in
the composition
of
certain grades of
porcelains and
glass.
There has recently come into notice another use for diatomaceous
earth which bids
fair to become
of considerable value to medical
science.
The material
is compressed
into
filters
in
the shape
of
hollow cylinders or plates to be used for the
filtration of serums,
toxins, and other sterile li(]uids of service in the modern treatment
of
diseases.
The
porosity
and
extreme
fineness
of
this material.
882
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
coupled with
its resistance to the action of acids and most solvents,
renders it peculiarly well suited for this purpose.
A rather baleful use, at one time more extensive than
at present,
thanks
to our
pure-f(K)d
laws, and
reminding
us
of
the “earth
eaters ” previously mentioned, was the employment of diatom earth
as an adulterant of
candies.
A
large diatomaceous earth
deposit
in the eastern United States which formerly did a thriving business
along this line has been practically abandoned at the present time,
because certain candy manufacturers who used
this substance have
been compelled to lesort to other means for cheapening tlieir prod-
uct.
It is only to be hoped that the substitute, whatever
it
is,
is as
little harmful to the consumer as was the diatom material.
It seems right
to
revert to the
artistic
betuity
of
these minute
organisms, mentioned
at the opening of
tl)is
article, because their
economic importance should not exclude their practical value to the
arts in the matter of designs.
Those who are familiar with these
organisms find their great beauty consists not only in the delicate
and complex tracery of their surfaces, surpassing in this respect the
most ingenious arabescpies of the Moor, but
in the symmetry and
great diversity of form and outline displayed by the members of this
group.
Nearly
every
symmetrical
figure
possible
to
curves
and
straight
lines
is
represented
in the diatoms.
Elongated forms
of
graceful
sigmoid
structures,
like
Hogarth’s
line
of
beauty;
thin
crescents, like the face of the new moon; triangles, rigidly exact or
varied by
all graduations in the curvature or undulations of their
sides and by the blunted
or keenly sharpened
clnu-acter
of
their
angles;
spindles and
ellipses of every variety
of breadth and
con-
vexity; squares; double scjuares; stars, from five to twenty jiointed;
circles, so accurate in their periphery as to correct the errors of the
most perfect mathematical instruments; and combinations of these
fundamental
figures are to be seen
in great abundance.
It comes
about from
these
qualities that the diatoms have
a suggestiveness
in the matter of design that should render them of great value to
certain kinds of the mechanical
arts.
Jewelers, thougli they might
well despair of copying the elalx)rate perfection of some of these
forms, could doubtless obtain useful suggestions for new figures in
ornamentation.
Manufacturers of
articles of
artistic
quality, such
as
laces, wall
papers,
printed
fabrics,
oilcloths,
etc., have
ready-
made in this gallery of
art, the diatom flora, new and better ideas
in
designing;
and,
although
the
difficulty
of obtaining and
pre-
paring diatom material for examination will limit their use in this
field to some extent, the expense and toil of studying these objects
would in many cases be well repaid.
At the risk of stretching a little the legitimate meaning of the title
of this article, I wish to mention an element of importance connected
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OE DIATOMS—MANN.
383
with these organisms, namely the value they have in throwing light
upon a study of the differences between objects which are the product
of mere mechanical construction and those the construction of which
is coordinated with
life.
There are two things to be said in regard
to the ornamentation of these plants.
First, there is a perfection at-
tained that is essentially absolute, and yet not so servilely exact to tlie
type as to preclude the marks of individuality in each separate plant.
Take a diatom, upon the surface of which are found some hundreds
of glittering hemis})herical beads, and
a careful examination with
the
finest
optical apparatus
will
discover no
trace
of
crudity or
irregularity
in these hemispheres, each one being polished with a
perfection and curved with an accuracy that is absolute; and yet
it
would be hard to find two individuals with the same number of beads.
Among
the thousands of these organisms that can be found
in a
spoonful of ooze dredged from the bottom of the sea and extending
for thousands of miles beneath
its waters, each separate form will
show the same adherence to its type, the same ])erfection in its work-
manship,
but
tlie same
unmistakable
individuality.
Tliis
is
not
mere mechanical
ac(!uracy, but an a(*curacy associated
in some un-
known way with the
qualities of that master builder within each
cell, cytoplasm.
The distinction here
insisted on
is precisely that
between the flight of a bullet and the flight of a bird.
It is wa^ll illus-
trated b}^ the contrast to be seen in two of the accom])anying illustra-
tions; the sculpture of the living organism being shown in the figure
of SurireJla haldjiMi copied fi’om a photograph of that diatom, while
the sculpture
represented
in
the
figure of
a
very
similar
diatom,
Surirella gracUu^
is
a mechanically drawn
counterfeit.
How
this
living, almost formless jelly, plays the role of a peerless artificer
it
still remains for science to discover.
The other point in
a study of the structure of these organisms
is
that the princij^les of design are siii generis and not at all associated
with the substance of which they are composed.
Silica, like all other
mineral matter, has its definite lines and angles of crystallization; so
that a particle from one part of the world
fits with
infinite nicety
into a particle from any other part of the world.
But this silica
is
woven on the looms of the diatoms into fabrics the mesh of which
may be one of many thousand patterns, and no principle of curves and
no combination of lines known to geometry correspond in the slightest
degree to those found in the ornamentation of these plants.
For ex-
ample, a line may begin straight, bend gently into a curve, gradually
or instantaneously be changed again and thus make up, with the
thousands of other lines of the pattern, a variety of arrangement that
has no relationship to the principles of mathematics.
And yet there
is a law within this apparent lawlessness so rigid that the individual
species hold their characteristics through thousands of years, and
384
AKKUAL REPORT SMITHSOKTIAK IKSTITUTION,
1916.
a Namcula Ixyra newly born in the Delaware River
is a sister plant
of a Naviculu lyra born millions of years ago in the island of New
Zealand.
When,
furthermore,
it
is
borne
in mind
that we
are
here dealing with
a unicellular organism the wonder becomes
ac-
centuated.
Great complexity
is
also found
in the
flowers; but
a
flower consists of millions of cells and the complex of the whole is the
sura total of the different parts.
But here is one cell, with a single
nucleus and microscopic droplet of cytoplasm, wliich builds for itself
its own palace and is to itself its own architect.
It is certainly not
too much to say that here is a problem in the constructive resource-
fulness of animate nature which must long woo and puzzle the ob-
server.
There
is at present a growing interest
in the theory that the
di-
atoms have contributed largely
to the world’s stock of
])eti’oleum.
The author does not consider the evidence for this at all conclusive;
as, among other things, there
is a signilicant lack of contiguity be-
tween the worlds great
oil
fiehls and
the
chief diatom
(le])Osits.
But the subject
is here mentioned because
c(‘rtain curious
facts do
lend a strong plausibility, if not a probability, to this tlieoiy.
That
these oils are of organic origin is generally recognized
; and a physi-
ological peculiarity of the diatoms, their enormous secretion of
oil,
explains why these tiny organisms suggest themselves to an exi)lana-
tion of the origin of petroleum.
Most j)lants, during a part of their
existence, manufacture more food-material, that
is, building mate-
rial, than is at the time required for growth
; and this
is tem})orarily
stored up as a reserve supply.
The chief reserve ])laut-f<)od material
is starch, with sugars, cellulose, inulin, asparagin, etc., as minor sub-
stances.
But, outside of s(‘eds and nuts, only a few
]>lants store up
their reserve sup])ly
in the form of
oil.
The diatom
is i)erhaps the
most remarkable in this respect.
Living diatom ])hints will always
be found
to
contain
from two
to
ten shining
oil
globules,
deep
orange-yellow in color, and with a high refractive imh‘X.
d'he bulk
of this oil, in proportion to the size of the diatom, rarely falls below
5 per cent; and the author has samples of diatom material in which
a careful measurement of the contained oil shows a projjortion of 50
per cent.
If we consider, therefore, the large extent of many of the
known diatom
dejjosits and
their
frecpiency
in most parts of the
world,
it becomes evident that the potential volume of organic
oil
from
this one source
is very
large.
But,
as above
intimated, the
application of cause and effect to the diatom-petroleum theory is at
present very far from satisfactory.
In the diversified uses of the diatoms,
if there bo one that
is of
supreme importance,
it
is the value of these organisms as the great
fundamental food supply of the marine world.
In the sea as on the
Iiknd^ animal life is dependent upon plant life for the transformation
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DIATOMS—MANN.
386
of the inorganic substances of the earth into organic materials that
shall serve as food.
The elements necessary to sustain life must be
brought into certain chemical relationships, known as a class as or-
ganic substances, i)ef()re the animal can draw upon these to supply its
life processes.
In other words, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potash, etc., will not juggle themselves into edible com-
pounds.
It is only by the alchemy of the green, chlorophyl-bearing
plants that
these combinations are brought about.
The diatom
is
the smalk‘st of all the green, chlorophyl-bearing ’|dants ; but despite
its insignificant size, these lilliimtian workers are so numerous that
the sum total of their activity
is almost beyond calculation.
Prof.
Kofoid has estimated that the average number of diatoms in 1 cubic
meter of water in the Illinois Kiver is 35,558,462.
Thriving abund-
antly in all the waters of the earth, fresh and
salt, from the north
pole to the south, the countless myriads of these plants are turning
the substances held in solution in the waters of
tlie streams, lakes,
and
seas
into
living
inatei-ial and
are doing
this
in
that
strange
alembic whei'e
it always takes place, namely, the gi’cen, clilorophyl-
grain.
P>y harnessing
in some way a sunbeam to its machinery
it
turns out fi'oni the crude material of mineral matter the vital mate-
rial of ]dant tissue, and on this ])lant tissue tliere feeds directly or
indirectly most of the animal life of the sea.
Some of the minuter
forms
of economic
value to mankind,
like
the smaller
fishes
(for
example, the sardine)
and the
shellfish
(clams and
oysters) make
these plants their principal
if not their exclusive food.
The teem-
ing swarms of tiny animal creatures, of which the copepods may be
cited as as aii exain])le, are the links between the diatoms and those
other organisms which in turn prey upon them.
And thus, as uj>on the land the carnivore feeds u])on the herbivore
and
the herbivore
feeds upon the
i)lant,
so
in
the
sea
its animal
denizciis may be
referred back
in
their
food supply
to the
final
source, the diatoms.
It may therefore be
said, without
stretching
the truth, that these plants are the
of the
sea^ because they
occupy
the same
important
relationship
toward
the
life
of
the
sea that grass does toward
the
life of the
land.
It
is not meant
by
this that other marine plants do not contribute to the store of
animal food.
Many of the brown and red seaweeds form the pas-
tures of animal sea
life; and one plant especially, the so-called
eel
grass, Zostera marina^ is of great importance to those forms of life
inhabiting
tlie
wshallower waters along the shore and
especially of
the bays and estuaries indenting the coast.
Although Zostera does
not appear
to be extensively preyed upon while
it
is growing,
it
becomes a highly nutritious feast for myriads of forms of animal
life
at the time of
its decay.
But
its usefulness in this respect
is
greatly circumscribed because
it
is not available during the greater
886
AKNtTAL m&OZT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUXIOK,
1916.
portion of the year and
is available only in those shallower waters
in which it is fitted to flourish.
Out upon the wide ocean, compris-
ing roughly three-fourths of the surface of the globe, it is the diatom
which is the plant par excellence as the supplier of animal food.
It
also shares this service with the other plants above mentioned in
the shallower waters of the coast.
The full value of the diatoms in this particular
is only recently
being
appreciated.
It seems
strange
that
the
study
of
this
im-
portant point has been so long deferred; as strange as if the stock
raiser should have persistently neglected the study of those forage
crops upon which the welfare of his stock depends.
The enormous
value of the fisheries to the world, to the inhabitants of all lands, is
the measure of the importance of the study of these minute organisms,
because of their intimate relationship to the problem of fish food.
When the diatom
flora of our coasts and of the high seas
is
suffi-
ciently investigated wo shall be in a position to understand better such
problems as the migration of
fishes and the prevalence of certain
kinds in certain waters
; and
it is not improbable that means will be
devised for augmenting the fish food supply through the diatoms,
just as the science of agrostology vorks toward the betterment of the
cattle raising industry.
As a single illustration of this point, let us take the teeming animal
life of the Antarctic.
Those who have seen illustrations of recent
explorations near the South Pole were certainly impressed with the
enormous
fecundity of animal
life
in that
region.
It
is strange
therefore to note
that
this
life
is confined
almost
entirely
to
its
waters; to learn that there arc no land birds, no land animals, nor
insects.
TTiis is because there
is no plant life upon the sliore.
All
bird
life,
all animal
life
is marine, penguins,
gulls,
petrels, and
a long list of strictly aquatic animals.
Nom% in these waters of the
Antarctic the plant life that is most prominent
is the diatom.
This
plant, more than
all others,
is the explanation of the teeming life
that inhabits those remote
seas.
The writer
in
investigating the
diatoms of the Shackleton Expedition to the South Pole, found in
most of the samples collected a larger percentage of diatoms than in
any other samples known.
Some dredgings made at McMurdo Bay
were found to be at least 50 per cent edible diatomaceous material.
No wonder therefore that the lower animal forms swarm in these
waters and that the carnivorous animal forms of larger bulk are so
prolific ; for between them and extinction there stands the abundant
and ©ver-^present supply of plant food represented by the diatom
flora,
tbe accompanying Illustrations, with the exception of two hgnres,
I am
In-^
MM M
original photographs from nature,
to the Hon. Alvey
A. Adoh*
Wi^Maalon,
n.
c.
The
magnifications
of
the group
illustration
Is approximately 60
Of the others from 600 to 750 diameters.
Smithsonian Rcpoit,
191(i.— Mann.
Plate
1
Fossil Marine Diatoms from Hunctary.
Grouped for Illustration.
Maonimeu auout 60 Times.
".’Tt
,vF>Jr
,X
.',
•
I'
•
'T
^'.
Arachnoidiscus ehrenbergii
Bail,
Siriitri:.
,r. R--
Plate
2,
pnr\ MIT —M mn.
TrICLRA'IIUM
{'.ALAMFt rum T. AND BR.
Biddulphia grunuwii
iJan.).
Plate 3
Triclratium arcticum Bright,
var.
Actinoptychus heliopelta Grun.
Smithsonian Report, 19U" — Moon
Plate
4.
Actinoftychus aster Brun.
AuLISCUS PRUINOSUS Bail.
Smithsonian Report, 1916 — Ma
Plate
6.
V 'n '«
i U
\t tt'a C hti. L'
’-'rj:';':.
ti 2 b i» « 1 U. v 1 1
1.. O
i,
-.?V\ V
f.rf
i "7 ‘"
'
H
M
J. U. 1 6 H (
•
!
;
^
\
\
\ u. n
- ^
‘
NAVICULA GEMMATA GliEV.
SURIRELLA GRACILIS O’ME.
NAECOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS OF THE ANCIENT
AMEEICANS."
By W. E. Saffokd,
Economic Botanist,
U, 8. Department of Agriculture,
[With 17 plates.]
The use of narcotic plants and stimulants was widely spread in
both North and South America long before the discovery, not only
for the purpose of exhilaration or intoxication, but also in connection
with the practice of necromancy and in religious rituals and cere-
monies accompanying the initiation of boys into the status of man-
hood.
The companions of Columbus on his
first voyage observed
the custom of smoking cigars made of bundles of tobacco leaves as
practiced by the aborigines of Hispaniola, or Haiti, and the same
custom was observed on the Isthmus of Panama.
The use of this
plant was found to be very widely spread on the mainland of both
North and South America.
In Mexico tobacco was used in religious
rituals like incense, and
its leaves were chewed with lime.
Though
of subtropical
origin,
its cultivation extended as far north as the
St. Lawrence River.
The antiquity of tobacco smoking in North
America
is
attested by the discovery
of ceremonial
tobacco
pipes
in prehistoric mounds and graves.
A narcotic snuff called cohoba, described by Ramon Pane, who
accompanied Columbus on his second voyage, has been confused with
tobacco.
It was used by the natives of Hispaniola, who
inhaled
it through the nostrils by means of a biftircated tube.
Snuff simi-
larly inhaled was afterwards found among several Indian tribes of
South America.
It proved to be a powder prepared from the seeds
of a mimosalike tree, Piptadenia peregrina, to be described below.
Among the
Aztecs,
in
addition
to
tobacco, two
other
narcotic
plants, a small, fleshy spineless cactus mistaken by early writers for
a fungus from the appearance of its dried discoid sectic >s and the
seeds of a species of Datura called ololiuhqui, were used by priests
and magicians
in
their
incantations.
So
holy were
these
plants
held that collectors sent in quest of the cactus
(peyotl) were con-
secrated yrith incense before starting on their journey, and
it was
'
.
.
-
.
‘Publlslied by the authority of tho Secretary
of Agriculture.
388
akkxjal beport smithsonian institution,
1916.
considered a pious task to sweep the ground where the ololiuhqui
grew.
Among the Zufiis and the Indians of Arizona and Southern
California the roots and other parts of a closely allied Datura were
used in incantations and initiatory ceremonies.
Among the Indians
of Virginia the common Datura stramamum was used in
ii similar
ceremony
(huskinawing)
to
cause
intoxication
of
candidates
for
initiation; and
it
is interesting to note that
in the Andes of Peru
a
related
tree
datura, Bnignuirma
sangulnea^
was
used
by
the
X)riests of the Temple of the Sun to induce exhilaration accompanied
by supernatural visions.
Other narcotic plants belonging to the Solaiiaceae, or Nightsluide
Family, allied to the Mandragora and Ilyoscyamus of the Old World,
were
species of Solandra, resembling climbing daturas with long
trumx)et-shaped
flowers;
Himeranthiis
and
eJaborosa
of
South
America, used as aphrodisiacs and
in
religious ceremonies;
Salpi-
chroa and Acnistus, with properties like those of Atropa BeUadomxa;
and, in addition to these, a South American forest climber belonging
to the Malpighiaceae described by llichard Spruce under the name
Banisteria (Uiapi
Among nerve stimulants used by Amei’ican
aborigiiu's must bo
mentioned
first of
all
Erfjthro,ri/Ioa Coca^ now of
giu'at
im[)ortan(^e
as the source of cocaine; Ilex paragimxknsls^ the yerba juaie, or Para-
guay tea, and
its very close ally of our Southern
States, Ilex vo/rd-
toria, the basis of the celebrated ‘‘black drink’'; Tlicohronia Caccu)^
from which chocolate is made; and PaxiUUda (Aipana, the source of
the cupana or curana, of South America, which acts, somewhat like
tea, as a wholesome stimulant.
Among
alcoholic
intoxicants were
chicha
or
azua,
prepared by
fermenting gruel made from
gj'ains of maize
or chenopodium, to
wdiich various fruit juices were sometimes added
; tizwin, or teshuino,
made by our southwestern Indians from sprouting maize or other
grains, and also from inez(|uit pods or cactus fruits; and a fermented
drink prepared in South America from the roots of mandioca.
From
the sap of certain species of j)alms wine was made in various parts
of tropical America, and from century plants, or agaves, and yuccas
the Mexicans made their fermented octli, or pulque.
The art of dis-
tilling was unknown
in
ancient America, but with
the fermented
liquors above mentioned, often strengthened by narcotic herbs, roots,
or seeds, many of the aboriginal tribes succeeded in “ getting glori-
ously drunk,” as one of the early Spanish writers declared.
Some of
them were addicted to most disgusting forms of debauchery long
before they came under the degrading influence of
civilization, so
often deplored by travelers and missionaries.^
^ See
Splx
and
Mnrtius.
Relsc
in
Brasilicn,
3
; 1075.
1831
;
and
Robert
Southey,
History of Brazil, 3
: 722-723.
1819.
KARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD.
389
TOBACCO.
(Plates 1 and 2.)
Tobacco is first mentioned in the account of Columbus’s discovery
of the New World.
In the narrative published by Navarrete, under
the date of November 6, 1492, is the following entry
:
Last
says tlie admiral, came the two men whom he had sent to observe
the interior of the island, and they told him how they had walked 12 leagues
to a village of 50 houses.
*
*
*
On the road the two Christians encountered
many people proceeding
to
their
villages, men and women,
holding
in
their
hands a lirehrand and herbs whicli they were accustomed to take in their incense
burners.
In a footnote on the same page is added
In
tlie Histoida general do
las Indins which he wrote, Bishop Casas refers
with greater detail to this occurrence.
“These two Christians met on the road
(says he) many i)eoplo who were proceeding to their villages, women and men,
always the men with a firebrand
in their hands and
certain
la'rhs
to take in
their
iiiccn.se burners, which are dry herbs wrapped in a (’crtain
leaf, also dry,
after the nuinner of a musket made of jiaper whicli the hoys make at the feast
of l*ascua
(l(‘l
Kspiritu Santo; and having lighted one end of
it,
at the other
they suck or inliale, or re<*eive within with the breath, that smoke, with which
the body
is
sootlu'd and which almost
intoxicates,
so that
they do
not
feel
fatigue.
Th(‘se
muskets,
or whatever we
shall
call them,
they
call
tabacos.
I know Spaniards on this island of Hispaniola who were accustomed to taking
them, and, being reproached
for so doing because
it was a
vice, they
replied
that th('y could not stop the habit.
I know not what savor or bmiefit they found
in them.
Here may be seen the origin of our cigars.
Who would have ventured
to say
at, that time that their eonsumptiou and use would one day become so
common and geiuTal and that upon this new and strange vice there would be
established one of the fattest revenues of the State?
tisu OF TOUACXX) BY THE MEXICANS.
By the
ancient Mexicans tobacco
Avas regarded
as
a
sacred
or
magic
lierb.
It was used in their religious rites and in ceremonies
of
various kinds in
the form
of
incense.
They
also
inhaled
its
smoko and cheAved
its leaves together Avith
lime.
In the Nahuatl
language
it
Avas called
yeti, as prepared
for their fumigations
it
was called picietl; and the leaf of green tobacco together with lime,
prepared for chcAving Avas called tenexietl (from tenextli, lime, and
yctl, tobacco).
The
last name
is often modified into other forms,
varying even in the Avritings of a single author, as tenegiete, tene-
chiete,
etc., the Nahuatl X having the sound
of the English SH
(which
is absent from the Spanish language), and the Spaniards
having a tendency to drop the terminal L of Nahuatl Avords.
The plant itself, Nicotiarm tabaeum^ was described by Dr. Nicolas
Monardes of Seville, in 1574, and highly recommended by him for its
1 Navarrete,
Colloccion
de
los
Viages
de
Descubrlmientofs,
que
hlcieron
por mar
los
Kspaftoles desde
flues
del
siglo XV.
Tomo.
1.
Viages de Colon
: Almirantazgo de
Cas-
tilla.
pp. 50-51.
1825.
73839°—SM 1916
26
890
ANNUAL REPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
191G.
supposed
medicinal
virtues.
After enumerating
a
long
list
of
maladies which might be cured by
it, and relating specific instances
in Tvhich he had known
it to be
efficacious
(very much
after the
manner of the testimonials published at the present day in connec-
tion with patent medicines), he describes
its ceremonial use by the
Indian priests, or necromancers.
In this connection, however, since
he speaks of
its intoxicating effects,
it
is very probable that other
narcotics were mixed with
it.
The custom of chewing
it, as prac-
ticed by the Mexicans, he describes as follows:
The Indians make use of tobacco
to aid them
to endure
llilrst ns well
as
hunger, and
to enable them
to pass days without having necessity
to
eat
or
drink.
When
they
liave
to journey
across some desert
or
wilderness where
neither water
nor
food
is
to be
found,
they
use
little
[>ellets made
of
this
tobacco.
They lake the leav(‘S of
it, and chew them, and as they go chewing
them they go mixing with
tliein a certain powder made of buiait clam
shells,
and go mixing them together
in their mouth until they make a kind of paste,
out of which they make
little pellets a
little larger than garbanzos and place
them
in the shade
to
dry,
after which they keep them and use
tlieiii
in the
following manner:
When they are obliged
to journey
in regions where
they do
not expect
to
find water
or
food,
they take one of
tliose
pellets and
place
it between
tlie
lower
lij) and
the
teeth, and
they go along suckiitg
it
all
the time
that
they
are walking, and what
they
suck they
swallow, am!
after
this fashion
they
pass and journey
three
or
four days
without
having
necessity
for
food
or
drink; because they
feel
neither hunger nor thirst nor faintness which might
hinder
their journey.^
Padre de
la
Serna, who prepared a manual
for instructing
tlie
missionaries sent to the Indians concerning witchcraft, necromancy,
and idolatry, as practiced by the payni and
tit/Jtl of the Mexicans,
speaks repeatedly of the use of toliacco (picietl) and lime-and-tobacco
(tencxietl)
in
tlieir various conjurations.
This plant, to which the
Mexicans ascribed divine lionors, was invoked like the sacred ololiuh-
que and peyotl, which will be described later.
In all eases the spirits
of the plants, designated
as brown
or green or
white, were called
upon to cast out various maladies, also distinguished by colors, with
threats if they failed and promises if they succeeded.
In classifying
these narcotics Padre Serna observes:
They called by the name of “green
spirit” the tenegiete
[tenexietll which
they prepared with
lime,
in order
to give strength
to the
moulli,
venerating
it as though
it were the guardian angel of travelers.
Tobacco, since
it did not
cause halliiciuatioiis, was not held to possess the virtues of divination like those
of the narcotic ololiuliqui [Datura] and peyotl [Lophophora].
The latter were
held in such reverence by certain persons “ forsaken by God ” that they were
carried about to serve as charms against
all injuries.
^
iMonardes,
“ Ilistoria medicinal
de las Cosas que
bo traen
de nucstras Indlas
Occi-
dentales que
slrven
cn
Mediclna,”
f.
30.
1574.
* See Jacinto de la Serna,
“ Manual de Mlnistros para
cl conoclmiento de idolatrias y
extirpaclou
dc
ellas.”
In Documenlos
In^dilos
para
la
Hlstorla
de
Espafla,
vol.
104,
p.
165.
NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD.
391
USE OF TOBACCO IN NORTH AMERK’.V.
The antiquity of the custom of tobacco smoking in North America
is indicated by the discovery of tobacco pipes in graves and burial
mounds in various parts of the United States.
Two of these pipes
are shown in the accompanying illustrations
(figs.
1, 2).
They are
but a sample of many, often fashioned
in
the
sliajie of mammals,
birds,
or
reptiles, and sometimes
of human
beings, found
in
tlie
Scioto Valley, where the writer Avas born.
It was the discovery of objects like these
in the mounds near Chillicothe, Ohio, that
first instilled
in him an interest in study
of the origin and history of the aboriginal
inhabitants of America.
So
Avidely
spread
Avas
tobac(‘o
at
the
time
of
the
discovery
that,
although
a
Fio.
1.—Stone
from
Iiidiim
l)lant of subtropical
origin,
it was fouml
Mound, near
Chillieotho. Otno,
t
.
.
*
1
'
1
n
T
representing a cedar
bird.
Ill cultivation as iar north as the St. laiAv-
rence Kiver.
Indeed, one
of the
great
tribes
of North American
Indians, knoAvn
as the ‘‘Tobacco
Njttion,*'
inliabited
nine
villages
lying just south of Lake Huron.
They took
their name from the
fact that they cultivated tobacco on a large scale and sold it to other
tribes.
^
The important part played by tobacco in many ceremonies of the
North American Indians
is too
Avell knoAvn to need
description in
this
place.
In the South tobacco smoking often
accom])aiiied
tlie
ceremonial
of
the
‘M3lack
drink.''
At
meetings
of
ambassadors,
Fig.
2.—Stone
pipo
in
the
form
of
a
hunmii
councils of nations, treaties of peace, and the
reception of
visitors,
the calumet
or pipe of
peace was invariably cinudated.
Tlie accom-
panying
illustration
(fig.
3)
represents
the
stem of a ceremonial calumet, like that carried
by Marquette
during
his
travels among
the
Indians.
In Virginia
its cultivation A\"as taken
up on a large scale by the colonists.
Tobacco
is undoubtedly the most important
head from
the Kame
lo-
cality.
gift
which
America
has
presented
to
the
world
No other
visible and tangible product of Columbus's discovery has been so
universally diffused among all kinds and conditions of men, even to the remotest
nooks and corners
of the habitable
earth.
Its serene and
placid charm has
everywiiere
proved
irresistible,
although
from
the
outset
its
use
has
been
frowned upon with an acerbity such as no other affair of hygiene has ever called
forth.
The first recorded mention of tobacco is in Columbus’s diary for Novem-
ber 20, 1492 [Nov. 6, according to Navarrete].
The use of it was soon introduced
^ It Is interesting to note that in 1914 10,000,000 pounds of tobacco were produced In
the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario.
392
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1!>16.
into the Spanish Peninsula, and about 1560 the French ambassador at Lisbon,
Jean Nicot, sent some of the fragrant herb
into France, where
it was named
in honor of liim Nicotina.
It seems to have been
first brought to England by
Lane’s returning colonists in 1586, and early in the sevenleeiith ('entury
It Avas
becoming fasliionahle
to smoke,
in
spite of
tlie bull of Pope Uri)an VIII and
King James’s
“ Counterl)last
to Tobacco."
Everyone
will rememlxT how that
royal author characteriml smoking as
a custom loathsome
to the
eye,
hate-
ful
to
the
nose,
harmful
to
the
brain,
dangerous
to
tla^
lungs,
and
in
the
black stinking fume thereof nearest resembling
tlu' horrihk^ Stygian smoke
<)f
the pit that
is bottomless."
’
In spite of all efforts to diseoui'apfe its use and cultivation, tobacco
soon became the j)i’incipal
sttiple of the New AVorld, and was even
used instead of ^^old and silver for curi*ency.
In 1611), owing to the
scarcity of wives in Virginia a sliipload of young women
spinsters
carefully
selected
and
inatronized
(says
Fisk(‘)
were
sent
to
the
colony.
They had no
ditliculty
in finding suitors, hut no accepted suitor could
claim his bride until he should pay the London Company
.120 i)ounds of tobacco
to defray the expenses of her voyage.*
Fiske calls attention to the important role which tobacco has played
in the history of our country by repeating a remark of Moncure
Conway: ‘‘A true history of tobacco would be the history of English
and American liberty.”
Fiske continues:
It was
tobacco
that
planted
an
Engli.sh
nation
in
Virginia.
It was
the
desire to monopolize the tf)bacco trjide that induced Charlt^s
I to recognize the
House of Burgesses
; discontent with the Navigation Act and Its effect upon the
tobacco trade Avas potent among the causes of BacoiCs Kehellion; and
so on
1 Fiske,
John.
Old
Virginia
and
her
Neighbors,
1:
174-175.
1898.
a Fiske, op.
clt.,
1
: 188-189.
KARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAPFOED.
393
down
to the eve of Independence, when Patrick Henry won his
first triumph
in
the famous
Parson’s
Cause,
in which
the
price
of
toi)acco
furnislied
the
bone of contention,
the Indian weed has been
strangely
implicated with
the
history of political freedom.*
Sucli a cei’taiii and steady demand was there for
it that, like choc-
olate in Mexico, it became the currency of the colony.
The prices of all articles of merchandise were quotfnl
in pounds of tobacco.
In tobacco taxes
\vere assessed and
all wages and salaries were
i)aid.
This
use
of
tobacco
as
a
circulating medium
and
as
a
standard
of
values was
begun
ill the (airliest days of tlu^ <‘olony, when coin was scarce, and the structure
of soci(*ty Avas simi)le enough to iiermit a temporary return toward the primi-
tive practice of barter.
Under such circumstances tobacco was obviously
the
article most sure to bo used as money.*
It was ex(*lmiigeable for whatever any-
body wanted
in the shape of service or merchandise, and
it was
easily pro-
cured from the bountiful earth.*
COHOBA «NUFF OF THK ANCIENT HAITIANS.
(Plate 3.)
In addition to tobacco the companions of Columbus encountered
another
narcotic
in
Haiti,
or Hispaniola,
called
cohoba.
It was
taken in the form of
siiuiT, inhaled through the nostrils by means
of a bifurcated
tube.
It was correctly described by Kamon Pane,
a])pointed by the gretit admiral to report upon the superstitious be-
liefs of the islanders, and also by Las Casas, who was an eyewitness
to the ceremonies accompanying
its
use.
Subsequent writers, mis-
led
b}^ Oviedo’s incorrect statement that this substance was ignited
and its smoke
inha](‘d through the nostrils by the bifurcated tube,
confused
it with tobacco.
It was in reality derived from the seeds
of a mimosa-like tree, known botanically
as FipUidenia peregHna.
That
it could not have been tobacco
is apparent from the descrip-
tion of the physiological elfects caused by
it.
All writers united in
declaring that
it induced a kind of intoxication or hypnotic state,
acconii^aiiied by visions which were regarded by the natives as super-
natural.
AVhile under its influence the necromancers, or priests, were
supposed to hold communication with unseen powers, and their in-
coherent miitterings were regarded
as prophesies or revelations of
hidden things.
In treating the sick the physicians made use of
it
to discover the cause of the malady or the person or spirit by whom
the
patient was
bewitched.
The
snuff was
called
coxoba
in the
language
of the
islanders.
This was rendered
in
the
Italian
or-
thography of the translation of Pane’s description, ‘‘cogioba,” and
incorrectly transcribed
as
^‘cogiba,”
or
‘‘cojiba.”
In Spanish
or-
thography
it is written “cojoba.”
^ Flske.
Old
Virginia and
her Neighbors, 2:
174.
1898.
® It
is
interesting
to
note
that
at
a
later
epoch
whisky
distilled
from
maize was
used
in certain parts of the United
States as currency, even
for paying the
salaries
of
school teachers and clergymen.
“Fiske, op.
eit.
p. 210.
394
ankual report smithsokiah institution,
1916.
In describing the idols of the islanders Pane gives the following
account
Those of wood are made in this fashion
: Wlieii someone
is going along on a
journey he says lie sees a tree which is moving its roots
; and the man in a great
fright stops and asks: “Who
is it?’’
And he reidies: “My name is Buhiiltihu,
and
it will indicate wdio
1 am.”
And the man goes
to the physician and
tells
him wliat he has
seen, and the enchanter or wizard runs immediately
to see
the tree viiich the man has told him of and sits down by it, and he makes cogioha
as We have described [above in the story of the four].
And when the cogioha
is made he stands up on his feet and gives
it
all
its
titles as
if
it were some
great lord, and he asks
it
: “Trli me who you are, and what you are doing here,
and what you want of me, and why you have had me called.
Tell me
if you
Avant me to cut you or
if you want to come with me, and how you want me to
carry you, and
1 will build you a cabin and add a property
to
it.”
Then that
tree or cemi, become an
idol or devil,
replies to him,
telling him the shape in
w'hich
it wants to be made.
And he cuts and makes
it in the shape
it has
di-
rected
; builds its house for
it, and gives the property, and many times
in the
year makes cogioha for
it.
This cogioha
is to pray to
it and to please
it and to
ask and
to learn some things from the ceuy, either evil or good, and in addition
to ask
it for wealth.
And when they want to know
if they
will be victorious
over their enemies they go into a cabin into which no one else goes except the
principal men, and their chief
is the
lirst wh(> begins
to make cogioha and
to
make a noise; and wlilh* be is making cogioha no one of tlauu who
is in the com-
pany says anything
till
the chief
lias finished; but wlaai he has
finished
his
prayer he stands a while with his head
iiK'lined and
his arms on
his
knee's;
then he lifts his head up and looks toward the sky and speaks.
Then they
all
answer him with a loud voice, and when they have
all
siioken, giving thanks,
•he tells the vision that he has seen, intoxicated with the cogioha which he has
inhaled through his
nose, which goes
u])
into
his head.
And he says that he
has talked with the cemi and that they are to have a victory
; or that his enemi£^s
will fly; or that there shall he a gn'at
los.s of
life, or wars, or famine, or some
Other such
things which
occur
to
liim who
is
intoxicateil
to
say.
Consider
what a state tlu^ir brains are in. because they say
tlie cabins seem to them to be
turned upside down and that men are walking witli their feet in the air.
And
tills cogioha they make for cemis of stone and of wood as well as for the dead,
as we have described above.^
Peter Martyr’s account of
the inhabitants of Hispaniola, in
his
De Orbe Novo,
is simply a paraj>hrase of Fra Kamon’s paper,
in
Latin.
It adds nothing
to
his description
of cohoba, but on the
other hand it is misleading, since
it refers to
it as “an herb which
they pound up and drink”; and though
it states that the natives
“ absorb the intoxicating herb called cohobba, which
is the same as
that used by the boviles to excite their frenzy,”
it
fails to specify
that they breathed
it through
their nostrils by means of a forked
tube.
Nothing is said of the apparatus by which the snuff is taken,
and indeed Eamon Pane himself neglects to give a description of
it.
Fernando Colombo, however, in his Historic
(1571)
states that
for holding the snuff the natives had
a
finely wrought table of a
^ Ramon Pane
(149G),
In appendix to Fernando Colombo’^ Historic, cap. XIX,
p.
137a,
1671.
KAROOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFPORD.
396
round form, resembling a trencher (come un tagliere), and that they
took it by means of a bifurcated tube, “ con iina canna di due rami,
che si mettono al naso.”
The description of Las Casas is even more precise.
The snuff tray
he describes as “ a plate, not flat but slightly concavish or deep, made
of wood, so handsome, smooth, and pretty that it could not be very
much more so were
it made of gold or silver;
it was almost black
and polished like jet”
(cuasi negro y lucio como de azabache)..
In
.describing the tube he says:
The
tiil)o
Avas fashioned
the
size
of a
flute and was
quite
hollow,
like
a
flute.
From
two-thirds
of
its
length onward
it
divided
by
means
of
two
hollow
eaiies, just as Ave open the two middle
fingers, leaving out
the thumb,
with
the hand
extended.
The
ends
of
these
two
canes
inserted
into
the
windows of the nostrils and the base of the
flute,
let us
say,
into the powder
on the plate, they would draw in their breath and snufling up, would
receive
through
the
nostrils as much of the powder
as
they
wished
to
take,
which,
when taken, would go at once to the brain, almost as though they had drunk
strong
Avine
;
for
they
Avould become
drunk
or
almost
drunk
*
*
*.
It
was
their custom,
in coming together to decide
difficult
matters, such
as the
maneuvers
of one
of
tlieir war
parties,
or
the performance
of
other
things
Avhich
th(‘y deemed
important,
to make
their
coholia
and
with
it
intoxicate
tliemseJves
or
nearly
so
to do
i saw
these
peojile
on
several
oc-
casions
celelirate thedr cohoba, and
it was an interesting
spei-tacle
to witness
how they took
it and
Avliat they spake.
The cluef iiegnn
the ceremony, and
Avhile ho
Avas engaged
all
remained
silent.
When he had
taken
his cohoba
(that
Is,
aaIkmi ho liad snuffed up
tlie poAvder through
his
nostrils,
as
I have
described), they being seated on certain handsomely carved Ioav benches Avhich
they
called
diiohos
(the
first
syllable
long), he remained
silent
for
a
AAdiile
Avith his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on his knees.
Then he
raised
his face heaveiuvard, uttering certain Avords Avhich must have been his
prayer
to
the
true
God,
or
to him Avhom
he
held
as God
;
after
Avhich
all
Tespoud(‘d, almost as avo do Avhen avo say amen; and
this they did
Avitli a loud
voiee or sound.
Then they ga\^e thunks and said to him certain complimentary
things,
entrc’ating
his
beueAolence and
begging him
to
reveal
to them what
he had
seen.
He
described
to them
his
vision,
saying
that
the Cemi
had
si)Oken
to him and had i>redicted good times or the contrary,
or that children
Avere
to be horn
or
to
die,
or that there
Avas
to be some
dispute
Avith
their
neighbors,
and
other
things
Avhich
might come
to
his
imagination,
all
dis-
turbed
Avith
that
intoxication;
or
if perhaps
Avitbont
it,
Avhat
the
devil,
to
deceive them and Avin them to his Avorship, had brought to them.^
The snuff itself was described by Las Casas as “ finely ground and
of the color of cinnamon or powdered henna ”
(dc color de canela 6
de alhena molida).-
iLas Casas.
Apol.
Hist,
tie
las
Intllas, Chap.
ICO,
pp. 445-446,
ed. Serrano y
Saenz,
Madrid.
1909.
® Alhefia
is the name of the so-called Egyptian
privet, Lawsonia inermis, the powdered
leaves of which, called henna, were used by the Egyptians for coloring their
flnger-nalls.
The
fragrant
flowers
of
this
plant are
the
principal
source
of
the perfume wafted by
the breezes of
“ Araby the Blest.”
396
annual KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
THE COHOBA TREE STILL PERSISTS IN HAITI.
That a substance with the intoxicating
effects
of cohoba should
have been identified with tobacco seems strange; but
if not tobacco,
what could have been its origin?
Is the custom of taking a narcotic
snuff by means of bifurcated tube
still
in existence in any part of
America?
If so, from wdiat plant is the snuff prepared, and
is this
plant to be found growing on the island of Haiti ?
These questions
may be answered as follow^s: The custom of taking a narcotic snuff
still prevails
in various localities of South
America, showing that
at one time
it must have been widely spread.
In inhaling
it some
tribes used bifurcated tubes which correspond veiy closely Avith the
descriptions of those used
in Hispaniola
(fig.
4).
The plant from
Avhich
the
snuff
is derived
is
Piptculenia pcregrina^
a
tree which
grows both spontaneously and
in
cultivation on
the banks
of the
Orinoco and Amazon Rivers and their tributaries.
This tree does
grow on the island of Hispaniola, or Haiti, as well as upon the neigh-
PlQ. 4.—Forked tube for inhaling narcotic Piptadenia
snuff through the nose.
boring
island
of
Porto
Rico and several other of
the
Antilles,
and — most
interesting
and
convinc-
ing of
all facts connected
with
it— it
still bears the
name cohoba, which Avas applied in ancient times both to the snuff
itself and to the ceremonial practice of using
it.
In connection Avith
liis studies of the ])lants used by the aborigines
of America, the Avriter encountered various narratiATis of travelers in
South America in which ceremonial snuff taking by savage
ti ibes by
means of bifurcated tubes was described.
In all cases the snuff Avas
made from the seeds of Piptadenia perecjrma^ the tree called Cohoba
in Haiti.
Among the writers who bear testimony to
this
practice
are Padre Gurnilla, in his Orinoco Ilustrado (1741)
; M. de la Con-
damine in
liis
interesting Relation, published
in the Memoires de
I’Academie Royale des Sciences, Annee 1745; Humboldt and Bon-
pland in their Voyage aiix R^ions Equinoxiales (1819), and Spix
and Martins, Reise in Brasilien
(18111).
One of the most interesting
features in connection with the use of the seeds of Piptadenia
is
described by Spix and Martius—the use of an infusion made from
them as an enema.
This was accomplished by means of pear-shaped
rubber syringes, which, according to M. de la Condamine, were passed
around to guests
at ceremonial
feasts.
In various parts of South
America
the
snuff was
called
niopa,
hupa,
curupa,
curuba,
and
parici; and a similar or identical snuff, also made from Piptadenia
seeds, was called cebil or sebil in Argentina and
vilca, huillca, or
willca in Peru.
NABCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFPORD.
397
For a full account of this interesting narcotic the reader is referred
to the author’s recent paper, “Identity of Cohoba, the narcotic snuff
of ancient Haiti,” published in the Journal of the Washington Acad-
emy of Sciences, volume C, pages 547 to 562.
It
is remarkable that
the identity of cohoba, mentioned
in the veiy
first account of the
ethnology of the aboriginal inhabitants of the New World, should
have
1‘emained unknown
for three centuries, and more remarkable
still that tlie seeds of Piptadenia peregriaa^ known to possess violent
narcotic
properties, should
never have been
studied by
chemists.
Humboldt was so much sm-prised on finding that the source of the
snuff* was a leguminous seed that he suggested the possibility of its
intoxicating eff'ects being due to the admixture of lime with
it, but
Richard
S})ruce, who saw the
snuff* prepared without lime, showed
that this su])jU)sition was erroneous.
It
is not so strange, as Hum-
boldt would
indicate, tliat seeds of Leguminosie should possess nar-
cotic })r()})erties.
The scarlet seeds of Sophora sccundifora^ or Hrous-
soruitia
HecundJfloyyi^ of Texas and northern Mexico, are
also very
narcotic and are
still used by certain Indian
tribes for ceremonial
purposes,
tis described below.
THK RKD BKAN OF NORTHEllN MEXICO AND TEXAS.
(Platr a.)
Broussorudia seamdifora^ described and figured by Ortega in 1798
from a plant growing in the Royal Oarden at Madrid, but more com-
monly known by the name Sophora secumUfora^
is a beautiful ever-
green shruli or small
tree with pinnately compound glossy
leaves,
racemes
of
v iolet-colored
flowers, and
Indehiscent pods containing
scarlet bean-like seeds.
The latter have been studied chemically and
are known to contain a narcotic poisonous alkaloid allied to cytisin,
havung a physiological effect very much like that of tobacco.
Fj'orn
Texas, reports have been received that the seeds have poisoned chil-
dren.
The
plant, though
usually avoided by animals,
is eaten by
deer and goats, and tlie hard, glossy beans when swallowed whole are
apparently harmless.
In early days they were much used by certain
tribes of Indians for making a narcotic decoction, and when ground
to a powdei- were put in mescal, or Agave brandy, to make
it more
intoxicating;
hence
the name “mescal bean,” which was formerly
applied to them.
In early days these beans wein so highly valued by the Indians of
the Mexican border region that a string of them 6 feet long would
be accepted in barter for a pony.
According to Dr. Rothrock, who
quotes Mr. Bellanger, of Texas, “the Indians near San Antonio used
this bean as an intoxicant, half a bean producing delirious exhilara-
tion followed by a sleep tliat lasts two or three days; and it is asserted
that a whole bean would kill a man.”^
^ Soe Iluvard, V., Proe. U.
S. Nat. Mus. 8
: 500.
3885.
398
ANNUAL RUUOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Mr. Alanson Skinner, in describing the Red Bean Dance of the
Iowa Indians, says that among them this ancient rite far antedates
the practice of eating peyote {Lophophom
WilliaTnsii) which they
have more recently adopted.
According to their traditions the society
of red-bean dancers was founded by an Indian who while fasting
dreamed that he received the secret from the deer
:
for red beans
(mescal) are sometimes found in deer’s stomachs.”
The beans were
prepared by
first placing them
before
the
fire
until
they turned
yellow.
Then they were taken and pounded up fine and made into a
medicine brew.
The members then danced all night. A
little after
midnight they began to drink the narcotic decoction, and continued
to drink it until da3d)reak, when its effects became apparent in caus-
ing them
to
vomit.
After vomiting and praying repeatedly they
believed themselves ceremonially cleansed, the evil being having been
expelled from their bodies.
Membei^s of the society, when they went
to war, tied some of these red beans around tlieir belts, deeming them
efficacious as a charm to protect them from injury.
The mancacutzi
wariihawe, or
red-bean war-bundle,” was regarded by the society as
a
sacred charm,
the
possession
of
wdiich brought
success
in war,
hunting, especially for the buffalo, and in horse racing.^
These beans
are often confused with
those
of certain
species of
Erythrina, which are sometimes sold in their place in the markets of
Mexico, but which are not at all narcotic.
Sometimes both kinds are
found mixed together in the same package.
Both are knowui
alilce
under the names colorin,
frijolillo, and
coral
bean, on account of
their similarity; but in southern Texas the .seed of Broussonetia
is
Icnown as Indian Bean, or mescal bean.
The plants of Broussonetia
and Erythrina do not in tlie least resemble each other, and there is no
possibility of confusing either tlie flowers or the legumes of the two
genera; so that wdien adulteration of the narcotic beans occurs
it
is
undoubtedly intentional.
MEXICAN lUANT WOUSIIIP.
From the accounts of early waiters
it
ai)pears that the ancient
Mexicans attributed to all plants a spirit not unlike that of animals
or even of man himself.
To certain plants special honors were paid;
others were avoided with dread
; while others, with no pronounced
virtues or evil properties, were little noticed.
An example is given
by a Mexican writer of the homage paid to a certain tree cut down
in order to form a bridge over a stream in Michoacan.
The people
of the village were called together by the governor and a religious
service was held about
a
cross erected
for the
special
ceremony,
with
candles burning before
it and
choristers
assisting.
A
pro-
» Skinner, Alanson.
Anthrop. Papers, Amer. Miis. Nat. Hist. 11
:
718.
1916.
KArCOTIC PLAKTS and stimulants—SAFFORD.
399
cession was fonned
wliicih climbed
the mountain
where
the
tree
was growing.
When
it
fell
there came
an
aged
Indian woman
who, t^^king a few of
its branches, laid them on the trunk where
it had been cut, and, consoling
it with loving words, begged that
it might not
feel humiliated or angry ;
for they had chosen
it on
account of
its magnificent stature and great strength, and
it was
destined to span a mighty river, so that all the people of the land
of
Michoaean might
cross
over upon
it.
And
before
dragging
it away they placed upon the place where
it had fallen a piece of
lighted
candle
Avhich had
been
left
over from Holy
Thursday,
and they repeated in
its honor a very solemn
litany, sprinkling
it
with holy water and much pulque. ^
On the next day, having pro-
pitiated the
spirit
of the
tree, they bore away the hewn beam
to
the bridge with much shouting and jubilation."
The same author speaks of the veneration paid by the Mexicans to
certain medicinal plants and to the narcotic ololiuhqui, the sacred
nanacatl,
the
peyotl,
and
the
picietl
(tobacco),
“to
which
they
ascribe deity and with which they practice superstitions.”
T.OPHOPIIOKA WILIJAMSII, THE SO-OALI.EL) SACKED MIASHROOM.
Bancroft,
in referring to the narcotics used by the ancient Mexi-
cans, mentions one which was believed by the early Spaniards to be
a fungus.
In writing of their ceremonial
feasts, he says:
Amonj; tlui
iiiKi'cclients used to make their drinks more
intoxicatinj;: the most
powerful was
the
tconnnaeatl,
“ llesh
of CodC
a
kind
of mushroom
which
excited the passions and caused the partaker
to
see snakes and
divers other
visions.”
^
This information was undoubtedly derived from accounts of the
Spanish padres, one of whom, Bernardino Sahagun, writing before
the year 15G9, states that it was the Chichimeca Indians of the north
who
first
discovered
the
properties and made use
of
these
“evil
mushroom which
intoxicate
like
Avine.”^
They were gathered
in the territory now northern Mexico and
southern Texas, preserved by drying, and carried southward.
The
inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico knew them only in their dry
state.
It
is also very probable that the early writers who recorded
their use had
seen them only when dry and never knew them as
living plants.
Francisco Hernandez, the physician sent by Philip IT
in 1570 to study
tlie resources of Mexico, or New Spain, describes
^Fermented sap of tbe century plant {Agave americana), which also yields the strong
distilled
spirit
called
mescal.
^ Jacinto de la Serna,
“ Manual de Mlnlstros par el conoelmlento do idolatrias y
extlr-
paciori
de
ellas.”
In
Documontos
in(*dUoa
para
la
Historia
de
Bspafia,
vol.
104,
pp.
159-ieO.
« Bancroft,
IT.
H., Native Races, 2
: 3G0.
1875.
* Sahagun, Bernardino
(1499-1590).
Hist. Nueva
Espafia
(ed. Bustamante), 3:
118.
400
annual KEPORT SMITHSONIAN institution,
1916.
them under the heading
‘‘ De nanacatl seu Fungorum genere,”
From
the
harmless
white mushrooms
(iztacnanacame),
red mushrooms
(tlapalnanacame), and
yellow
orbicular mushrooms
(chimalnana-
came),
used
for
food, he
distinguished them
as
te^huinti, which
signifies
intoxicating.” ^
In this connection
it is interesting to note that tliis Nahuatl word,
teyhuinti, or teyuinti
(from yuinti, to be drunk), survives in the
form
of
tejuino
or tehuino
in
the
State
of
dalisco, Mexico, and
tesiiino or tizwin in the southwestern United States as the name of
certain intoxicating drinks, the principal of which
is a kind of beer
brewed from malted maize.
DKTEirU I NATION OF
TII K
Dlil’O.
Three centuries of investigation have failed to reveal an endemic
fungus used as an intoxicant in Mexico, nor
is such a fungus men-
tioned
either in works on mycology
or pharmacography,
yet the
belief prevails even now that there is a narcotic Mexican fungus, and
it
is supported by Simeon
in
his monumental
dictionary
of
the
Nahuatl language, in which the following definitions occur:
Teonanacatl,
espece
de
petit champignon
((ui
a
maiivais
gout,
enivre et cause des hallucinations;
il est medicinal contro les iievres
et la goutte. ^
Teyuinti, qui enivre quehpi’un, enivrant; teyuinti nanacatl, cham-
pignon enivrant.^
In connection with his study of the economic plants of the Mexi-
cans and the Indians of the southwestern United States the writer
has sought diligently for a fungus having the properties attributed
to the teonanacatl.
As this narcotic was used by various tribes of
Chichimecas, and the Chichimecas inhabited the territory situated
in wiiat is now northern Mexico and the southwestern United States,
it was natural to look for the plant in this region.
No such fungus,
however, was discovered, but in
its place a narcotic plant having
properties exactly
like those attributed to the teonanacatl was en-
countered; moreover, one form of this plant, when prepared
as a
drug, resembles a dried mushroom so remarkably that at first glance
it will even deceive a mycologist
(pi. 5).
It
is discoid in form and
apparently
peltate when
seen from below; but the upper surface
bears tuft^ of silky hairs, and a close inspection reveals the fact that
it is the crown of a small fleshy spineless cactus which has been cut
off and dried.
The cactus in question, Lophophora WilliaTmii^ when
1 ** Qaoniam
Inebrare
solent, Teyhuinti nomine nuncupatl
sunt,
et
c
fiilvo
in fuscum
vergant
colorem,
rlsiim Inopportunum
eoncltent,
imagineniQue
cltra
rlsum
Incbrlantlum
possint exhlberc/’
Hernandoz, Francisco (1C14-1G78).
Hist. PI. Nov.
IIlsp.
(cd. Rom.)
2;
357.
1790.
* Simeon, R<5inl, Diet, de la langue Nahuatl. p. 436, 1885.
®Op.
cit.,
p.
412.
NAKCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD.
401
entire, resembles a carrot or radish rather than
a mushroom, and
when cut into longitudinal slices or irregular pieces, would never be
mistaken for a fungus.
Its chemical properties were investigated
first by Dr. Lewin of Berlin, in 1888; afterward by Dr. Heffter of
Lei]>zig.
It was also studied by Drs.
I). W. Prentiss and Francis
P. Morgan of Wasliington.
Alkaloids derived from
it have been
named Jopliopliorine, anhalonine, and mezcaline.
iDKN'rrry with nakcotig
rinrvn..
Sahagun, who described the di'ugs of the ancient Mexicans from
specimens brought to him by Indian herb doctors, failed to recognize
the identity of the teonanacatl and peyotl of the Chichimccas,
al-
though he attributes similar narcotic properties to each.
The latter
he describes as follows:
There is auolber lierh, like tunas ^ of the earth;
it is called peiotl
;
it is white;
it
is prodneed in the north country; those who oat or drink
it see visions either
frightful
or
laughable;
this
intoxication
lasts two
or
three
days
and
then
ceases;
it is a common food of the Chichiinecas, for
it sustains them and gives
them
courage'
to
light and not
feel
fear nor hunger nor
thirst
; and they say
that
it
protects them from
all danger.*
The plant itself was described by Hernandez as follows, under the
heading De Peyotl Zacatecensi, sen radice molli et lanuginosa:
The
root
is
of
nearly medium
size, sending
forth no branches
nor
leaves
above ground, hut with a certain woolliness adhering to it on account of which
it
could not ho aptly tlgiired by me.
Doth men and women are said to be harmed
by
it.
It appears to be of a sweetish
taste and moderately
hot.
Ground up
and applied
to painful
Joints
it
is
said
to give
relief.
Wonderful
properties
are attributed to this root
(if any faith can be given to Avhat is commonly said
among them on this point).
It causes those devouring
it to be able to foresee
and to predict things; such, for instance, as whether on the following day the
enemy
will make an
attac’k upon them; or whether the Aveather will continue
favorable; or to discern who has stolen from them some utensils or anything
else; and otlier things of like nature which the Chichimecas really believe they
have found out.
On which account this root scarcely issues forth but conceals
Itself in the ground, as
if
it did not wish to harm those who discover
it and
eat
it.®
Fi'om the above description, which applies perfectly to the plant
from Zacatecas shoAvn in plate
6,
it follows that the peyotl zacate-
censis of Hernandez is identical with Lophophora WiUiarrhsiL
Speci-
mens of the drug collected in northern Zacatecas by Dr. Francis E.
Lloyd are shown in plate
7.
They bear
little resemblance to the
mushroom-like buttons shown in plate 5, and
it is not surprising that
they should
luive been supposed to be distinct from the teonanacatl
by the early Spanish wu’iters.
^Tuna, the Spanish name for the fruit of the Opuntia, or prickly pear.
® Sahagun (1490-U590).
Hist, general de las eosas de Nueva Espafia
(ed. lUi.stamante)
3:241.
1830.
a Hernandez (1415-~1578)
.
De Hist, plant. Nov. Hlsp. 3:70.
1790.
402
ANNUAL EEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
RAIZ DIABOLICA, OR DEVIL’s ROOT.
(Plates 6 and 7.)
By this term it was designated by Padre Jos6 Ortega, who tells of
its use by the Cora Indians in his Historia
del Nayarit, published
anonymously at Barcelona in 1754, and republished under his own
name in 1887.
In describing their nocturnal dances he writes as fol-
lows :
Close to the musician was seated the leader of the sinpnp: whose business
it was to mark the time.
Each of these had
his assistants
to take his place
when he should become fatigued.
Nearby was placed a tray
tilled with peyote
which
is a
diabolical
root
(raiz diabolica)
that
is ground up and drunk by
them so that they may not become w^eakened by
the exhausting
eiTects of so
long a
function, which they began by forming as
large a
circle
of men and
women as could occupy the space of ground
tliat had been swept oiT for
this
purpose.
One
after the other went damang
in
a
ring or marking time with
their feet, keeping in the middle the musician and the choirmaster whom they
Invited, and singing in the same unmusical tune
(el mismo descomi)asado toiio)
that he set them.
They would dance all night, from 5 o'clock in the evening to
7 o’clock
in the morning, without
stop]>ing uor leaving the
circle.
When
the
dance was ended
all
stood who could hold
tlicmselves on
their
feet;
for the
majority from
the
peyote
and
the wine which
they drank
were
unable
to
utilize their legs to hold themselves upright.
^
The early missionaries were opposed to
tlie drug not so much on
account of
its physiological effects u])on the Indians but because of
its connection wdth certain superstitious
rites connected with
their
primitive religion.
Eating the teonanacatl, or peyotl, was declared
by the padres to be almost as grave a sin as eating human flesh.
In a
little
religious manual
published by Fray
Bartliolomo
Garcia
in
1760, for the use of the missionaries to the Indians of San Antonio,
Tex., the
following
questions,
to be used
in the confessional,
are
printed
“Has comido came de gente?
’’ (Hast thou eaten flesh of man?)
“Has comido el peyote? ”
(Hast eaten the peyote?)
^
The name teonanacatl
is now
obsolete.
The drug
is
called by
various names among the Indians using it—xicori by the Huicholes
of
Jalisco;
hikori, or
hiladi, by
the Tarahuinaris
of Chihuahua;
huatari by the Cora Indians of the Topic Mountains; kamaba by the
Tepehuanes
of Durango; ho by the Mescalero Apaches,
of New
Mexico, who formerly ranged as far south as Coahuila; seni by the
Kiowas; and wokowi by the Comanches, some of whom formerly
lived in the State of Chihuahua.
The name peyote has survived as
a general commercial term; and the mushroomlike disks from the
Rio Grande region are now widely spread among the northern In-
i Ortega, Padre Jose
(d. 1700).
Hist, del Nayarit,
pp. 22-23 (new
ed.).
1887.
» Garcia, Pr. Bartholome.
Manual para adrainistrar Ion Santos Sacramentos, etc., p. 15.
1760.
NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD.
403
dians of the United States under the misleading names of ‘‘mescal
buttons”
or “mescal
beans,”
as
well
as under the Nahuatl name
peyote.
CEREMONIAL USE BT THE INDIANS.
In
a paper by
the present writer
publislied
in
tlie Journal
of.
Heredity
(vol.
6, No. 7, 1915) imdei* the title, “An Aztec Narcotic,”
the author gives an account of the ceremonial use of this plant by
various tribes of
Indians.
The
first to bring to public notice
its
ceremonial use by existing tribes of Indians was James Mooney, of
the Bui-eaii of American Ethnology (1891).
His attention had been
directed to
it while making investigation among the Kiowas, who
are descendants of one of the tribes called Chichimecas by the Az-
tecs; and it is from the Chichimecas that they declared they had re-
ceived the knowledge of
this plant.
Like the Aztecs, the Kiowas
ascribed divine attributes to the drug, and their ceremony in connec-
tion with
it was
essentially
religious.
Not only
the Kiowas, but
other tribes now living in Oklahoma receive supplies of the narcotic
from traders who bring
it from the
vicinity of Laredo,
Tex.,
in
olden times the land of the Chichimecas.
Mr. Mooney’s account was
published in
tlic Hicra]icutic Gazette of September
It), 1895.
Other
observers wlio mention the use of the narcotic Lophophora. are Lum-
holtz, wdio describes the ceremonies of the Tarahumari Indians con-
nexited with
it, and Leon Diguet, who tells of its use by the Huichol
Indians of the mountains of Jalisco and Topic.
Efforts have l)een made to prevent
its spread {imong the Indians
of the United
States.
An account of the recent prosecution of an
Indian named Nah-qua-tah-tuck, of the Menominee Indian Keserva-
tion,
Wis.,
for
furnishing
this
drug
to
Indians
of
his
tribe
is
given
in the author’s paper above cited.
It developed
in
the
trial
that there
is
a
regularly organized
association among the Indians,
called the Peyote Society, holding weekly seix ices in which
it is ad-
ministered as a sort of communion; and
it was claimed that its use
put an end to the habit of drinking alcoholic beverages.
Dr. Morgan,
of the Bureau
of Chemistry, gave
to the court an account of his
experiments bearing U])on the pliysiological
action of the narcotic.
At a meeting of the Lake Mohonk Conference in October, 1914,
several papers relating to the effects of this drug upon the Indians
were read and
affidavits from two Omaha Indians were
quoted.
From one of the latter I take the following extracts:
AMONG THE OMAHA INDIANS.
At the meetings of the society “ before they sing they pass the peyote around.
They begin taking this medicine along about dark, and when they pass
it, ask
you how many you want, and they often try
to persuade you
to take more
404
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
11)16.
than you want.
The medicine does not work
rlpjht away, but after
it begins
to take effect along toward midniglit they begin to cry and sing and pray and
stand and shake
all
over, and some of them Just sit and stare.
I used to
sit
in their range riglit along, and ate some of their medhtine, but
after
1 ate
it
the hrst time I was kind of afraid of it.
It made me feel kind
f)f dizzy and my
heart was
kind of
t]iuini>ing and
1
felt
like
crying.
Some of
tlicm
told me
that this was because of jny sins.
It makes mo nervous, and wlien
I shut my
eyes
I kind
(»f
s(‘e sometliing like an image or
visions, and when my eyes are
open
I can't see
it so plain.
One of these fellows took 12 beans, or 12 j^eyote,
sitting with some girls.
“After
1 have take 12 peyote 1 saw a mountain with
roa<is leading
to
the
top and people dress(‘d
in widte going ui) these roads.
1 got very dizzy, and
I
began
to
set?
all kinds
of
colors, and arrows
t)egan
to
lly
all
around
me.
1
began to perspire very
freely.
1 asked to be taken out of doors.
At that time
it was
20^*
below
zero.
1
felt better wIkmi
1 got out of doors.
Wiieu
I went
in again
I began to hear voices, just
like they came from
all over the
eeiliiig,
and
1 looked around in the otlier room and thought
1
lieard women singing in
there; but the women were not allowed to sing in the meetings usiialiy, and so
this was kind of strange.
After eating 30 of these i)eyote
1 got just
lik(' drunk,
only more so, and I felt kind of good, hut more good than wlaai
I drink whisky
;
arid
tlieii after that
I began
to see a big bunch of snakes crawling all around in
front of me, and it was a feeling like as if 1 was cold came over me*.
The
trinis-
urer of the Sacred Peyote Society was sitting near me, and
1 asked him
if he
heard young kittens.
It sounded as
if ih(\v ‘were right
close to me
; and
t hen
1
sat still for a long time and 1 saw a big l)laek eat <'oming toward me, and
I iVdt
him just
like a
tiger walking up on my
legs toward me; and wlien
1
felt his
claws
1 jumped hack and kind of made a sound as if I was alraid, and
In^ ask('d
me to tell him wiiat was the niattiT, so I told him after a wliile.
1 did not care
to tell at first; hut I made up my mind then, after what I saw,
that.
1 w’oulii not
take another one of these peyotes
if they gave me a $10
bill.
In
this Sacred
Peyote Society
tliey have a form of baptism and
tliey baptize with tlu*
t»'a made
from stewing the peyote, and
tiiey baptize
* in tlie nanu* of tin;
I'^atlier, and
the
Son, and the Holy Ghost,’
tlie Holy Ghost hcMug the
j)eyoie.
Tliea you drink
some of the tea, and
tliey make signs on your forehead with
the tea, and then
take an eagle’s wing and fan you with
it.
I iieard an educated Indian, and
lie
said
in a meeting on Sunday morning, ‘My
friimds,
1 am glad
I can he here
and worship this medicine with you
; and we must organize a new church and
have
it run like the Mormon Church.’ ”
USE IN ANCIENT MEXICO.
From the preceding description of a meeting of the Sacred Peyote
Society held by the Wiunebagos and Omahas in 1914, I turn back to
the
first account we have of the Teonanacatl
feasts of the Aztecs,
written by Padre Bernardino Sahagun in the sixteenth century—be-
fore Sir Francis Drake set out upon his voyage round the world
before
tobacco,
which
the
Mexicans
also
worshipped,
was
first
brought to England
The first thing eaten at the party was certain black mushrooms, which they
call nanacatl, which intoxicate and cause visions to be seen, and ev(?n provoke
> Balker, P. H., “ I^iqiior and Peyote a Menace to the Indian,
’
in Report of the Thirty-
second Annual Lake Mohonk Conference, October,
1014,
pp.
dG, 67.
NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFOKD.
seiisuou.sneHH.
These they ate before the break of day, and they
also drank
cacao
(chocolate)
before
dawn.
The mushrooms
they
ate
with
sirui3
(of
maguey sap), and when they began to feel the effect they began to dance; some
sang;
others wept because they were already intoxicated by
the mushrooms;
and some
<lid not wish
to
sing, but seated themselves
in
their I'ooms and
re-
mained there as though meditating.
Some had visions
tliat they were dying
and shed
tears
;
others imagined that some wild beast was devouring them
others that they were capturing prisoners in warfare;
others that they were
rich; others that
tiiey had many slaves; others that they had committed adul-
tery and were to have their heads broken as a penalty
; otlu'rs that tliey had been
guilty of a theft, for which they were to be executed; and many other visions
were seen by them.
After the intoxication of the mushrooms had passed
off
they conversed with one another about the visions which they had seen.
^
NAllGOTIG DATURAS.
In early accounts of the aborigines of America, both north and
south
of
the Equator, we
find
repeated
references
to
the
use
of
various daturas as narcotics.
The Quichu^is of Peru put the seeds
of a datura into their aziia, or fermented corn beer, to make it more
intoxicating.
They
believed
that
the
visions thus produced were
supernatural and, like the remote Zuhis of New Mexico, they resorted
to datura seeds in order to divine the hiding place of some precious
object or to
detect the thief who had
stolen
it.
The professional
Indian hechiceros of Spanish America were prosecuted by the church
authorities
for using
narcotics
in
their
practices
of
idolatry and
witchcraft, very much
as were
the dhatura
doctors
of
India
for
dispensing datura to criminals; and in the New World, as in the Old
World, datura seeds were administered
in various ways
as
a love
potion or aphrodisiac.
Another remarkable
parallel may be
seen
in the religious use of the drug.
Among the Aztecs the seeds of a
certain
datura were
held
sacred and
the
spirit
of the
plant was
invoked to expel evil spirits, recalling the exhortations of the priests,
or physicians, of ancient Babylon and the necromancers of medicTval
Europe.
In the Andes of South America Indian priests used datura
seeds to produce delirium, recalling the use of intoxicants to induce
frenzy by the Pythite in consulting the famous oracle of Apollo at
Delphi.
M.
de
la
Condamine,
while
exploring
the
Rio
Marahon
in
1743,
found
the Omagua
Indians
inhabiting
the
banks
of
that
river addicted
to
narcotics, one of which was referred by him
to
Datura
arbm^ea^
the
plant
“called by
the Spaniards
floripondio,
with floivers shaped like a drooping bell, which has l>een described
by Pere
Feiiillee.”^
Miss Alice Eastwood, while exploring south-
eastern Utah, came upon an abundance of
/>.
inetdoides^ and she
^ Sahagun, Bernardino.
Hist. Nueva Bspafia
(od. Bustamante)
2
: 366.
1829.
• See Mem. de I’Acad. Roy. des Sciences, Ann<*e 1745, p. 430.
1749.
73839®—SM 1916
27
annual BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
calls attention to the occurrence of its seed-pods
in the ruins of the
ancient people who once filled this land and guarded every spring
with towers of stone.”
^
Stephen Powers found this same plant in
use as an intoxicant and hypnotic by the priests and wizards of the
Yokuts Indians inhabiting the banks of the Tule
Kiver and Lake Tulare in California.^
Dr. Ed-
ward Palmer states that a decoction of tlie plant
is given by
certain
California
Indians
to
their
young women to stimulate them in dancing, and
that an extract of its root is used as an intoxicant
by
the Pah-Utes.®
Other
authoi’ities
state
that
the Mariposan Indians of
California, including
the Xoches, or Yokuts, alrejuly mentioned, use a
decoction of Datura meteXoides in the ceremonial
initiation of their youths into the status of man-
hood
; and the medicine men of the Hualpais, or Walapais, belonging
to the Yum an stock, indulge in a sacred intoxication by breaking up
the leaves, twigs, and root of this ])lant to make a IxnTrage which
induces an exhilaration accompanied by prophetic utterances.^
Fig. C.—Stone mortar,
used
by
tbe
Cali-
fornia
Indians
for
grinding root of Da-
tura
metcAoidcs
for
ccronionlal xnirposos.
THE SACRED OLOLTUIIQUI OF THE AZTECS.
(Plate 8.)
This narcotic, beyond all doubt the seeds of a datura, or possibly
two species of datura, played an important })art
in the religion of
the ancient Mexicans and in the practices of their medicine men or
necromancej's.
Sahagun, about ITiGt), called attention to this plant in the following
words
There
is an herb
whicli
i.s
called
coatlxoxouhqiii
[green
snake
weed].
It
produces a seed
called
ololiiihqiii which
intoxicates and causes madness
(en-
loqiiece).
It
is administered
in
jiotions in order to cause harm to those who
are objects of hatred.
Those who eat
it have visions of fearful things.
Magi-
cians
or
those who wish
to harm some one
adinini.ster
it
in food
or
drink.
This herb
is medicinal, and
its seed
is used as a remedy for gout, ground up
and applied
to the jmrt affected.®
In other accounts
it
is stated that in Mexico
it was believed that
this plant, like the peyotl would give to those who ate it the power
of second sight and prophecy, by means of which they could discover
the identity of a thief, if an object had been stolen, or could predict
the outcome of a war or the intended attack of a hostile tribe.
In the descriptions of
ololiiihqui
there
are many
discrepancies,
owing possibly to the fact tliat the same name was applied to two or
1 Zoe, 3
: 860.
1892.
a See Contr. North Amer. Ethn. 3
: 380 and 428.
1877.
» Amer. Nat. 12
: 650.
1878.
* See Bourke, John O.
On the Border with Crook,
p. 165.
1892.
® Sahagini,
Bernardino
do.
Hist.
Gen,
de
las
Cosas
de Nueva
Enpafla,
3
: 241
(ed.
Bustamante), Mexico.
1830.
NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD*
407
more plants with
flowers resembling morning-glories.
Hernandez
(1514--15T8)
in all probability never saw it growing, and figured
it
as an Ipom(x;a, but he indicates its relationship by suggesting that
it may be the same as the Sola/nurn nummcum of Dioscorides, and
Padre Serna, who likewise never noticed the plant
itself, described
the seeds as resembling lentils (semilla a modo de lantejas que llaman
ololiuhqui).
It
is interesting to note that Acosta makes
tlie same
comparisons
in
his
description of
the East Indian Datura
mctel^
saying that
it has flowers like the plant called in Spain corregiiela
mayor (greater convolvulus) and that its fruit is filled with seed of
the size of lentils (todo lleno de una simiente del tainano de lentejas).
Great veneration was paid by the Mexicans to the ololiuh([ui as well
as
to tobacco
(picietl)
and
to
the
narcotic
teonanacatl, or
jieyotl
[Lophaphora
WUliarmil)}
To
these
plants
according
to Padre
Serna, the Mexicans ascribed divine powers,
witli which they prac-
ticed magic.
The methods of the Aztec titzitl, or herb-doctors, in casting out the
evil spirits causing sickness, are remarkably like those em])loyed by
the
priests
of
ancient
Ihibylon and of the
island
of
Haiti.
The
spirit
of
the powerful
Ololiuhqui was
invoked
in
the
following
words
Come now, come hither, Green AVoman
;
]>eh()ld
the
jireen
lieat
[fever] and
the hrown
li(‘at.
; remove thou the
flaininj; or scarlet heat, the yellow heat, or
by this token
I scaid thee
to the seven
cav(‘vS.
And, I do commaml thee,
jnit
it
not off till tomorrow or aimther day; for sooner or later thou wilt be compelled
to do
it.
Who
is the A"od—the so powerful and superior om^—who can destroy
the work of thy hands?
It
is I who command
it,
I the prince of enchantment.*
THE USE or DATURA METOLOIDES BY THE ZUNIS.
(Plate 9.)
It seems strange that the property of giving the powTT of second
sight and prophecy, attributed
to the ololiuhqui by the Mexicans,
should be similarly
attributed by the ancient IVruvians to Datura
sanguinea and by the Zunis of New Mexico, so far remote from them,
to Z>. metelo'ides^ with which the ololiuhqui is undoubtedly identical.
Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson in her Ethnobotaiiy of the Zuni Indians
relates a pretty legend connected with “ this precious plant, wdiich is
believed to have once been a boy and a girl,” resembling a story from
Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
Plate
is the photograpli of flowers and
fruit of a specimen of Datura mcteloides^ two-thirds natural
size,
made at Sacaton, Arizona, by Mr. Harold Murphy.
It was secured
by the writer through the courtesy of Mr. Thomas IT. Kearney, of
^ For an account of the ceremonial use of the last-named
i)lant see
the writer’s paper
on “An Aztec Narcotic”
in Journal of Heredity, G: 21U-311.
1015.
* See Jacinto
cle la Serna,
“ Manual de Ministros para
el couocimicnto de idolotrias y
extlrpaclon
de
ellas.”
In X>ocumentos
in<5ditos
para
la
lllstoria
tic
lOspaua,
vol.
101,
pp.
169-160.
408
AKFUAL REPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
the Bureau of Plant Industry.
The plant is Identical in all respects
with similar plants previously collected in various parts of Mexico
and the southwestern United States by the late Dr, Edward Palmer,
who called attention to the use of the plant at the present day by
several tribes of Indians as a ceremonial and narcotic.
ORIGIN OF THE NAME JlMSON, OR JAMESTOWN WEED.
(Plate 10.)
The narcotic properties of Datura stramoniunb were known to our
own southern Indians as well as to the Mexicans. ^
Hernandez calls
attention to the
fact that
its
fruit causes insanity
if eaten incau-
tiously.
That this is true is shown by the following anecdote taken
from Eobert Beverly's History and Present State of Virginia, in his
account
Of the Wild Fruits of tlie Country.”
It apjiears that the
soldiers sent
to Jamestown to quell the uprising known as Bacon’s
Rebellion
(IGTG) gathered young plants of this species and cooked
it as a potherb.
The Jamcs-Toirn Weed
(widoh resembles the Tliorny Apple
of Pirn, and
I
take to be the Idaiit so call'd)
is supposed
to be one of
tlie
jja-eatest Poolers in
the W'orld.
This
boin^^ an early
Plant, was gather’d
very young for
a
boil’d
salad, by some of the Soldiers sent
thither,
to pacifie (he Troubles of Bacon;
and some of them eat plentifully of
it, the Effect of whi(‘h was a very pleasant
Comedy;
for they turn’d natural Fools upon
it
for several
Days: One would
blow up a
Featiu'i*
in the Air; another woul’d dart Straws
at
it with
nuudi
Fury; and
another stark naked was
sitting up
in
a
P!orner,
like a Monkey,
grinning and making lUows at them; a Fourth would fondly kiss, and paw his
Companions, and snear
in
tlieir Faces, with a Countenance more antick, than
any in a Dutch Droll.
In this frantick Condition th(\v were confined,
lest they
should in their Folly destroy themselves; though
It was observed,
tlial
all their
Actions were
full of Innocence and good Nature.
Indeed,
tliey were not very
cleanly
;
for they would have wallow’d
in their own Excrements,
if they bad
not been prevented.
A Thousand such simple Tricks
they
play’d, and
after
Eleven Days,
return’d themselves
again,
not remembrlng any
thing that had
pass’d.
^
THE HUACA-CACIIU OF TERU.
(Plate 11.)
The narcotic effects of Datura mngmnea^ known in Peru as Hua-
cacachu, or Yerba de Hiiaca, have been described by several travelers.
Tschudi, who found
it growing on the declivities of the Andes above
the village of Matucanas, repeats the statement of Humboldt that
from its fruit the Indians prepare a very powerful intoxicant which
they
call tonga, on which account the Spaniards named the plant
borrachero.
His account is as follows:
The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga
tliey are brought Into com-
munication with the
spirits of their forefathers.
I once had an opportunity
^ Its active principle, daturine, has been Identified with the alkaloid atropine, for which
It
is a perfect
substitute.
In 1916 one
firm
in the United
States used one and
a half
JnlllioD of pounds of this plant for the manufacture of atropine.
* [Beverly, Robert.]
History and Present State of Virginia.
Bk.
2,
p.
24.
1705.
KARCOTTC PLAKTS AND Sl^MULANTS—SAFFORD.
409
of observing an Indian under the inlluence of this drink.
Sliortly after having
swallowed
tlie beverage
he
fell
into a heavy
stupor;
he
sat
with
his
eyes
vacantly
fixed on the ground,
his mouth convulsively
closed, and
his
nostrils
dilated.
In the course of about a quarter of an hour
his eyes began
to
roll,
foam
issued from
his half-opened
lips, and
his whole
bo<ly was
agitated by
frightful
convulsions.
These
violent symptoms
liaving
subsided,
a profound
sleep of sev(?ral hours succeeded.
In the evening I again saw this Indian.
He
was relating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of his vision, dur-
ing which he alleged he had held communication with
tin*
.spirits of his
fore-
fathers.
He appeared very weak and exhausted.
In
fornu'r
times
the
Indian
sorcerers, when
th(‘y
jiretended
to
transport
themselves
into the presence
of
their
deities, drank the
juice
of
the
thorn-
apple in order to work themselves into a state of ecstasy.
Tliough the estab-
lishment
of
Christianity has weaned the Indians from
their
Idolatry,
yet
it
has not banished their old superstitions.
They
still believe that they can hold
communications with the
spirits of
their ancestors, and that they can obtain
from them
a clue
to the treasures concealed
In the huacas,
or graves
; hence
the Indian name of the thorn-appk»—huacacachu, or grave idant.
Humboldt and Bonpland, who collected Datura sanguinea on the
banks of the Rio Mayo, in New Granada, state that the natives be-
lieve that tlie tonga prepared from this species to be more efficacious
as a narcotic than that made from the white-flowered Daf/ura arhorea
mentioned above.
It
is from the account of these travelers that the
story of the Peruvian prophets is taken.
The Temple of the Sun in
which they officiated was at Sagamoza, in the interior of wliat is now
Colombia,
Dr.
Santiago
Cortes, in his
account
of the medicinal
plants of the province of Cauca, Colombia, says that there are many
stories and fables relating to this plant told by the natives.
COCA, THE SOURCE OF COCAINE.
(Plates 12 and 13.)
,
The most important stimulant of the ancient Peruvians was Ety-
throxylon Coca.
Specimens of its 3-ribbed leaves were found by the
writer in many prehistoric graves along the Peruvian coast, usually
in bags suspended from the necks of mummies, or in bundles wrapped
in cloth.
Some of the coca bags, or pouches, were woven in beautiful
and intricate designs
(pi. 12), often representing conventional figures
of birds, mammals, or fishes.
All were accompanied by small gourds
(a variety of Cucurhita lagenaria) containing lime, and a spatula by
means of which the lime was dipped out.
In place of lime, wood-
ashes were sometimes used.
The use of lime or ashes to set free the
alkaloid contained in the leaves recalls the same custom
in connec-
tion with the betel of Asia, the piptadenia snuff already mentioned,
and the
green tobacco ” of the Mexicans.
That
its efficacy should
have been independently discovered by the primitive inhabitants of
such widely separated regions is remarkable. The lime gourds were not
infrequently ornamented, and in those discovered
in some localities,
especially at Arica, on the coast of northern Chile, the spatula? were
410
ANNUAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1&16.
of carved bone, many of them of beautiful designs, and the gourds
were suspended by carved bone toggles resembling Japanese netsukes.
Specimens of the latter may be seen in the Field Museum at Chicago.
Two packages of leaves from Peruvian graves sent to the Smithsonian
Institution by the late Henry Meigs, the builder of the great trans-
Andino railway from Callao to Oroya, were found by the writer, one
bearing the label “ tobacco,” the other “ Paraguay tea.”
The contents
of both of these packages ))roved to be coca leaves, easily identified
by the pseudo-rib, extending on each
side of the midrib from
tlie
base to the apex.
In the accompanying illustrations plate 13 is a photograph by Mr.
Grover Bruce Gilbert of a specimen collected by Mr. O. F. Cook at
Santa Ana, Peru, dui’ing his recent mission to South America.^
The leaves of ErjitlmKryloii
('oca,, which fi’om remote ages have
been used by South American Indians as a stimulant, are the source
of cocaine, now so widely used in surgery to deaden ])ain and also as
a
narcotic.
Like
other
narcotic
alkaloids, although
it
is
a
great
blessing to the human race when wisely used, yet when abused
it is a
terrible curse.
In Peru the use of coca by miners and cargueros is
still common.
There the entire leaf is used.
In North Brazil, where
it is also extensively used under the name ipadii, the leaves are ground
to
a
fine powder.
Spruce, who saw the process of preparing the
leaves near the mouth of the Bio Negro in 1851, gives the following
account of it in Hooker’s Journal of Botany for July, 1853
Tlie
l(\ave.s of ipadfi are pulled
off Die ])ranc]u\s one by
oih‘ and roasted on
the iniindiocca-oven, then pounded In a cylindri(‘al niorlar, 5 or G f(K^t in bei^bt,
made of the lower part of the trunk of the ru])unha or Peach Palm
{(OiUivU)ia
spcciom), the hard root forming the base and the soft inside being scooped out.
It
is made of
this excessive length because of the impalpable nature
of the
powder, wliich would otherwi.se fly up and choke the operator; and
it
is buried
a suflicient depth in the ground to allow of its being easily worked.
The pestle
is of proportionate haigtli and
is made of any hard wood.
When the leaves are
sufficiently pounded the powder is taken out with a small cuya fastened to the
end of an arrow.
A small cpiantity of tapioca, in powder,
is mixed with
it to
give
It consistency, and
it is usual to add pounded ashes of Imba-tiba or Drum
tree {Cecropia peltata), which are saline and antiseptic.
With a chew of ipadti
In his cheek, renewed at intervals of a few hours, an Indian will go for days
without food and sleep.
In
April,
1852,
1
assisted, much
against my
will,
at an
Indian
feast
in
a
little rocky
island
at the
foot of the
falls of the Uio Negro;
for
I had gone
down the fulls to have three or four days’ herborising, and
I found my host—
the
pilot of
the cataracts—engaged
iri
the
festivities, which
neither he nor
my man would leave until
the last drop of cauim
(coarse cane or plantain
spirit)
was consumed.
During the two days
the
feast
lasted
I was nearly
famished,
for, although there was food, nobody would cook
it, and the guests
sustained themselves
entirely on
cauira and
ipadfl.
At short
intervals
ipadfi
^ See Mr.
Cook’s paper entitled
“ Staircase Farms
of the Ancients ”
In The National
Geographic
Magazine,
29:
474-534.
May,
1910.
NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD.
411
was handed around
in a
large calabash with
a
tablespoon
for each
to help
himself,
the customary
dose
being
a
couple
of
spoonfuls.
After
each
dose
they passed some minutes without opening their mouths, adjusting the
ipadti
in the recesses of their cheeks and inlialing
its delightful
influences.
I could
scarcely
resist laughing at their swollen cheeks and grave looks during these
intervals
of
silence,
which,
however,
had two
or
three
times
the
excellent
effect of checking an incipient quarrel.
The ipadh
is not sucked, but allowed
to
find
its way
insensibly
into
the stomach
along with
the
saliva.
I
tried
a
spoonful
twice, but
it had
little
effect on me and assuredly did not render
me insensible to the calls of hunger, although
it did in soiin^ measure to those
of
sleep.
It had
very
little
of either
smell
or
taste,
and
in
both reminded
me of wcfik tincture of henbane.
I could
never make out
that
the habitual
use of
iiiadfi had any
ill
results on the Rio Negro; but
in Peru
its excessive
use
is
said
to
seriously
injure the coats
of
the stomach, an
effect probably
owing to the lime taken along with
it.
AYA-IIUASCA, OR DEAD MAN’S VINK, BANTSTERIA
(bVAPI.
Eiclinrd Spruce, in his Nolos of a Botanist on
the Amazon and
Andes, describes a remarkable narcotic plant, the botanical identity
of which he was the
first
to discover.
It proved to belong to the
genus Banisteria, and it is the only member of the family Malpighia-
ceae thus far known to possess narcotic properties.
For
its specific
name he adopted the common name by which
it was known
in
Brazil and Venezuela, caapi, signifying in the Tupi language ‘^thin
leaf.”
Banisteria Caapi Spruce has a twining habit of growth.
It has
thinnish opposite leaves wdth oval-aciiniinate blades G.4 by 3.3 inches
in size with
petioles scarcely an inch long.
Its inflorescence
is
in
the form
of
4-flowcred
umbels.
The
flo^vers
are composed
of
a
5“parted calyx and 5-clawed petals, 10 stamens, and 3
styles.
The
capsules are “ muricato-cristate, prolonged on one side into a green-
ish white semi-obovate w ing.’-
The lower part of the stem is beaten in a mortar with water, some-
times with the addition of a few slender roots of the caapi-pimTrm^
an Apocynaceous twiner with red-veined
leaves belonging
to
the
genus Ilaemadictyon.
Wlien sufficiently triturated it is strained and
enough water is added to it to make it drinkable.
It forms a brown-
ish-green infusion with a disagreeable bitter taste.
Mr. Spruce describes the ceremonial drinking of caapi at a feast
held at a village above the first falls of the Kio Uaupes.
It is accom-
panied by the greatest solemnity, and
is preceded by the sound of
the botutos,
or sacred trumpets.
On hearing
these every woman
seeks seclusion in a house with all possible haste; for merely to see
one of these sacred instruments would be to her a sentence of death.
The night was spent in dancing.
Between the dances the young
men partook of the drink, a few at a time.
The formality attending
the dispensing of
it recalls that of the “ black drink ” ceremony of
412
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
our southeastern Indians, and the same is true of the taboos imposed
upon the women, who were not permitted to touch or taste either the
caapi here described or the black drink of our southeastern Indians,
which will be described below.
In presenting the caapi the cupbearer runs (juickly from the oppo-
site end of the house with a small calabash containing about a tea-
cupful in each hand, muttering “Mo-mo-mo-mo-mo” as he runs, and
gradually sinking down until his chin nearly touches his knees, he
presents one of the cups and then the other to the man for whom it
is intended.
In two minutes or
less after drinking
it,
its
effects begin
to be apparent.
Tlie Indian turns deadly
pale,
trembles
in every
limb, and
horror
is
in
his
aspect.
Suddenly contrary symptoms succeed; he bursts
into a
perspiration,
and seems possessed with a reckless fury,
seizes whatever arms are
at hand,
his murucfi, bow and arrows, or cutlass, and rushes to the doorway, where he
inflicts violent blows on the ground or the doorposts, calling out
all the while,
“Thus would
I do to mine enemy (naming him by
his name) were this
lieT’
In about 10 minutes the excitement has passed off and the Indian grows calm,
but appears exhausted.
Were he at home
in
his hut he would
sleep
off the
remaining fumes, but now he must shake
off his drowsiness by renewing the
dance.^
Spinice afterwards witnessed the use of this plant by the Indians
inhabitating the northeastern Andes
of Peru, and saw
the
plant
itself growing in the villages of Canelos and Puca-yacii, inhabited
chiefly by the Zaparas.
Here it was called by the Quichua name Aya-
hiiasca, which signifies “ Dead man’s vine.”
The following is a sum-
mary of what he learned concerning it at Puca-yacu
Aya-huasca
is used by
the Zaparos,
Angutf*ros,
IMazfuies, and
other
tribes
precisely as
I saw caapi used on the IJaup6s,
viz, as a
narcotic stimulant
at
their feasts.
It
is also drunk by the medicine man, when called on to adjudi-
cate in a dispute or quarrel, to give the proper answer to an embassy,
to
dis-
cover the plants of an enemy,
to
tell
if strangers are coming,
to ascertain
if
wives
are
unfaithful,
in
the case
of a
sick man
to
tell who
has bewitched
him,
etc.
All who have partaken of
it
feel
llrst
vertigo, then as
if they rose up into
air and were floating about.
The Indians say they see beautiful
lakes, woods
laden with
fruit,
birds of
brilliant plumage,
etc.
Soon
the
scene
changes;
they
see
savage
beasts
preparing
to
seize
them;
they
can
no
longer
hold
themselves up, but
fall
to
the ground.
At
this
crisis
the Indian wakes up
from his trance, and
if be were not held down
in bis hammock by
force, be
would
spring
to
his
feet,
seize
his arms,
and
attack
the
first
person who
stood
in his way.
Then he becomes drowsy, and
finally
sleeps.
If he be a
medicine man who has taken
it, v/hen he has
slept
off the fumes he
recalls
all he saw
in
his
trance, and
thereupon
deduces
the
prophecy,
divination,
or what not required of him.
Boys are not allowed to taste aya-huasca before
they reach puberty, nor women at any age, precisely as on the Uaup^s.
^ Richard Spnice.
Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, 2
: 419-420.
1908.
NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD.
413
Villavieencio says (in his Geografia de la Repiibliea del Ecuador,
p. 373, 1858)
When
1
have partaken
of aya-huasca, my head has Immediately begun
to
swim; then
I have seemed
to enter on an aerial voyage, wlierein
I thought
I
saw tlie most charming landscapes, great
cities,
lofty
towers, beautiful parks,
and other delightful
things.
Tlieii
all
at once
I found myself deserted
in a
forest and atta(,*ked by l)easts of prey, against which I tried to defend myself.
Lastly,
I began
to come round,
but with
a
feeling
of
excessive
drowsiness,
hea<lache, and sometimes g(‘neral malaise.
This
is
all
I have seen and learned of caapi or aya-huasca.
I regret being
unable
to
tell what
is the peculiar narcotic principle that produces such
ex-
traordinary elfects.
Opium and hemp are its most obvious analogues, but caapi
would seem
to operate on the nervous system far more rapidly and
violently
than
either.
Some traveler who may follow my steps with greater resources
at
his commaiul
Will,
it
is
to be
hoped,
be
able
to
bring away
materials
adecpiate for the complete analysis of this curious plaut.^
la the above accoiiat tlie description of
tlie hallucinations caused
by the narcotic caapi, or aya-huasca, a remarkable parallel will be
found
witli similar effcuds of Lophophwa, WilUmmi, the narcotic
cactus of the Aztecs already described.
ILEX TEAS.
Among the important stimulants, or restoratives, of ancient Amei-ica
were tea-like infusions and decoctions prepared from several species
of holly, or ilex—in southern Brazil and Paraguay, from Ilex para-
guai'iemis^ commonly known as verba mate; in Encador, an ilex with
much larger leaves, called gnaynsii
; and in Florida, the Carolinas,
and Texas, Ilex vomitoi'ia, called cassine or yaupon, the scource of the
celebrated ceremonial “ black drink.”
All of these owe their stimu-
lating virtues to an alkaloid, which has been identified with catfein.
Prepared as a simple infusion by pouring hot water on the leaves,
as in brewing the yerba mate, the effect
is very much like tea
itself.
When boiled for a long time, as is the custom with the guayusa and
cassine, the decoction has the effect of an emetic.
It
is interesting
to note that in localities so widely remote as Ecuador and Florida
the aboriginal inhabitants habitually used decoctions of ilex as an
emetic and
believed
themselves
benefited by
vomiting.
That
the
stimulating properties of two very
closely
allied
plants like Ilex
paragteariemk and /. vomitoriu should have been independently dis-
covered by
tribes
so widely
.separated
as
the Guaranis
of South
America and the Creeks of Florida is also remarkable, and especially
in view of the fact that the leaves of the plants in question were
subjected by the natives to a similar preliminary process of scorching
before they were used.
Another noteworthy feature connected with
the black drink is the taboo imposed upon women by various tribes
1 Spruce, op.
cit.,
p. 424-425.
414
ANKUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
of the southern United States in connection with
its ritual, which
has remarkable parallels in the customs of various South American
tribes in connection with their rituals accompanying the preparation
and use of certain narcotics,
ILEX P/VRAGCATIIENSTS, THE
MATE OF PARAGUAY.
The use of the leaves of Ilex faraguanxnsis by the Guarani Indians
and their neighbors must have begun centuries before the discovery.
In pre-Columbian times the plant was known only in its wild state,
but after the arrival of the Jesuits
its cultivation was successfully
undertaken in their missions in Paraguay and Brazil.
When they
were expelled the
plantations went to
ruin, but the industry was
resumed at a later date and
is now of great connnercial importance.
According to a bulletin of the Pan American Union issued in May,
1916, the value of the prepared leaves exported from Brazil amounts
annually
to
about
$8,727,000.
In
1915
Arg£uitina
received
from
Brazil about 48,000 tons and 3,500 tons from Paraguay.
The plan-
tations of Paraguay were formerly guard('d w ith jealous care.
Bon-
pland, the companion of Humboldt, wtvs imprisoned for many years
by
the Paraguayan Government
for attempting
to
export
living
plants and seeds from Paraguay
to Europe.
For the methods of
propagating, cultivating, gathering, curing, and packing yerba mate
the reader is referred to the Pan American bulletin cited above.
The w^riter first encountered the custom of drinking Paraguay Tea
in Uruguay, on an expedition with the eminent botanist, Don Jose
Arechavaleta and his botany class of the National College of Medi-
cine, October 1, 1886.
The locality visited wars an estancia, or cattle
ranch, not far from
tlie railway station of Santa Lucia.
Ho recalls
with pleasure the band of young students, many of them wearing the
picturesque costume
of
the gauchos,
or cowboys
of
the pampas
ponchos of guanaco w^ool, broad-brimmed hats, knives thrust in em-
bossed silver scabbards, and silver spurs.
At the station horses were
awaiting many of them with silver-mounted bridles and saddles with
heavy silver stirrups.
After filling portfolios of drying paper with
the beautiful spring flowers of the pampa
(there were
acres and
acres of scarlet verbenas) yerba mate was served in gourds {Cucur-
hita lagenaria).
These gourds, called mate, or mati in the Quichua
language, give to the plant
its name.
The infusion was sucked up
scalding hot through
a bombilla, a
silver tube terminating at the
lower end in a hollow perforated bulb, which served as a strainer.
A single gourd was passed around a circle composed of gauchos and
students, each taking a suck at the bombilla in turn.
To have hesi-
tated to follow their example would have caused resentment.
The
infusion was not unlike tea, but more astringent, and too bitter for
KABCOTIC plants AN1> STIMULANTS'^-SAFFOED.
415
the taste of a novice.
Its effects were undoubtedly stimulating, very
much like strong tea.
During a continuation of his cruise the writer
encountered yerba mate at Punta Arenas, on the Strait of Magellan,
and at various ports along the coast of Chile; and later he found it
offered for sale in the markets of Bolivia.^
Ilex paragueeriemis is an evergreen shrub or small tree wuth short,
petioled, glossy, oblong leaves 15 to 20 cm. long, acute or rounded at
the apex and wedge shaped at the base, with the margin remotely
toothed.
The
inflorescence
consists
of
clusters
of
small
flowers
growing from the leaf axils.
The small globose fiaiits usually con-
tain four hard nutlets.
The plant grows in Paraguay, especially at
Villa Real, above Asuncion, and at Villa San Xavier, between the
Rivers Uruguay and Parana.
In Brazil the principal
localities
in
which
it is cultivated are in the State of Parana, Santa Catharina,
and Rio Grande do
Sul.
The prepared yerba
differs
in
quality.
The more common kind, called guazu, is produced by pounding the
scorched leaves in mortars in the earth.
In preparing a finer grade,
called caa mirim, the leaves are carefully chosen and deprived of
their midrib
before
roasting, and the
caa-cuys
of Paraguay,
the
finest of all, is prepared from the scarcely expanded buds and young
leaves.
THE GUAYUSA ILEX OF ECUADOR.
An
Ilex
resembling
tlie
yerba
mate,
but
having much
larger
leaves, was found by Richard Spruce in Ecuador, where
it was used
by the Zaparo and Jibaro Indians inhabiting the eastern side of the
equatorial
Andes.
It was called by them guayusa.
Spruce could
not satisfy himself as to
its specific identity, for he was unable to
secure either flowei'S or fruits for comparison
witli herbarium ma-
terial.
Botanists have not
all agreed as to the delimitations of the
various species of South American Ilex.
Some have treated various
forms, distinguished by tlie size of the leaves and other differences,
as
varieties
of
a
single
species;
others
have- regarded
them
asi
botanically distinct.
According to Miers several distinct species are
used as a source of tea, including Ilex
L gigantea^ L
ovaUfoUd^ I. kumboldtiana^ and /. nigropwrietata.
The genus needs
further critical study.
Spruce found the guayusa planted near villages and on the sites
of abandoned settlements, at elevations as great as 5,000 feet above
sea-level.
In 1857 he obser^^ed a group of these trees in the gorge of
me Rio Pastaza, below the town of Banos, wdiich were supposed to
have been planted before the conquest.
He describes them as
not
^ See
Safford,
AY.
E.
“ The
flora
of Banda
Oriental,”
Bull.
Torrey
Botanical
Club,
14
:
159-164 .
1887 .
416
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916,
unlike old holly ti'ees in England, except that the shining leaves were
much larger, thinner, and unarmed,”
During his travels he found
guayiisa leaves to be a good substitute for tea or
coffee.
As
pre-
jiared by the Jibaros Indians, however, the infusion is so strong that,
like the black drink of our own Indians,
it acts as an emetic.
The
guayusa pot, carefully covered up
(like the pots in which the black
drink was brewed), was kept simmering on the
fire throughout the
night.
On
awakening
in
the morning
the
Indian
would
drink
enough of the guayusa to make him vomit, his notion being he would
be benefited by the operation.^
It
is interesting to note that many
Indian tribes both of North and South America practiced certain
ceremonies attended by purging or vomiting, believing that thereby
they would be freed from evil.
THE BLACK DRINK OF FLORIDA AND THE CAROLINAS.
(mates 14 aiul 15.)
Ilex vomitoria takes its s])ecific name from the emetic effect of its
concentrated
infusion, which under the common name
of
black
drink” was used ceremonially by several tribes of our southern In-
dians.
Mark Catesby, in his Ilortus americanus (1763) speaks of it
as follows:
The
oste*eiii
the American Indians have for
this shrub, from
P'eat use
they make of
it, renders
it most worthy of notice.
They say
its
\irt\ies have
been known among them from the earliest
tlme.s, and they have long used
it
in the same manner as they do at pre.sent.
They prepare tlie leaves for keeping
by drying or rather parching them
in a pottage pot over a slow
lire, and
a
strong
decoction
of the leaves thus cured
is
their behwed
liquor,
of which
they drink
large quantities,
both
for health and
pleasure,
without sugar
or
other mixture.
They drink
it down and disgorge
it with
eas(‘, repeating it very
often
and
swallowing
many
quarts.
They
say
It
restores
lost
appetite,
strengthens
the stomach, and
confirms
their
health,
giving them
agility and
courage
in war.
It grows
chleily
in the maritime parts of
the^ country,
but
not
farther
north
than
the capes
of
Virginia.
The Indians
of
the
seacoast
Supply those
of the mountains therewith and carry on
a
considerable
trade
with
it
in
Florida,
j\ist as the Spaniards do with
their South Sea
tea from
Paraguay to Buenos Aires.
Now, Florida being in the same latitude north as
Paraguay
is south, and no apparent difference being found on comparing
the
leaves
of these two plants
together,
it
is not improbable
tliey may both be
the same.
In South Carolina
it
is called cassena, in Virginia and North Carolina
it
is
known by the name of yopon
;
in the latter of which places
it
is as much
in
use among
the
white
people
as among
the
Indians,
and
especially among
those who Inhabit the seacoast.
The earliest written account of the ceremonial use of Ilex vomi-
toHa
is contained in the narrative of the expedition of Cabeza de
Vaca, who found
it in use among the Cultachiches
(1536), west of
' Spruce, Richard.
Notes
of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes,
2
:
453.
1908.
NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFPORD.
417
the mouth of the Mississippi Eiver. He described the plant as having
leaves resembling those of an encina, or live oak.
Its leaves, after
having been toasted over the fire in an earthenware vessel were boiled
for a long time, and the decoction poured into a vessel made of a
half-gouj’d and stirred so as to make it foam.
It was drunk boiling
hot.
While on the
fire the vessel in which
it was boiling was kept
carefully covered
and
if by chance
it should be uncovered, and a woman should come by in the
meantime, they would drink none of
it but
fling
it
all away.
Likewise while
it was cooling and being poured out to drink, no woman was allowed to stir or
make a motion, or they would pour it all out on the ground and spew up any
which they might have drunk, while she would be severely
beaten.
All
this
time
they would
continue bawling
out: “Who
will
drink?”
whereupon
the
women,
on
hearing
this
call,
became
motionless,
and were
they
sitting
or
standing, even on
tip-toe,
or
with
one
leg raised and
the
other down,
they
dared not change their position until the men had cooled the liquor and made
it ready to drink.
The reason they gave for this
is quite as foolish and unrea-
sonable as the custom itself; for they said that if the women did not stand
still
on
iK'uiing
the
call some
evil
would
be imparted
to
the
liquor which
they
believed would make them
die.
Rene de Laudonniere, the leader of the ill-fjitcd Huguenot expedi-
tion to Florida (1501), noticed the use of the “black drink” as prac-
ticed by the Indians living at the mouth
of the
St. Johns River,
Florida.
Le Moine, his historian, wrote a narrative of the expedi-
tion,
in
wliicli
lie mentions cassine
leaves among the presents be-
stowed by
the Indians upon the
Frenclinicn.
Of the ceremonies
accompanying its preparation and dispensing he gi\'cs the following
account, accompanied by an
illustration which
is here reproduced
(pi.
14).
Unlike
tlie
Indians
observed by Cabeza
de
Vaca,
the
Florida Indians did not exclude women from the ceremonies con-
nected with its preparation, although neither they nor youths unini-
tiated into the dignity of manhood were permitted to partake of it.
The chief and
his
nobles are accustomed during
certain days
of the year
to me(T, early every morning for this express purpose in a public iflace, in which
a long bench
is constructed, having at the middle of
it a projecting part laid
with nine round trunks of trees for the chief’s seat.
On this he sits by him-
self for distinction
stiko; and the rest come to salute him, one at a time, the
oldest
first, by lifting both hands twice to the height of
tlie head and saying,
“ Ha, he, ya, ha, ha.”
To this the rest answer,
“ Ha, ha.”
Each as he com-
pletes
his
salutation
takes
his
seat on
the
bench.
If any
question
of
im-
portance is to be discussed the chief calls upon his lauas
(that
is, his priests),
and upon
the
elders, one
at
a time,
to
deliver
their
opinions.
They
decide
upon nothing
until they have
held
a number
of
oouncils
over
it, and
they
deliberate very sagely before deciding.
Meanwhile the chief orders the women
to boil some cassine, which
is a drink prepared from the leaves from a
cer-
tain root and which they afterwards pass threfugh a strainer.
The chief and
his councilors being now seated
in
their
places, one stands
before him, and spreading forth his hands wide
open,
asks a
blessing upon
the chief and
the others who
are to
drink.
Then
the cupbearer brings the
418
AJsrisruAL repoet Smithsonian institution,
1916,
hot drink in a capacious shell, first to the chief, and then, as the chief directs,
to the rest in their order in the same shell.
They esteem this drink so highly
that no one
is allowed
to drink
it in council unless he has proved himself a
brave
warrior.
Moreover,
this
drink
has
the
quality
of
at
once
throwing
into a sweat whoever drinks
it.
On
this account those who can not
keex>
it
down, but whose stomachs
reject
it are not intrusted with any
difficult com-
mission or any
military
responsibility,
being considered
untit,
for
tliey often
liave to go three or four days without food
;
l)ut one who can drink this liquor
can go
for 24 hours afterward
witliout
eating or
drinking.
In
military
ex-
peditions also
tlie only
sui>plies which they carry
consist of gourd
bottles or
wooden vessels
full of
this drink.
It strengthens and nourislics the body and
yet does not
lly to
the head as we
luive observed on occasion of these
feasts
of
theirs.
Accounts of the Black Drink ceremony
ai’c given by many other
writers, including John Lawson, in his History of Carolina
(1714)
James Adair, in his History of the American Indians (1775)
; Bossu,
in
his account of the Allibama Indians; Bernard Romans, in his
Natural History of
Florida
(1775)
; and William Bartram,
in
his
Travels in Florida
(1791).^
By the Catawba Indians this plant was
called yaupon; by
the
Creeks it was known as assi-luputski, or '"small leaves,” which liter-
ally corresponds to the (xuarani name (caa-mirim) of the liner form
of Ilex 'pavaguaiicnsis^ a most interesting coincidence.
The custom of drinking tea made of Ilex vomHoria was adopted by
many of the white settlers of Florida, the Carolinas and Georgia,
but
it has not persisted.
Similar drinks
ai-e
still used by
certain
tribes of Oklahoma, in the ceremonies connected with
their
feast
commonly called the busk.
According to the statements of various
authors Ilex leaves alone were used along the southeastern seacoast,
but in other localities it is quite probable that other plants were added
to or substituted
for the
infusion, especially
the
so-called Indian
tobacco, Lohella inflafAi^ and the button snake root, Eryngnim agimt-
icum^ both of which were held in high esteem by many tribes of North
American Indians.
Ilex vomitorid
(pi. 15)
is an evergreen shrub or small
tree.
Its
small glossy leaves, likened by Caheza de Vace to those of an encina
or live oak, and by Lawson to box leaves, are deep green above and
pale beneath, oblong, oval, or elliptical in form, and obtuse at the
apex, with the margins crenate-serrate.
Those of the upper branches
are 1 to 2.5 cm. long, while those on the vegetative shoots are often
larger and oblong-lanceolate in shape.
Though this species has been
confused with Ilex Oasshw L. by several botanists the two species are
easily
distinguished by
their
leaves.
Those
of
Ilex
(Jassine
are
usually much
larger, more
nearly
resembling
those
of L
para-
guariemis^ but with the margins entire or few toothed.
The small
1 Bee Hale, E. M., Bull, No. 14, Dlv. Bot., U. S. Dept. Agr.
1891.
NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAPFORD.
419
white flowers of Ilex vomitoria are borne in axillary clusters having
short smooth peduncles, and its flowers are distinguished from those
of the allied species in having obtuse instead of acute calyx-teeth.
In the pistillate flowers the 4 stamens are shorter than the petals,
while in the staminate they are longer.
The fruit is in the form of
red globose drupes
5
or 6 mm.
in diameter,
usually containing 4
slightly ribbed nutlets.
Plate 15
is the pliotograph of
a specimen
collected near Austin, Tex., May
27,
1904, by Mr.
F. V.
Coville,
Botanist of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
GUARANA.
Guaraiia
is a substance somewhat resembling chocolate prepared
from the bitter seeds of a Sapindaceous climber by certain tribes of
Indians of Prazil and Venezuela.
It owes its stimulating virtue to an
alkaloid (guaranin) chemically allied to caffein.
Like chocolate it is
reputed to have aphrodisiac properties.
In Venezuela it is known by
the name of cupana.
Although the plant from which
it
is derived is
known
as PayUinla
sorhilk^
a name
applied
to
it
by
Martins,
Spruce/ has shown that
it
is identical wdth the previously described
Paxilllnm cupana of Humboldt, Bonpland and Kunth and
that ac-
cording to the rules of ])riority the latter name takes piTcedence.
Though normally a twuning plant it is kept pruned in cultivation
to the size of a currant bush.
It has pinnate alternate leaves com-
posed of 5 coarsely serrate leaflets, with the apical tooth retuse.
The
inflorescence
consists of clusters of small white flowers growing in
racemes from
the
axils of
the
leaves.
The
fruiting
capsules
are
obovate to pyriform tapering at the base to a long neck or stipe and
shortly beaked at the a])ex.
When fresh they are yellow and tinged
with red near the apex, wuth the thin pericarp smooth on the outside
and wmolly on the inner surface, 3-valved, but dehiscing only along
two of the sutures.
The solitary black glossy seed
is nearly half
covered by a white cup-shaped aril.
Martins gives a description of the process of making giiarana from
the seeds of this plant by the Indians of the Rio Mauhe, Brazil.
As
prepared by them it is a very hard paste of a chocolate brown color
almost devoid of odor.
For use this paste is reduced to a line powder
and mixed wd(h sugar and water to make a stimulating drink.
The
seeds, wdiich mature in October and November, are removed from the
capsules and dried in the sun until the fleshy white cups are in such
a state as to be easily rubbed
off with the fingers.
They are then
poured into a heated stone mortar, wdiere they undergo a process of
parching and are ground to a fine powder, which is mixed with water
or exposed to the night dew and kneaded into a
paste.
When the
process is finished a few seeds either whole or broken into fragments
420
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
are introduced and the whole is made up into sticks or cakes, usually
cylindrical or spindle-shaped, about 5 to 8 inches long and weigh-
ing about 12 to 15 ounces.
These sticks are then dried in the sun or
by the fire and become so hard and resistant that it requires an axe
to break them.
They are then packed in broad leaves of banana-like
plants and put into baskets or bags.
If protected from moisture this
paste will keep in good condition for several years.
In the Province
of Para the jawbone of a
fish called Piracurii, covered with sharp
processes, is used as a rasp for grating
it.
Humboldt and Bonpland
state that
in southeim Venezuela
the
powdered seeds are mixed with mandioca flour, wrapped in plantain
leaves, and
allowed
to ferment
until
it
acquires
a
saffron-yellow
color.
This yellow paste, dried in the sun and diluted with water,
is taken as a morning drink like tea or coffee.
It
is bitter, stimu-
lating and tonic in its effects.
Humboldt did not like
its flavor, but
Spruce, who drank
it in the form of a cooling btnerage prepared
from the pure paste with cold water and sugar, liked
its flavor and
found that its effects were very mu(;h like those of tea.
At Cuyaba
it was served in taverns as a refreshing drink, and in various parts
of South America Spruce found it to be a popular remedy for sick
headache (hemicrania
CHOCOLATE.
(Plates IG and 17.)
Chocolate, made from the seeds of Theohroma cacao
is undoubt-
edly of Central American origin.
It was known to the inhabitants
of Mexico and Central America long before the Discovery, and after
the Conquest it soon found its way to Euro])e and to the most remote
parts of the earth.
No vestiges of the seeds or pods of cacao or any
representation
of them on
funeral
vases have been found
in the
prehistoric graves of the Peruvian coast
region;
and
so
rich
are
these graves in remains of fruits and vegetables as well as in repre-
sentations of such objects in terra cotta that the inference
is that
cacao was unknown to the aboriginal inhabitants of that part of the
world.
Prescott’s imaginary picture of the I^eruvian coast adorned
with plantations of cacao is wholly without foundation in fact.
Padre Cobo, in his Historia del Nuevo Mundo,
tells of the high
esteem in which cacao was held in Mexico
This fruit is so highly prized by the Indians of Niieva Espafia that
it serves
for money in that kingdom, and with it they buy in the markets and from trav-
eling venders small objects, such as tortillas of maize, fruits, and vegetables
and I on the roads of that kingdom bought such things niany times with cacao.
Even in the city of Mexico they give as alms to the poor Indians two or three
cacaos, as though they were money.
But
the reason why
these cacao-almonds
are
principally
esteemed
is
for
a drink called chocolate, which the Indians made of them and which now the
* Spruce* Richard.
Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, 2
: 448-468.
1908.
KAKCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAPFORD,
421
Spaniards prepare with greater neatness, care, and expense.
It
is of a dark-
red
color,
with
a
foam
which
rises
like scum and
whlcli
is
distasteful
to
newly arrived colonists and to those unaccustomed to drink
It; but the people
of
the country
are
crazy
for
it.
They
regard
chocolate
as
a
delicacy, and
Indians and Spaniards entertain with
it the friends who come to their houses.
In addition to the toasted and ground cacao .seeds cliocolato may contain many
other
ingredients,
every
one mixing with
it
those
tilings which
they
fancy
will inmrove
its quality or
flavor.
But everybody usually puts
in
these
live
constituents:
cacao,
acliiote
{Bixa ordlana)^
vanilla
[the fruiting pod of an
orchid called
tlilxochitl, or “black flower,” by the Aztec.sl, cinnamon
[hrought
from
the
East
Indies
after
the
Discovery), and
sugiir
[also
an
introduced
product!.
To these they add some other kinds of dried flowers
[orejuela, or
ear-flower,
called
xochinacazlli
by
the
Aztecs],
sesame,
anise,
chilli
or
aji
(Capsicum
pepper), and
other things more
or
less
according
to
their
taste.
In some parts of Central America
(especially in Nicaragua)
they make use of
a preparation of ground
cacao mixed with toasted and ground
maize, which
when
mixed
willi
water
yields
a
delightful
and
nutritious
drink
called
tiste
*.
The mo.st highly prized cacao
in New Spain
is that which
is
grown
ill the
Province
of
Soconos.co and
in
the
diocese
of Guatemala
;
and
the
large.st
is that of the diocese of Venezuela, or Caraeas
*
*.
Just as
the alinorids of Chachapoyas have hats for enemies, so the
e.'icao has monkeys,
which arc bred
in
tin’
l;irg('
trees whieh shelter
it. and they devour as much
as they
can.^
Plate 16
is the photograph of a trunk of cacao growing near the
village of Coahuila, in the State of Chiaiias, southern Mexico, taken
in January, 1907, by Mr. (5uy N. Collins of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, showing the peculiar habit of fruiting of the
tree.
In this region the cultivation of caicao
is more succiessful and
lucrative than in aipy other part of tropical America visited by Mr.
Collins.
Plate 17, which shows a slightly reduced ])0(1 from the same
tree, will give some idea of the enormous size of the pods.
The seeds
are seen enveloped in their soft fleshy white
aril.
At this locality
the trees produce almost continuously from November to June, and
during this interval the pods are gathered three times.
As soon as tlm seeds are removed from the pods
tlu\y are washed by placing
them in shallow baskets partly submerged
in water and rubbing them against
the bottom and .sides of the ha.skets, forcing tlie pulp through the meshes.
The
seed.s are then sun
dried,
the quicker the
better,
it
is
tliought.
This
iiiifer-
meiited product would not command a high price in the European or American
markets, but
it
is said that the IMoxicans do
not demand a fermented beau,
*
From
a few
miles below Pichucalco
to within
a
few
miles
of San
Juan the banks of the river are almost continuously
lined with cacao planta-
tions,
a
great
part
of which
is shaded
witli
ruhi)cr.
’»*
*
*
About
1,500
tons of cacao pass through San Juan annually, valued at about $1,250,000.
In
spite of the enormous amount of cacao produced in Mexico and an import duty
of 30 cents per kilo, cacao
is
still imported from Guayaquil.
In the fine cacao
lands above San Juan
the growing
of
this commodity
is
the most
lucrative
agricultural operation with which we are familiar.
1 Padre Cobb.
Ilistoria del Nuevo Mundo, 2
:
lj3“G4, ed. Jimbnez dc la Fspada,
73830°—sm 1916
28
422
AKKUAL KEPORT SMITHSOKIAN IKSTITUTIOET,
1916.
The primitive custom of using cacao for currency
still prevails in
the State of Chiapas, especially in the city of Tuxtla and its vicinity.
A common
expression
for cheap
articles
in
the market here
is
that they
sell
for so many a cinco.
This originally meant 5 cacao beans; but
to allow
for the fluctuating value of the cacao, a cinco actually consists of from 2 to 5
seeds, but the ratio of exchange will be uniform throughout the market
Mr. Collins found three distinct types of cacao at Tuxtla: Small
plump beans from Tabasco
; flatter beans that had been rolled in ashes
from Quechula
; and cacao pataxte, the seeds of Theobroma bicolor.
The
latter parched and ground are used together with maize
for
making a drink called ‘‘posol” (from pozolli, foaming).
Another
drink
called
‘‘tascalate”
(from
tezcalli, one who grinds maize or
some other substance on a stone metlatl) was composed of ground
cacao mixed with ground parched corn and almonds.
It was carried
in the form of powder by travelers on long trips when there was little
opportunity
of
obtaining
food, and made
into
an
agreeable
and
nourishing drink by the addition of sugar and water.^
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION.
Theobroma cacao
ivS a small tree with a l)are stem which generally
rises to a height of about 2 meters before branching and reaches a
height of
5 or
G
meters.
Sometimes, however, under good
condi-
tions of moisture,
soil, and situation
it grows higher.
The tree
is
cauliflorous ; that
is, the flowers spring forth from
the trunk and
older
branches.
Leaves
large, undivided, smooth,
broad,
pointed,
and of a thin texture, of a reddish color and hanging limp from the
branches when young, but soon turning green and becoming firm;
flowers produced from adventitious buds under the bark, usually
at
the “eyes,” or points marked by the scars of
fallen
leaves, small,
growing in clusters or solitary, usually only one of a cluster develop-
ing
into
fruit;
calyx
5-parted,
often
of
a
pinkish
color;
petals
5, yellowish, concave at the base and having a straplike appendage
at the
tip; stamens
10, united
at the
base
into
a
cup,
5
without
anthers and
the other
5
alternating with them bearing 2
double-
celled anthers each; style threadlike, terminating in a 5-cleft stigma;
fruit somewhat like a cucumber in shape, 15 to 25 cm. long, yellow
or reddish, longitudinally ribbed, the rind thick and warty, leathery
and tough, not splitting when
ripe, 5-celled, and containing many
seeds in a soft butterlike pulp of a
pleasant sweetish-acid
flavor;
seeds
compressed,
somewhat
almond
shaped,
with
a
thin,
pale,
reddish brown, fragile skin or shell covering an oily, aromatic, bitter
» The above information was derived from Mr.
Collins’s
field
notes.
See his abridged
fe|>orti
“ Notes on
Sonthern
Mexico,”
by
G. N.
Collins and
C.
B.
Doyle,
of the
tJ.
B.
Department
of
Agriculture,
In
the
National
Geographic
Magazine,
March,
1011,
pp.
Bottom
KAKCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD.
423
kernel, which consists mostly of the crumpled cotyledons.
If taken
from the pod the seed soon
loses
its
vitality.
It
is consequently
difficult to trans])ort
it to distant countries unless in a germinating
condition or in ripe pods, which,
if kept cool, will
last 10 days or
perhaps 2 weeks.
In gathering the pods care
is taken to cut the stalks neatly half
way between the pod and the tree, so as not to tear the bark, as is
often done if the pod is removed by twisting; for it is in the bark at
the base of the old stalk that adventitious buds issue which produce
the ensuing crop.
As a rule only one or two of the flowers in each
cluster do \ clop pods.
In many coiiiitries seeds arc usually subjected
to a process of sweating or fermenting, by means of which the flavor
is developed.
Sometimes this process takes place in holes or trenches
in the ground, after which tlie seeds are dried.
Plantations of cacao
were visited by the writer in the French Antilles, on the island of
Trinidad,
in
the
a iciiiity of Caracas, and
near Guayaquil.
From
the latter place great (juantities of cacao are exported.
In Mexico
ho witnessed tlie i)reparation of chocolate by grinding the beans into
a paste on a stone nietlatl just as maize
is ground for making
tot*-
tillas; and on
tlie Pacific coast of Central America he was regaled
with delicious
liste made of ground cacao and i)archcd maize and
served
in gourds
(the
fruit of CrvRrcntia cujde).
On the island
of Guam, where
cacao
culture was
introduced from
Mexico,
the
Mexican
metlatl
is used.
Here the beans, after having been care-
fully cleaned, are usually dried without fermentation and kept until
required for
use.
They are then toasted
like coffee, ground on the
family metlatl, and made at once into chocolate.
Chocolate made
from newly toasted and ground beans is especially rich and aromatic.
Sometimes more than is required fOr immediate use is prepared with
the addition of a
little flour or arrowroot, but without
spices, and
made into balls or lozenge-shaped disks large enough
for a single
Clip of chocolate.
Thus prepared
it has a
fine flavor and since none
of the oil is removed
it is very rich.
The natives of the island scorn
imported chocolate, declaring that
it tastes like medicine.
It
is interesting to note that the alkaloid theobromine, which
is
the active principle of cacao, is also found in cola, which plays almost
as important a role in certain parts of Africa as cacao in tropical
America.
More interesting still is the fact that this is almost iden-
tical with the alkaloids found in Paullinia cupana and the American
ilexes described
in
this paper, and
in tea and
coffee.
But while
the ilexes and tea and coffee are only stimulants, chocolate
is both
stimulant and
food.
Theobromine
is now valued
in medicine,
es-
pecially
for use
as
a
diuretic.
Its
physiological
effects
are very
similar to those of caffein.
424
ANKtSTAX. RBPOBT SMJTECSOKIAK
IKSTITXJTIOlsr,
1016.
SUMMAUT.
1. The principal narcotic plants and stimulants of ancient America
were tobacco, cohoba, the red bean, peyotl, ololiuhqui, ]imson weed,
huaca-cachu
(a tree Datura), coca, aya-huasea, yeiba-mate, cassinc,
guarana, and cacao.
Divine attributes were ascribed to them.
They
were
used
in
divination,
in medicine, and
in
ceremonials, and
in
many cases were carried by the Indians as safeguards or amulets
to insure success in
arfare and the chase.
2. Tobacco, the most important of these plants,
is now extensively
cultn ated in both hemispheres and its use is world
vv ide.
The jimson
weed {Datura stramonium)
is now important as a souice of atropine,
and coca {Erythroxylon Coca)
as the source of cocaine.
The most
impoitant stimulants aie the yerba-mate
{Her yatayuarU nsis)
the
leaves of which aie known as Paraguay tea, and cacao
( Thi ohroma
Cacao\^ the seeds of v\hich are made into chocolate and cocoa.
3. Of
les*^ importanc'e but
ol
possible medicinal
value
aie
peyotl
{Lophophora Willianisii) idcntdicd as the
divine flesli
oi teoirina-
catl of the Mexicans, and the ololiuhqui
{Datura
still
extensively used by Indians of Mexico and the United States; huaca-
cachu {Bjmgwansla sanynmea) of Pern; and a^adnusca {Bani^hria
caapi)
of Brazil and
^huie/uiela.
CasMiie
{Ilex
lonutojna)
of the
southern
T'^nited
States, which has the same
pro])erties as
its Paia-
guayan congener, may pro\e to be valuable as a refieshing tea, and
guarana
{DavIIhuo
enpana)
as the
source
of
a dunk
loscunbhng
chocolate.
The red
bean, or
fiijolillo, of Texas
(Broassoju tia
se-
cundifora)^ though possessing a narcotic alkaloid,
is not used com-
mercially and its use among our Indians is now \ery limited.
Colioba
{Piptadenia ptregrha)^ the seeds of which were used by the aborigi-
nal Haitians and are
still used
l\v many Indians of the
liibiitaries
of the great
ri\eis
of South America
as
tlie
source
of
a
narcotic
snuff, remains chemically unknown, though known and reported by
the companions of Columbus.
4. In
view^ of the shortage of medicinal
alkaloids lesulting from
the present war
it
is suggested that investigations be made to deter-
mine
the
nature
of
the
properties
of
these
less-known
narcotics,
with a view to their utilization as substitutes foi
others now
recog-
nized in the standard pharmacopoeias.
PLATE
Datura Meteloides, a Ceremonial Narcotic of the Ancient
Mexicans, Zunis, and
California Indians.
Two-thirds Natural Size.
T HE Jamestown Weed, Datura stramonium L., which Intoxicated the British
Soldiers Sent to Quell Bacon’s Rebellion.
Natural Size.
Plate 13 .
s.
Safford.
Plate
16,
Theobroma cacao, the Plant from which Cacao is Obtained.
Specimen Grow-
ing
IN THE State of Chiapas, Mexico.
Photographed by Collins and Doyle.
NEW ARCHEOLOGTCAL LIGHTS ON THE ORIGINS OF
CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE.^
By Sir Akthur Evans, \X
Litt.,
LT..
D., P.
S.
A., F. R.
S.
When I was asked on belnilf of tlie council of the British Associa^
tion to
oc(‘ni\y the responsible post of president
at the meeting
in
tliis great city—the fonrlh that has taken ]>lace lici’c—I was certainly
takcai by surprise; tlie nioi-e so as my own subject of research seeiiicd
sonu‘^^]lat j’emoved from what may be
desci’ib(Ml
as
tlie central
in-
terests of your I)ody.
The tmai
(»f archeology, however, T Avas told,
had enme round again on the rota
of the
sci(m(‘es represented; nor
could
1
l)e indilfeiHuit to the
fact, that the last presidentisil addims on
this tlnune had been didivered Vy my fathei* at the Toronto meeting
of \m.
Stilk
it was not
till
after (‘oi.siderable hesitation that I accepted
the hoiioj’.
Engaged as 1 have beim through a series of years in the
work
of exca Nation
in
Ci'ete—a work which
iiiNohed not
onl)/’ the
qiiai-rying but the building up of wholly Rew materials and
huvS en-
tailed
tlie endeavor to classify the siK'cessive jihases of
a long, con-
tinuous story—absorbed and fascinated by my oatu investigation, I
am oppressed Avitli the (‘onsciousness of having been less able to keep
pace Avith the ]3rogi'ess of
felloAv explorers in
otiuu’ depaidinents or
to do snflicient justic’c to their results.
*
*
*
The science of an-
ticiuity
in
its puivst form depends, indeed, on evidence and rests on
principles indistinguishable from those of the
sistc'r science of geol-
ogy.
Its methods are stratigraphic.
As in that case the successiA^e
deposits and
the
characteristic
contents—often
of
the most
frag-
mentary kind-Hmable
the
geologist to
reconstruct the
fauna and
floi*a, and climate and physical conditions of the past ages of the
world, and to folloAv out their gradual transitions or dislocations, so
it is with the archeologist in dealing with unwritten history.
In recent years—not to speak of the revelations of late quaternary
culture on which I shall jAresently have occasion to dwell—in Egypt,
in Babylonia, in
ancient
Persia,
in the
central
Asian
deserts,
or,
coming nearer home, in the iEgean
lands, the patient exploration
^Address
of the president of the Kritlsh
Association
for the Advancement
of
Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne,
1916,
Reprinted by permission from
author’s pamphlet
edition.
425
426
REPORT SAIITHSONIAK INSTITUTION,
1010.
of early sites, in inany cases of huge stratified mounds, the unearth-
ing of buried buildings, the opening of tombs, and the research of
minor relics, has reconstituted the successive stages of wliole fabrics
of former
civilization, the very
existence
of which was formerly
unsuspected.
Even in later ]R^riods
ai'clieology,
as
a dispassionate
Avitness, has been continually checking, sup{)]ementing, and illustrat-
ing Avritten history.
It has called back to our uppei- air, as with a
magician's Avand, shapes and
(‘oiulitioiis that seemed
to ha\e been
irrevocably lost in the night of time.
Thus evoked, moreover, the past is often seen to hold
a mirror to
the future, cori’ecting; Avrong inupressions —the result of some tempo-
rary
rcAiilution
in the
Avhirligig of time—by
the more permanent
standni'd of abiding conditions, and atTording in the solid
(n idenco
of past well-being the ^'substance of things
h()|)ed
for.*’
Nowhere,
indeed, has
tliis been more
in
evldtmce than
in
that vexed region
between
the
Danube
and
the
A(b‘iati(‘,
to-day
the home
of
the
Serbian
race, to the
aiiti(juarian
ex])loi'atiou of
wliicli many
of the
earlier years of my
o^^'U
life Avere d(‘Vot('d.
What
visions, indeed, do those
investigations not
ns'all
!
lm]H‘-
rial
cities,
once,
the
seats
of
wide
administi’ation
and
of
jirolilic
mints,
sunk
to
neglected
villages,
A^(\stig(\s
of
gi*(‘at
(Uigineering
works, bridges, aqueducts, or
lieiv
a main
line
<d' ancient bigliway
hardl}^ tracea])]e even as
a track across the wilderness!
Oi*. again,
llie signs of medieval revival above the Eoman ruins—remains of
once populous mining centers scattered along the lone
hillside, the
shells
of
stately
churclies
Avith the
elligies,
biillet-scai’i'ed
now,
of
royal founders, once champions of Christendom against tin* Paynim
nay, the actual relies of great rulers, lawgivei-s, national
Iku'ck^s, still
secreted
in half-ruined monastic retreats!
Sunt
laerinue rerum
et
rnentem
mortalia
tangaint.
Even
the
a rdieologist
incurs
more
hmnan
debts, and
the evocation of the
])ast carries
Avith
it living
responsibilities.
*
Whole provinces of ancient history Avould
lie Ixyyond our ken
often througli the nieri^ loss of the Avorks of classical authors—were
it not for the results of archeological research.
At other times again
it has redressed
the balance where
certain
aspects
of
the
ancient
world have been brought into unequal prominence,
it may
be, by
mere accidents of literary style.
Even if we take the CSreek world,
generally
so rich
in
its
literary sources, how comparatively
little
should we know of its brilliant civilization as
i 11 usi rated by the great
civic foundations of Magna Graecia and Sicily if we had to depend
on
its
written
sources
alone.
But the noble monuments of those
regions, the results of excavation, the magnificent coinage—a sum of
evidence illustrative in turn of public and private
life, of art and
ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN FURORE—EVANS.
4.2l
religion, of politics and of economic conditions—have gone far to
supply the lacuna.
Look, too, at the history of the Roman Empire—how defective and
misleading in many departments ar« the literary
records.
It has
been by methodical researches into evidence such as the above, nota-
bly in the epigra])hic field, that the most trustworthy
results have
been worked out.
Take the case of Roman Britain.
Had the lost books of Ammianus
relating to Britain been ]>reserved we might have had, in his rugged
style, some ])art ial sketch of the Province as
it existed in the age of
its most complete Romanization.
As
it
is, so far as historians are
concerned, we are left in almost complete darkness.
Here, again, it is
through .ar(dieologicaI research that light has penetrated, and thanks
to the thoroughness and persistence of our own investigators, town
sites such as Silchestei* in Roman Britain have, been more completely
uncovered than those of any other Province.^
Nor has any part of
Britain supplied more imimrtant contributions in tliis field than the
region of tlie Roman wall, that great limitary work ]>etween the Sol-
way and the mouth of the Tyne that once marked the northernmost
European barrier of civilized dominion.
Speaking here, on the
site of lladriairs bridge-head
station
tliat
formed
its eastei'n
k(\v,
it would be impossible for me not to pay a
l’)assiiig tribute, however inc.de({uate, to the continuous work of ex-
ploration and research carried out by the Society of Anti(]uaries of
Newcastle, now for over a hundred years in existence, worthily sec-
onded by
its sister society on the Cumbrian side, and of which the
volumes of the rosi)ective Proceedings and Transactions, Archieolo-
gia, il^liana, and last but not least the Lapidarium Septentrionale,
are abiding records.
Tlie basis of methodical study was here the
survey of the wall carried out, together with that of its main mili-
tary approach, the Watling Street, by MacLauchlan, under the auspi-
ces of Algernon, fourtli Duke of Northumberland.
And avIio, how-
ever lightly touching on such a theme, can overlook the services of
the late Dr. Collingwood Bruce, the ‘HJrand old man,” not only of the
wall itself, but of
all pertaining to border antiquities, distinguished
as an investigator for his scholarship and learning,
Avliose lifelong
devotion to his subject and contagious enthusiasm made the Roman
wall, as it had never been before, a household word?
New points of view have arisen, a stricter method and a greater
subdivision of labor have become imperative in this as in other de-
partments of
researcli.
We must, therefore,
rejoice that
local
ex-
plorers have more and more availed themselves of the cooperation, and
welcomed the guidance of those equipped with comparative knowl-
See HaverAdd,
“ Roman Britain in 1913,”
p. 83.
428
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, M6.
edge drawn from other spheres.
The British Vallum, it is now real-
ized, must be looked
at with perpetual reference to other
frontier
lines,
sii(*h as the (lermanic or the Rhietian lines;
local remains of
every kind have to be coirelated with similar discoveries throughout
the length and breadth of the Koman Empire.
This
attitude
in
the
investigation
of
the
remains
of
Eoinan
Britain—the
i)roiuotion of which owes so much to the energy and
experience of Prof. Haverfiekl—^has in recent years conducted exca-
vation
to
specially
valuable
lesults.
The work
at
(k)rbridge,
the
ancient
Corsto})itum, begun
in
190G, and
continued down
to
the
autumn of 1914, has already uncovered throughout a great part of
its area the largest urban center—civil as well as military in charac-
ter—on the line of the wall, and the principal store base of
its sta-
tions.
Here, together with well-built granaries, woikshops, and bar-
racks, and such records of civic
life as are su})plied by sculptured
stones and inscriptions, and the double discovery of hoards of gold
coins, has come to light
a spacious and massively constiaicted stone
building, apparently a military storehouse, worthy to rank beside the
bridge
piers of the North Tyne, among the most imposing monu-
ments of Koman
Britain.
There
is much here, indeed, to carry our
tliouglits
far beyond our
insular
limits.
On
this,
as on
so many
other sites along the wall, the inscriptions and
reliefs take us very
far afield.
We mark the gravestone of a man of Palmyra, an altar
of
the
Tyriai]
Hercules— its
Phoenician
Baal—a
dedication
to
a
pantheistic goddess of Syrian religion and the rayed
effigy of the
Persian Mithra.
So, too, in the neighborhood of Newcastle itself, as
elsewhere on the wall, there was found an altar of Jupiter Dolichenus,
the old Anatolian
(5od
of the Double Axe, the male form
of the
divinity
once
worshipped
in
the
prehistoric
Labyrinth
of
Crete.
Nowhere are we more stnu^k than
in
this remote extremity of the
Emt)ire with the heterogeneous religious elements, often drawn from
its far eastern borders, that before the days of the
final advent of
Christianity, Koman dominion had been
instrumental
in
diffusing.
The Orontes may be said to have flowed into the Tyne as well as the
Tiber.
I have no pretension to follow up the various affluents merged in
the later course of Greco-Roman civilization, as illustrated by these
and
similar
discoveries
throughout
the Roman
world.
My own
recent researches have been paHicularly concerned with the much
more ancient cultural stage—^that of prehistoric Crete—which leads
up to the Greco-Roman, and which might seem to present the prob-
lem of origins at any rate in a less complex shape.
The marvelous
Minoan civilization that has there come to light shows that Crete of
4,000 years ago must umiuestionably be regarded as the birthplace
of our European civilization in its higher form.
OBIGTKS or CIVILIZATION IN EXIKOPL—F.VANS.
429
But are we, even then, appi’eciably nearer to the fountain liead ?
A new and far more remoh* idsta has opened out in recent years,
and it is not too jmieh to say that a wholly new staiid])oint has been
gained from which
to survey the early history of the human
race.
The investigations of
a
br'illiant band
of
]>rehistoric
archeologists,
with the aid of T'epi'esentatives of the sister sciences of geolog;y and.
paleontology, have bi'ought together such a mass of sticking materials
as to place
tiie evohdhai of human
art and
a})))lianees in the
last
Quatei'iiary
j)e]'iod
on
a
far higher
level than had even been
sus-
pected
previously,
hollowing
in the
footste}>s of Lartet and
after
him Ili\iere and
Piette, Pi’ofs. Carta ilhac,
(^a]^itan, and
Bijule, the
Abbe Ih'eiiih Dr. Obermeier and
thi^ir fellow investigators have revo-
lutionized our knowledge of
a
|hase of Innnan
culture which goes
so far hack beyond the limits of any eontlnuous
stoi’y
tliat
it may
well be said
to behvng to an oldei* world.
To the engraved and sculptured works of imiu
in
the "’’Keindecr
period” we have now
to add not only such new
specialties as
are
exemplified
l.>y the molded clay
ligmars of Jif(‘-size hisons in
tl)e Tuc
d’Auduuhert
t'ave, or (he similar high
reliefs of
a
pi'ocession of six
horses
cut on
the overhaugiug
limestone brow
of Cap
Blanc, hut
whole galleries of
j.)ainte<l designs on the walls of caverns and rock
sheltei’s.
So astonishing was
this
la.-l
dis(*(V\ory, made
fii-st by
tlic S]ninish
investigatoi'
Seuor
d(.‘
Sautuola-"- or
rather
his
little
daughter—as
long ago as LSTS. that
it was nol
till after it had betm corroborated by
repealed
finds on
the I'reuch side of the Pyrenees-- not, indeed,
till
the beginning of
tiie
jiresimt
century—that
tlu‘
Pah'olithic age of
these rock paintings was generally rei'ognized.
In
tlu^ii' most devel-
oped
stage, as illusti'ated by the hulk of the
ligui'es
in
the Cave of
Altamira itself, and
in thos(‘ of Marsoulas in the Haute Cai*onne, and
of Font de (huime in the Dordogne, these ])rimevtil
frescoes display
not only
a ('onsimimate mastery of natural design, hut an extraordi-
nary
techni(‘al
lesource.
A|)ai‘t from
the charcoal
used
in
certain
outlines, the
< hief coloring mattcu' was red and yellow
o<*hre, mor-
tars and palettes
foj“ the preparation of which have come to
light.
In single animals the tints are varied from black to dark and ruddy
brown or brilliant orange, and so, bv fne gradations, to paler nuances,
obtained by sm’aping and washing.
Outlines and details are brought
out by white incised
lines, and the
artists availed tliemselves with
great skill of the reliefs alfoidivl by convexities of the I’ock surface.
But the greatest marvel of all
is that such polychrome masterpieces
as the bisons, standing and couchant, or w ith limbs huddled together,
of the Altamira Cave, were executed on the ceilings of inner vaults
and galleries where the light of day has never penetrated.
Nowhere
430
ANNUAL KEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
191G.
is there any trace of smoke, and it is clear that great progress in tiio
art of artificial illumination had already been made.
We now know
that stone lamps, decorated in one case with the engi*aved head of an
ibex, were already
in
existence.
Such was the level of artistic attainment in southwestern Europe,
at
a
modest
estimate
some
10,000
y(‘ars
earlier
than
the
most
ancient monuments
of Egypt
or
Clialda‘a!
Nor
is
this
an
iso-
lated
phenomenon.
One
by
one,
characteristics,
both
spiritual
and material, that had been
formerly
thought
to
be
the
special
marks of later ages of mankind have
In'cn sliown
to
go
back
to
that earlier world.
I myself
(*.an never
foi*get
tlie impression pro-
duced on me as a privileged s]^evtator of a freshly uncovered
inter-
ment in one of the Balzi Kossi (^aves— an
ini]))’ession
subsequently
confirmed
b}" other experiences of similar discovei-les in these caves,
which together first supplied the concordant testimony of an elabo-
rate cult of the dead on the part of Aui’ignacian man.
Tall skeletons
of the highly developed f^ro-Magnon type lay beside or above their
hearths, and
protected by great stones from roving beasts.
Flint
knives and bone javelins had been idaced within ivach of their hands,
chaplets and necklaces of sea shells, fish vertebra', and studs of carved
bone had decked their persons.
With these had
been
set lumps of
iron peroxide, the red stains of which appeaivd on skulls and bones,
so that they might make a fitting show in the underworld.
Colors, too, to paint
his body,
Place
witliin
Ids
hand,
Thai ho
j^listen,
hripild and
ruddy,
III the Spirit-Land
!
’
Nor is it only in this cult of the departed that v e trace the dawn of
religious practices in that older world.
At Cogrd we may now survey
the ritual dance of nine skirted women I'onnd a male satyidike figure
of short stature, while at Alpera a gowned sister ministi’ant holds up
what has all the ayipearance of being a small
idol.
It can hardly be
doubted tliat the small female images of ivory, steatite, and crystal-
line
talc from the same Aiirignacian stratum
as that of the Balzi
Rossi interments, in which great pi'omiiience is given to the organs
of maternity, had some fetichistic intention.
So, too, many of the
figures of animals engraved ami painted on the inmost vaults of the
caves may well have been due, as M. Salomon Reinach has suggested,
to the magical ideas prompted by the desire to obtain a hold on the
quarries of the chase that supplied the means of livelihood.
In a similar religious connection may be taken the growth of a
whole family of signs, in some cases obviously derivatives of fuller
pictorial originals, but not infrequently simplified to such a degree
^ Schiller “ Nadowessicr’K Todlrnlied,”
OBIGINS OF CIVILIXATION
IJST EUBOPE—EVANS.
431
that they resemble or
actually reproduce
letters
of
the
alphabet.
Often they occur in groups like regular inscriptions, and it is not sur-
prising that in some quarters they should have been regarded
as
evidence that tlie art of writing had already been evolved by the men
of the Reindeer age. A symbolic value certainly is to be attributed to
these signs, and
it must at least be admitted that by the close of the
late Quaternary age considerable advance luid been made in hiero-
glyphic expression.
The evidences of more
or
less continuous
civilized development
reaching its apogee about the close of the IMagdahuiian period have
been constantly emerging from
recent
discoveries.
The recurring
tectiform ”
sign had
ali’cady
cleai’ly
pointt'd
to the
existence
of
huts or wigwams; the
s(‘utiform
and other types ivcord a])pliances
yet
to
b(> elucidated,
^^^d
another
sign
well
illustrated on
a bone
pendant
from
the Cave
of
St.
Marcel
lias
an
mimistakable
re-
semblance to a sledge.^
Rut the most astonishing revelation of the
ciiltui’al level already reached by primeval man has been siipiilied by
tlie more recently discovered rock paintings of Spain.
Tlic area of
discovery has now been extended thei'e from tlu^ Ib'ovinee of Santan-
der, where Altamira itself is sitnated, to tlie Valley of the Ebro, the
C'enti'al
Sien^as, and to the exti*eme sontheastern
region, including
the I'l’ovinces of Albacete, JMureia, and Abneria, and e\en to within
the borders
of
(iranada.
One after another, features that bad been ]‘e(*koned as the exidusive
]}ropertv of Neolithic or later ages are thus seen to have been shared
by Paleolithic man in the final stage of bis evolution.
For the first
time, moreover,
Ave find
the
pi’oduetions of his art rich
in human
subjects.
At (^ogul the sacral dance
is
])ei formed by women clad
from
tlic waist downward in Avoll-cut gowns, while in
a rock shelter
of Alpera,^ where we meet Avith the same skirted
ladies, their dress
is siipidemented by Hying sashes.
On tlie rock jiaintlng of the Cucaui
de
la Vieja, near the same place, Avomen are seen
Avith
still longer
goAvns rising to their bosoms.
We are already
a, long Avay from Eve.
It is this great Al])era fresco Avliich, among all those discovered, has
afforded most new elements.
Here are depicted Avhole scenes of the
chase in Avhich boAvmen—np to the time of these last discoAX'ries un-
known
among
Paleolithic
representations—take
a
leading
part,
though they had not as yet the use of quivers.
Some are dancing in
the attitude of the Australian corroborees.
Several wear ]dumed head-
dresscvs, and
the
attitudes
at
times
are
extraordinarily
animated.
What
is specially remarkable
is that some of the groups of these
^ This intprpretation
siiffjxostod by mo aftor liispoeting the object
in 1002 has been ap-
proved by the Abb(5 Breiill
(Anthropoloftie, XIII, p. 152) and by Professor Sollas, “Ancient
Hunters,” a
1915.
p.
480.
®That of Caraaolea del Bosque: Breull, Anihropolojjlo, XXVT, 1015,
p. a20, et seq.
432
ANNUAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION^
1916 .
Spanish
rock
paintings show
dogs
or
jackals accompanying
the
huntei’s, so that
tlie process of domesticating animals had already
begun.
Ilafted axes are (l(‘picte(l as well as cunningly shaped throw-
ing sticks.
In one case at least we see two opposed bands of archers
marking at any rate a stage in social development in which organized
warfare was possible.
Nor can there be any question
as to the age
of these scenes and
figaires, by themselves so suggestive of a much later ])hase of human
history.
They
ar('
inseparable
from
other elements
of
the same
grou]^, the animal and symbolic rei)resentations of which are shared
l)y the contemjjorary school of rock paiidijig north of the Pyrenees.
Some are ovmdaid by palimpsests, themselves of Paleolithic charac-
ter.
Among
tl)e animals
acliially
depicted, moreover, the elk and
bison distinctly lielong to the late Quaternary fauna of both regions,
and are unknown there to the Neolithie de]>osits.
Tn
its broad(‘r as].)ects this held of human culture, to which, on the
European side, tlie name of Reindeei’ age may
still, on the whole, be
applied,
is now sem to have
very widesjn’ead.
In Eiu’ope itself
it pei'iiieates
a
i:u‘ge area—didined by the ))oundaries of glaciation
from ]k>laml, and e\en a lai’ge Piissian
tra(‘t, to Pohemia, (he upper
course
(d* tlie Daniibi^ and of the Rhine, to southwesterai
Pritain and
sontlnaisttM'u Spain.
Beyond
ih(‘ MedittUTanean, moreover,
it
fits on
undei' varying conditiems to
a
pai'allel form of (‘ulture, the remains
of whicl)
are by no
iiKains (‘oniined to the
( 'is-Saharan zone, where
ineised tigui'es o<*cur of animals like the long-hormal biilfalo {Hulha-
Iks aniiquus) and others long extinct
in that region.
This southern
branch may
eventually be found
to have
a
large
extension.
The
nearest
parallels
to the
finer
class of rock carv ings
as
seen
in the
Dordogne
are,
in
fact, to be found among the more ancient speci-
mens of similar work
in South Africa, while the
ro(‘k jjaintings of
Spain find
tlieii- best analogies among the Bushmen.
Glancing
at
tliis late Quaternary culture,
as a
whole,
in view of
the materials supplied on the European side,
it will not be superflu-
ous
for me
to
call
attention
to two important
points which some
obsei'vers bav(‘- sliown a tend(uicy to pass over.
Its suc(‘essive phases, the Aurigmician, the Solutrean, and the Mag-
duleiiiaii,
with
its decadent
Azilian
otfslioot—the
order
of which
may now be regarded as strat/igraphiciilly established—represent, on
the whole, a continuous stoiy.
I will not here discuss the (piestion as to how far the disappearance
of Neanderthal man and the close of the Monsterian epoch represents
a “fault” or gap.
But the view that there was any
real break in
the course of the cultural history of the Reindeer age itself does not
seem to have sufficient warrant.
OEIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN
ElTllOPE—EVANS.
433
It is true that new elements came in from more than one direction.
On the old Aurignacian area, winch had
a trans-Mediterranean ex-
tension from
Syria
to Morocco,
there
intruded
on
the European
side—apparently from the east—the Solutrcan type of culture, with
its
perfe<*tecl
Hint-working
aJul
ex(iuisite
laurel-leaf
points.
Mag-
dalenian man, on the otlier hand, great ak tlie profu-iency that he at-
tained
in
the caining of horn and
hone,
wuis much
behind
in
his
flint-kna])ping.
That
there
wau‘e
dislocations and
temporary
set-
backs
is evident.
But on every
side
w’e
still
note transitions and
reminiscences.
When, moreover, we turn to
the most striking
fea-
tures of this whole cultural phase, the primeval arts of sculpture, en-
graving, and
painting, we
see
a
gradual
upgrowth and unbroken
tradition.
Vvoin mere outline figures and simple two-legged
jjrotiles
of animals we
ait'
led on
ste}) hy step to
the
full
freedom
of the
Magdaleniau
artists.
From
isolated
or
disconnected
subjects
w^e
watcli the advance to large (‘ompositions, such as the hunting scenes
of the tSjianish rock paintings.
In the eulminating ])has(' of this art
w'e even find imiiressionist works.
A brilliant illustration of such
is
seen
in
the galloping
lierds of horses, lightly
sketched by the
eu-
gra^•eI’ on the stone slab from the Clianmont
tlrotto, depi(*ting the
leader in each ease in front of Jus troop, and its se!*ried line— sti‘aight
as that of
a
wu'll-drilled
hatt a]i(m
- in
pei’spect ivc rendering.
The
wdiole must be
talo'ii to be a
faitlifid memory sketch of an exciting
episode of prairie
life.
The other (‘haracteristic feature of the (udiure of the Heindeer age
that seems to deser\e
sj)ecial em[)hasis, and
is almost the
corollai’v
of the foregoing,
is that
it can
not be regai’ded
as the
])roperty of
a single race.
Jt
is ti'ue that the finely built Ero-lMaguoii race seems
to have predominated, and must be regarded as an element of con-
tinuit}'
throughout,
but
the
e\idences
of
the
coexislcm*e
of
other
human typos is clear.
Of
tlie physical characteristics of these
it
is
not my provima' to speak.
Here
it will be snflicit'ut to ])oint out (liab
their interments, as
well
us their general
associations, conclusively
show tliat they shared, even in its details, tlie eonimon cultuie of the
age, followed the same fashions, plied the same
ails, and veere im-
bued with the same beliefs as the Cro-Magnon
folk.
The negroid
slceletons interealated in the interesting succession of hearths and in-
terments of the Grotte des Enfants at Grimaldi had been buried witli
the same rites, decked with the same shell ornanieiils, and were sup-
plied wdth the same red coloring matter for use
in the spirit wuirld,
as we find
in the other sepultures of these caves belonging to the
Cro-Magnon race.
Similar burial rites were associated in this coun-
try with the “Red Lady
of Paviland,”
the contemporary
Aurig-
nacian date of which
is now
w^ell
established.
A
like
identity of
434
ANNUAL llEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
funeral custom recurred
again
in the sepulture of
a man of the
Briinn ” race on the eastern boundary of tins field of culture.
In other words, the conditions prevailing were analogous to those
of modern Enrojoe.
Cultural features of the same general character
had imposed tliemselves on
^a heterogeneous population.
That there
was a considerable amount of circulation, indeed—if not of primitive
commerce—among the peoples of the Reindeer age
is shown by the
diffusion of shell or fossil ornaments derived from the Atlantic, the
Mediterranean, or from inland geological strata.
Art itself
is less
the property of one or another race than has sometimCvS been im-
agined—^indeed, if we compare those products of the modern carver’s
art that have most analogy with the horn and bone carvings of the
cave men and rise at times to great excellence—as we see them, for
instance, in Switzerland oi‘ Norway—they are often the work of races
of very different physical types.
The negroid contributions, at least
in the southern zone of this late Quaternary field, must not be under-
estimated.
The early steatopygous
images-^su(*h
as some of these
of
the Balzi
Rossi
caves—may
safely
be regarded
as due
to
tins
ethnic type, which is also pictorial ly represented in some of the Span-
isli rock paintings.
The nascent flame of
])i*imcval
culture was thus already kindled
in that older world, and, so
far as our })rcsent knowledge
got's,
it
was in the southwestern part of our continent, on either side of the
Pyrenees,
that
it shone
its
brightest.
After
the
great
strides
in
human progress already made at that remote epoch,
it
is hard,
in-
deed, to understand what
it was that still delayed the rise of Euro-
pean civilization in its higher shape.
Yet it had to wait for its ful-
fillment through many
millennia.
The gathering shadows
thick-
ened and the darkness of
a long night
fell not on /that favored
region
alone, but throughout the wide area
wdiere Reindeer man
had ranged.
Still the question rises—as yet imperfectly answered
were there no relay runners to pass on elsewhere the lighted torch?
Something, indeed, has been recently done toward bridging over
the ‘‘hiatus” that formeidy separated
tlie Neolithic from the Paleo-
lithic ago—the yawning gulf between two worlds of human existence.
The Azilian—a later decadent outgrowth of the preceding culture
which
is now seen partially to
fill the lacuna, seeuis to be in some
respects an impoverished
survival of the
Aurignacian.^
The
ex-
istence of this phase was
first established by the long and patient
investigations
of
Piette
in the
stratified
deposits
of
the
cave
of
Mas d’Azil in the Ariege, from which it derives its name, and it has
been proved by recent discoveries to have had a wide extension.
It
affords evidence of a milder and moister climate—well illustrated by
1 Brcuil,
“ Congr. Pr4hlst.,” Geneva, 1912, p. 216.
ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS.
435
the abundance of the
little wood snail
{Helix nemoralis)
and the
increasing tendency of the reindeer to die out in tlie southern parts
of the area, so that in the fabric of the characteristic harpoons deer-
horns are used
as
substitutes.
Artistic
designs now
fail
us, but
the polychrome technique of tlie jireceding age
still survives in cer-
tain schematic and geometric figures, and
in curious colored signs
on pebbles.
Tliese last first came to light in the cave of Mas d’Azil,
but they
liave now been found to
i^ecur much further
afield
in a
similar association in grottoes from the neighborhood of
Baj^el to
that of Salamanca.
So like letters are some of these signs that the
liAxly imagination of
Ihette saw
in them the
actual characters of
a primeval alpha) >et.
The
little
flakes with
a
worked
edge,
often known
as “pygmy
flints,” which
were, most of them, designed for insertion into bone
or horn liarpoons, like some Nef)lithic examples, are
\'ery character-
istic of this stratum,
wlii<*h
is widely dilTused
in France and
else-
where under the misleading name of “ Tai*denoisian.”
At Ofnet, in
Bavaria,
it
is associated with a ceremonial skull burial showing the
coexistence at that sjx)! of lu'achycephalic and dolichocephalic types,
both of a new character.
In Britain, as we know, this Azilian, or a
closely allied phase, is traceable as far north as the Oban Caves.
What, howe\'ei\ is of s])ecial interest i^ the existence of a northern
parallel to this cultural ])hase, first ascertained by the Danish investi-
gator, Dr. Sarauw, in the
lalvc station of Maglemose, near the west
coast of Zealand.
Here bone harpoons of the Azilian type occur,
Avith bone and horn implements sliowing geometrical and rude ani-
mal engravings of a character divergent from the Magdalenian tradi-
tion.
The settlement took jdace when what
is noAv the Baltic Avas
still the great “Ancylus Lake,” and the Avaters of the North Sea had
not yet burst into
it.
It belongs to the pcidod of tlie Danish jiine and
birch Avoods and is shown to be anterior to the earliest shell mounds
of the Kitchenmidden people, Avhen the pine and the birch had giA^n
place to the oak.
Similar deposits extend
to SAveden and Norway
and to the Baltic Provinces as far as the Gulf of Finland.
The paral-
lel
relationshi])
of
this culture
is
clear, and
its remains are often
accompanied Avith the characteristic “pygmy'”
flints.
Breiiil, how-
e\'er,^ while admitting the late Paleolithic character of this northern
branch, would bring it into relation Avith a vast Siberian and Altaic
province, distiifguished l>y the Avidespread existence of rock carvings
of animals.
It is interesting to note that a rock engraving of a rein-
deer, yery well stylized, from the Trondhjem Fjord, which has been
referred to the Maglemosian phase, preserA cs the simple profile ren-
dering—two legs only being Ausible—of early Aurignacian tradition.
J “ Les Bubdlvislons du pal^ollthlque
pupc'rlaur
et
leur Bigniflcatlon.”
Congrfes
intern.
d'Antbrop. et d’Archdol. pr4hlst.» XIV*"®
Sess.,
Genfeve,
1912,
pp.
166, 238.
436
ANNUAL KEPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
It is worth noting thut an art afliliated to that of the petroglyphs
of the old Altaic region long survived in the ligures of the Lapp troll-
drums and still occasionally lingers, as T luive myself liad occasion to
observe, on
the reindeer-horn spoons of the Finnish and
Eiissian
Lapps, A\Iiose ethnic relationship, moreover, points east of the Urals.
The existence of a late Paleolithic province on tlie Eussian side is in
any case now well recognized and
itself supports the idea of a later
shifting north and northeasf, just as at a fonner j)eriod
it had oscil-
lated in a soutliwestern direction.
All this must be regarded as cor-
roborating the
\ iew long ago expj’cssed by Boyd Dawkins
’ that some
part of the old cave race may
still be
represented by
the modem
Kskimos.
Testiit's comparison
of
the
short-statured
Magdalenian
skeleton from the rock shelter ot Phancidadc
in the Dordogne with
that (d an Eskimo certainly conhrms this conclusion.
On the other hand, the eviclcrsv, already referred to, of an exten-
sion ot
tile late Paleolithic cult me to a Noith African zone, includ-
ing rock sculihures depicting a series
('f animals extinct there in the
later ag'e, may be taken to favor the
iihai of a
[>artial continuation on
that side.
I^ome of the early ro< k
s( nlj)tures in the soihh of the con-
tinent, siuh
as the
ligure of
a
walking elej)hant rejnodneed by Dr.
Peringuey, afford the clearest existing parallels
to the best Magda-
lenian examples.
There
is mn(*li, indeed, to be said
for the view of
which Solhis
is an exponent that the l)nshmen, who at
a more recent
date entered
that region from the nortlu and
whose
I’ock painting
attained
such
a
hi.gh
level
of
naturalistic
art, may
themselves be
taken as later representatives of the same tradition.
In their human
figures the resemblances des(T‘nd even
to eomentional
details, such
as we meet with at Ck)gul and
Al])(‘ra.
Once more, we must never
lose sight of the
fad that from the
early Aurignacian fierlod onward
a negroid (dement in the broadest
sense of the w'ord shared in this artisiic (‘ultm’e as semi on both sides
of the Pyrenees.
At least we now' know^ that ca^e man
(^lid not siilfer any sudden ex-
tinction, though on the Emropeaii side, partly, yieiiiaps, owing to the
new climatic conditions, this culture underwent
a marked degenera-
tion.
It may w ell be that, as the osleological e\ idence seems to imply,
some outgrowlh
of the old Cro-Magnon type
actually perpetuated
itself in the Dor dogne.
AVe have ceilainly lengthened our knowledge
of the Paleolithic.
But in the present state of the evidence
it seems
better to subscribe to
Cartailhac’s
view^ that
its junction with the
Neolithic has not yet been reached.
There does not seem to be any
real continuity betAveen the culture revealed at Maglcmose and that
J “ .EiU'ly iMnn in Britain, ” 1S80,
j). 233 ot
fieq.
ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS.
437
of the immediately supei'posed early Neolithic stratum of the shell
mounds, which, moreover, as has been already said, evidence a change
both
in climatic and geological conditions, implying a considerable
interval of time.
It is a commonplace of archeology that the culture of the Neolitliic
peoples throughout a large part of central, northern, and
westeiii
Europe—like the newly domesticated species possessed by them— is
Eurasiatic in type.
So, too, in southern (treecc and the JOgean world
Avc meet with a
foinn of Neolithic (‘ulture wliich must be essentially
regarded as a prolongation of that of Asia
Minoi*.
It
is (dear that
it
is on this Neolithic foundation that our later
civilization immediately stands.
But in the constant (diain of actions
and reactions by which the history of mankind
is bound together
-
short of the extinction of
all concerned, an hyj)othesis
in this case
excluded— it
is equally ('ertain that no great human acdiieveuK'nt
is
without
its continuous
effect.
The more we realize the substantial
amount of progress of the men of the
late Quaternary age
in arte
and crafts and ideas, the more dilTicult it is to avoid the conclusion
that somevhere “at the baede of behind”—it may be by more than
one route and on more than one continent, in Asia as well as Africa
actual links of connection may eventually come to light.
Of the origins of our (‘omplex European culture this much at least
can be confidently stated: The earliest extraneous sources on which
it drew lay respectively in two directions—in the Valley of the Nile,
on one side, and in that of the Euphrates, on
tlie other.
Of the high early culture in the lower Euphrates Valley our
fii-st
real knowledge has been due to the excavations of Do Sarzec in the
mounds of Tello, the ancient Lagasli.
It is now seen that the civili-
zation that we call Babylonian, and wlnhdi was hither to knovn under
its Semitic guise, was really in its main featuiTs an irdieritance from
the earlier Sumerian race—culture in thi.s case (Jiice moi e dominating
nationality.
Even the laws which Hammurabi traditionally received
from the Babylonian sun god were largely modeled on the reforms
enacted a thousand years earlier by his prede(*esso]\ TTnikagina, and
ascribed by him to the inspiration of the city god of Lagash.^
Tt is
hardly necessary to insist on the later indebtedneSvS of our civiliza-
tion to this culture in its Semitized shape, as passed on, together witli
other more
purely
Semitic
elements,
to
the Mediterranean
world
through
Syrift, Canaan, and Phoenicia, or by way of Assyria, and
by means of the increasing hold gained on the old Hittite region of
Anatolia.
Even beyond the ancient Mesopotamian region which was the focus
of
these
influences,
the
researches
of De
Morgan,
Gautier,
and
Lampre,
of
the French “Delegation
en
Perse,” have
opened up
* See L. W. King,
" History of Sumner and Akkad.”
|i.
73839°~sm 1916
29
438
ANNUAL KEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
another independent
field, revealing a nascent
civilization equally
ancient, of which Elam—the later Susiana—was the center.
Still
further afield, moreover—some 300 miles east of the Caspian the in-
teresting investigations of the Pumpelly expedition in the mounds
of Allan, near Ashkabad
in southern Turkestan, have brought to
light a parallel and related culture.
The painted Neolithic sherds
of Allan, with
their geometrical
decoration,
similar
to contempo-
rary ware
of
Elam, have
suggested wide
comparisons with
the
painted pottery of somewhat
later date found in Cappadocia and
other parts of Anatolia, as well as in tlie north Syrian regions.
It
has,
moreover,
been
reasonably
asleed
whether
another
class
of
painted
Neolithic
fabrics,
the
traces of which extend
across the
steppes of southern Russia, and, by way
of that ancient zone of
migration, to the lower Danube and northern Greece, may not stand
in some original relation to the same ancient province.
The new
discoveries, however, in the mounds of Elam and Anau have at most
a bearing on the primitive phase of culture in parts of southeastern
Europe that preceded the age when metal was generally in use.
Turning to
the
Nile
Valley, we
are
again
confronted with an
extraordinary revolution in the whole point of view effected during
recent years.
Thanks mainly to the methodical researches initiated
by Flinders Petrie, we are able to look back beyond the dynasties to
the very beginnings of Egyptian civilization.
Already by the clos-
ing phase of the Neolithic and by the days of the first incipient use
of metals the indigenous population had attained an extraordinarily
high level.
If, on the one hand,
it displays Libyan connections, on
the other we already note the evidences of commercial intercourse
with the Red Sea
; and the constant appearance of large rowing ves-
sels in the figured designs shows that the Nile itself was extensively
used for navigation.
Hint working was carried to unrivaled perfec-
tion, and special artistic refinement Avas displayed in the manufacture
of
vessels of
variegated breccia and
other
stones.
The antecedent
stages of many Egyptian hieroglyphs are already traceable, and the
cult of Egyptian divinities, like Min, was already practiced.
What-
ever ethnic change may have marked the establishment of Pharaonic
rule, here, too, the salient features of the old indigenous culture were
taken over by the new regime.
This early dynastic period itself has
also received entirely new illustration from the same researches, and
the freshness and force of its artistic works in many respects outshine
anything produced in the later course of Egyptian history.
The continuity of human tradition, as a whole, in areas geographi-
cally connected, like Eurafrica on the one side and Eurasia on the other,
has been here postulated.
Since, as we have seen, the Late Paleo-
lithic culture was not violently extinguished but shows signs of sur-
vival, both north and south, we are entitled to trace elements of direct
OEIGINS OF CmUZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS.
439
derivation from this source among the inherited acquirements thnt
hnally led up to the higher forms of ancient civilization that arose on
the Nile and the Euphrates.
In many directions, we may believe, the
flaming torch had been carried on by the relay runners.
But what,
it may be asked, of Greece itself, where human culture
reached
its highest pinnacle in the ancient wmrld and to which we
look as the principal source of our own civilization ?
Till witliin recent years it seemed almost a point of honor for clas-
sical
scholai’s
to regard
Hellenic
civilization
as
a
wonder
child,
sprung, like Athena herself, fully panoplied from the head of Zeus.
The indebtedness to oriental sources was either regarded as compara-
tively late or conlincd to such definite borrowings as the alphabet or
certain weights and measures.
Egypt, on the other hand, at least till
Alexandrine times, was looked on as sometliing apart, and
it must be
said that Egyptologists, on their side, were only too anxious to pre-
serve their sanctum from profane contact.
A truer perspective has now been opened out.
It has been made
abundantly clear that the rise of Hellenic civilization was itself part
of
a
wider economy and
(‘an be no longer regarded
as an isolated
phemomenon.
Indirectly, its relation to the greater world and to the
ancient centers to the south and east has been now^ established by its
affiliation to the civilization of prehistoric Ci*ete and by the revelation
of the extraordinai'ily high degree of i)rofi('iency that was there at-
tained in almost
all departments of human art and industry.
That
Crete itself— tlie
Mid-Sea Land,” a kind of halfwa}^ house between!
three continents—should have l>een the cradle of our European civili-
zation was, in fact, a logical consequence of
its geographical position.
An outlier of mainland
Gree(*e, almost oi)posite the mouths of the
Nile, j)rimitive intercourse between Crete and the
fartlier shc^res of
the Libyan Sea was still further facilitated by favorable winds and
currents.
In the eastern direction, on the other hand, island stepping-
stones brought
it into easy communication with the coast of Asia
Minor, with which it was actually connected in late geological times.
But
the extraneous
inllnences
that were
Ijor'c
operative from
a
remote period encountered on the island
itself
a primitive indige-
nous culture
tliat had grown up there from immemorial time.
In
view of some recent geological calculations, s\ich as those of Baron
de Geer, who by counting the numbers of layers of mud in Lake
Ragunda has reduced
the
ice-fr(ie peri(!d in Sweden to 7,000 years,
it will not be superfluous to emphasize the extreme antiquity that
seems to be
indicated
for even the
later Neolithic
in
Crete.
The
Hill of Knossos, upon which the remains of the brilliant Minoan
civilization
have
found
their most
striking
revelation,
itself
re-
sembles
in
a large part of
its composition a great mound or
tell
like those of Mesopotamia or Egypt—formed of la^er
after layer
440
ANKUAL KSPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION;
1916.
of human deposits.
But the remains of the whole of the later ages
represented down to the earliest Minoan period
(which
itself goes
back to a time coiiternpoi’ary with the early dynasties of Egypt
at a moderate estimate to B. C. 3400) occupy considei’ably less than
a half—19 feet, that
is, out of a total of over 45.
Such calculations
can have only a relative value, but, even
if we assume a more rapid
accumulation of debris for the Neolithic strata and deduct a third
from our calculation, they would
still occupy a space of over 3,100
years, giving a total antiquity of some 9,000 years from the present
time.^
No Neolithic section
in Europe can compare
in extent with
that
of Knossos, which
itself can be
divided
by
the character of
its contents into an early, middle, and
late phase.
But
its earliest
stratum already shows the culture in an advanced stage, with care-
fully ground and polished axes and
finely burnished
jiottery.
The
beginnings of Cretan Neolithic must go back to
a
still more remote
antiquity.
The
continuous
Iiistory
of the Neolithic
age
is
carriial
back
at
Knossos to an earlier epoch than is represiuited
in the deposits of its
geographically related ai'eas on the Creek and Anatolian
side.
But
suflicient materials
for comparison
exist
to sliow
that
the Cretan
branch belongs to a vast pi'oviiice of primitive culture that extended
from southern Greece and
the yEgean
islands througdiout a
wide
region of Avsia Minor and probably still further alield.
An
interesting
characteristic
is the appearance
in
tlie Knossian
deposits of clay images of squatting female figures of a jironouncedly
stcatopygous conformation and with hands on the breasts.
Tluise in
turn
fit on to a large family of similar images whicli recur through-
out the above era, though elsewhere they are generally luiown in their
somewhat developed stage, showing a tendency to be translated into
stone, and,
finally—perhaps under extraneous influences both from
the north and east—taking a more extended attitude.
These clearly
stand in a parallel relationship to a whole family of figures with the
organs of maternity strongly developed that characterize the Semitic
lands and which seem to have spread from there to Sumeria and to
the seats of the Anau culture.
At the same time this stcatopygous family, which in other parts
of the Mediterranean Basin ranges from prehistoric Egyj^t and Malta,
to the north of mainland Greece, calls up suggestive reminiscences of
the similar images of Aurignacian man.
It is especially interesting
to note that in Crete, as in the Anatolian region where these primitive
images occur, the worship of a mother goddess predominated in later
times, generally
associated with
a divine child—a worship which
1 For a
fuller
statemcot
I must
refer
to my
forthcoming
work,
“ The
Nine Minoan
Periods’*
(Macmillans),
Vol.
I:
Neolithic section.
ORIGINS OP CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS.
441
later survived in a classical guise and influenced
all later religion.
Another interesting evidence of the underlying religious community
between
(h'ete and
7\.sia Minor is the diffusion in both areas of the
cult of the Double Axe.
This divine symbol, indeed, or “Labrys,”
became the special emblem of the palace sanctuary of Knossos itself,
which owes to
it its traditional name of Labyrinth.
I have already
called
attention to the
fact that the absorptive and disseminating
power of tlie Roman Emjhre brought the cult of a male form of the
divinity of the Double Axe to the Roman wall and to the actual site
on which Newcastle stands.
The fact should never be left out of sight that the gifted indigenous
stock which
in Crete ei'entually took to itself, on one hand and the
other, S(j many elements of exotic cullure, was still deep-rooted in its
own.
It had, moreover, the advantages of an insular people in tak-
ing what
it wanted and no more.
Thus,
it was stimulated by for-
eign
influences but never dominated by them, and there
is nothing
here of the
ser\'ility of PlKcnieian
aii.
Much
as
it assimilated,
it
never lost its independeiif tradition.
It
is interesting to note that tlic first quickening impulse came to
Crete fi-oni the Egyptian and not from the oriental side— -the eastern
factor,
indeed,
is of comparatively
late
ap])earance.
My own
re-
searcln^s have
led me to the
definite conclusion that cultural
influ-
ences were already reaching Crete from beyond the Libyan Sea be-
fore
the
beginning
of
the
Eg>'ptian
dynasties.
These
primitive
influences are attested, amongst other evidences, by the forms of stone
ACH.scds, by the same esthetic tradition
in the selection of materials
distinguished by
their polychromy, by the appearance of
certain
symbolic signs, and the subjects and shapes of seals which go back
to protot3q)cs in use among the “old race” of the Nile Valley.
The
impression of a very active agency, indeed, is so strong that the possi-
bility of some actual immigration into the island of the older Egyp-
tian element, due to the conquests of the
first Pharaohs, can not be
excluded.
The continuous influence of dynastic Egypt from its earliest period
onward
is attested both by objects of import and their indigenous
imitations, and an
actual monument of a middle empire Egyptian
wuis found in the Palace Couid of Knos.sos.
More surprising
still
are the cumulative proofs of the reaction of this early Cretan civ-
ilization on Egypt itself, as seen not only in the introduction there of
such beautiful Minoan fabrics as the elegant polychrome bases but
in the actual imjiress observable on Egyptian art even on its religious
side.
The Egyptian griffin is fitted wdth Minoan wings.
So, too, on
the other side we see the symbols of Egyptian
religion impressed
into the service of the Cretan nature goddess, w'ho in certain respects
442
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
was partly assimilated with Hathor, the Egyptian cow goddess of the
underworld.
My own most recent investigations have more and more brought
home
to me
the
all-pervading community between Minoan
Crete
and the land of the Pharoahs.
When wc realize the great indebted-
ness of the succeeding classical culture of Greece to its Minoan prede-
cessor the
full
significance of
this conclusion
will
be understood.
Ancient Eg}"pt itself can no longer be regarded as something apart
from
general human history.
Its influences
are
seen
to
lie about
the very cradle of our own civilization.
The high early culture, the equal rival of tliat of Egypt and Baby-
lonia, which thus began to take its rise in Crete
in the fourth mil-
lennium
before our
era,
flourished
for some two
thousand
years,
eventually dominating the ^Egean and
a large part of the Mediter-
ranean Basin.
To the civilization, as a whole, I ventured, from the
name of the legendary king and lawgiver
of
Crete, to apply the
name of ^‘Minoan,” which
luis received general acceptance; and
it
has been
possible now
to divide
its course
into three ages—early,
middle, and late, answering roughly to the successive Egyptian king-
doms, and each in turn with a triple subdivision.
It is difficult, indeed, in a few words to do adequate justice to this
earliest of European
civilizations.
Its achievements are too mani-
fold.
The
many-storied
of
the Minoan
})riest
kings
in
their great days, by their ingenious planning, their successful combi-
nation of the useful with the beautiful and stately, and last but not
least, by their scientifi(‘. sanitary arrangements far outdid the similar
works, on however vast a scale, of Egyptian or Babylonian builders.
What is more, the same skillful and commodious construction recurs
in a whole series of private mansions and smaller dwellings through-
out the island.
Outside ‘Onroad Knossos”
itself flourishing towns
spring up far and wide on the counti’y sides.
New and refined crafts
were developed, some of them
like that of the
inlaid metal work,
unsurpassed in any age or country.
Artistic skill, of course, reached
its acme in the great palaces themselves, the corridors, landings, and
porticoes of which were decked with wall paintings and high reliefs,
showing in the treatment of animal
life not only an extraordinaiy
grasp of nature but a grandiose power of composition such as the
world had never seen before.
Such were the great bull -grappling
reliefs of the sea gate
at Knossos and the
agonistic scenes of the
great palace hall.
The modernness of much of the life here revealed to us
is aston-
ishing.
The
elaboration
of the domestic arrangements,
the
stair-
cases story above story, the front places given to the ladies at shows,
their fashionable flounced robes and
jackets, the gloves sometimes
seen on their hands
or hanging from
their
folding
chairs,
their
OKIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS,
448
very mannerisms as seen on the frescoes, pointing their conversation
with animated
jestures—how
strangely
out
of
place would
it
all
appear in a classical design.
Nowhere, not even at Pompeii, have
more living pictures of ancient life been called up for us than in the
Minoan Palace
of
Ivnossos.
The touches supplied by
its
closing
scene are singularly dramatic—^the
little bathroom opening out of
the Queen’s parlor, with
its painted clay bath, the royal draught-
board
flung down
in the court, the
vessels
for anointing and the
oil jar for their filling ready to hand by the throne of the priest-
king, with the benches of his consistory round and the sacred griffins
on
either
side.
Religion,
indeed,
entered
in
at every
turn.
The
palaces were also temples, the tomb a shrine of the great mother.
It
was perhaps owing to the religious control of art that among all the
Minoan representations—now to be numbered by thousands—no sin-
gle example of indecency has come to light.
A
remarkable
feature
of
this Minoan
civilization
can
not
bo
passed over.
I remember that at the Liverpool meeting of this asso-
ciation in 189fi— just before the first results of the new discoveries in
Crete were known—a distinguished archeologist took as the subject
of an evening lecture ‘^Man before writing,” and, as a striking ex-
ample of a high culture attained by “Analfabeti,” singled out that
of Mycenae—a late offshoot, as we know now, from Minoan Crete.
To such a conclusion, based on negative evidence, I confess I could
never subscribe—for had not even the people of the Reindeer Age
attained
to
a
considerable
proficiency
in
expression by means
of
symbolic signs?
To-day we are able to trace the gradual evolution
on Cretan
soil
of
a complete system of writing from
its
earliest
pictographic
shape, through
a
conventionalized hieroglyphic
to
a
linear stage of great perfection.
In addition to inscribed sealings
and other records some 2,000 clay tablets have now
cojue to
liglit,
mostly inventories or contracts; for though the script
itself
is
still
undeciphered
tlie pictorial figures that often appear on these docu-
ments supply
a
valuable
clue
to their
contents.
The numeration
also is clear, with figures representing sums up to
10,000.
The in-
scribed sealings, signed, countermarked, and countersigned by con-
trolling officials, give a high idea of the elaborate machinery of gov-
ernment and administration under the Minoan rulers.
The minutely organized legal conditions to which this points con-
firm the later traditions of Minos, the great lawgiver of prehistoric
Crete, who, like Hammurabi and Moses, was said
to have received
the law from the God
of the 8acred Mountain.
The clay tablets
themselves were
certainly due
to
oriental
influences,
which make
themselves perceptible in Crete at the beginning of the late Minoan
Age, and may have been partly resultant from the reflex action of
444
ANNUAL KEPQRT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Minoan colonization in Cyprus.
From this time onward eastern ele-
ments are more and more traceable in Cretan culture and are evi-
denced by
sucli phenomena as the introduction of chariots—them-
selves perhaps more remotely of Aryan-Iranian derivation—and by
the occasional
use- of cylinder seals.
Simultaneously with its eastern expansion, which affected the coast
of Pluenicia and Pak\stine as well us Cyprus, Minoan
civilization
now took firm hold
of mainland Greece, while
tiaice^ of
its
direct
intlueuce are found in the west Mediterranean basin—in
Sicily, the
Balearic^
Islands, and
Spain.
At the time of the
actual conquest
and during the immediately succeeding period the civilization that
appears at Myceine and Tiryns, at Thebes and Orchomenos, and at
other centers of mainland
(ireece, though
it seems to have brought
with
it some already assimilated Anatolian elements,
is
still in the
broadest
sense Minoan.
It
is
only
at
a
later
stage
that
a more
provincial
oll'slioot came
into being to which
tlie name Mycenaean
can be properly a))})lied.
But it is clear that some vanguard at least
of the Aryan Creek immigrants came
into contact with this high
Minoan
cultui*e at
a time when
it was
still
in
its most flourishing
condition.
The evidence of Homer
itself
is conclusive.
Anns and
armor described
in the poems are those of the Minoan prime, the
fabled sliield of Achilles, like that of Ilerakles described by Hesiod,
with
its
elaborate
scenes and
variegated metal work,
reflects the
masterpieces of Minoan craftsmen in the full vigor of their art; the
\ery ejnsodes of epic combat
I'cceive their best illustration on the
signets of the gi’cat dnvs of Mycenae.
Even the
lyi‘c to which the
minstrel sang was a Minoan
invention.
Or, if we turn to the side
of ]*eligion, the Greek temide seems to have sprung from a Minoan
hall,
its earliest pediment schemes are adaptations from the Minoan
tympanum—siuh
as we
see
in the Lion’s Gate—the most
archaic
figures of the TTelleiiic goddesses, like the Spartan Orthia, have the
attidbutes and attendant animals of the great Minoan mother.
Some elements of the old culture were taken over on the
soil of
Ihdlas.
Others which had been
crushed
out
in
their
old
centers
survived in the moie eastern shores and ivslands foianerly dominated
by
Minoan
(‘i vilization, and
were
carried back by
Phoenician
or
Ionian
inteiinediaries
to
their
old homes.
In
spite
of
the
over-
throw which about the twelfth century before our era fell on the old
Minonn dominion and
tlie onrush of the new conquerors from the
north, much of the old tradition still survived to form the base for
the fabric of the later civilization of Greece.
Once more, through
the darkness, the lighted torch was carried on, the first glimmering
flame of which had been painfully kindled by the old cave dwellers
in that earlier Paleolithic world.
ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS.
445
The Roman Empire, which in turn appropriated the heritage that
Greece
liad
received from Minoan
(hTde, placed
civilization on
a
broader basis by
welding together heterogeneous
ingredients and
promoting a cosmopolitan
ideal.
If even the prijneval
culture
of
the Reindeei* Age emliraced more than one
race and
absorbed
ex-
traneous elements from many sides, how much more is that the case
with our own wliich grew out of tlie Greco-Roman
!
Givilization in
its higher form to-day, though highly
conii)lex, forms essentially a
uriitajy mass.
It has ju> longer to be sought out in separate lumin-
ous
centei'S,
sliining
like
])lanets
tlirough
the
surrounding
night.
Still
less
is
it the
property of one
jvrivileged
country
or
j)eople.
Many as are the tongues of mortal men,
its
votaries,
like the im-
mortals, s])eak a single language.
Throughout the whole vast area
illumined
by
its
(juickening
rays,
ils
woikers
are
interdependent
and })ledged to a (touimon cause.
THE GREAT DRAGON OF QUIRIGUA, GUATEMALA.^
By W. H. Holmes,
Head Curator, Department of Anthropology, V,
>S. National ^^u8eum.
[With
10 plates.]
In February, 1916, the writer had the good fortune to become a
member
of
the
Carnegie
Institutioii’vS
archeological
expedition
to
Central
America.
Under
the
able
directorship
of
Sylvanus
G.
Morley, the fascinating work of exploring and studying in detail
the j*emarkablc remains of ancient Maya culture was vigorously cai*-
ried forward.
The especial object of this ^^ear’s expedition was the
discovery of additional sculptured
inscriptions embodying glyphic
dates—foi*
it
is the dates, now read wdth
facility, that furnish the
skeleton of Mayan history.
Among the ancient ruined
cities visited while the writer was as-
sociated with the expedition w^as Quirigua in eastern Guatemala, the
subject of much scientific attention during recent
3x^ars.
On arriv-
ing at the site our party emerged from the tropical forest that sur-
rounds the few
acres of cleared ground,
called
a park,
in which
the
ruins
are
inclosed, and came suddenly upon
a group
of
the
great sculptured monoliths.
For a moment we were puzzled by
a
curious
scaffolding and platform some 20
feet
in
heiglit
erected
against
the face of an elaborately sculptured
stela.
Mounled
on
this platform without apparent protection from the sun was
de-
scried the figure of a man posing before a large canvas.
It proved
to be Mr. Joseph Lindon Smith, the master portrayer of
ancient
monuments engaged in painting the portrait of the mysterious per-
sonage whose heroic form
is carved in high relief in the face of the
monument.
The several paintings completed by Mr. Smith are pre-
served
in
the Peabody Museum
of
Ethnologj^ and
Archaeology,
Cambridge.
PROBLEMS OF MAYAN HISTORY.
The reading of the dates, inscribed
in glyphic characters on the
sculptured monuments, and
in ancient manuscripts,
is
a most im-
^ Reprinted
with
author’s
revision
from
Art
and
Archaeology,
Washington,
D.
C.,
December, 19 IG.
447
448
ANNUAL KEIPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION^
1916.
portant
fiibt step
in the attempt to solve the problems of Mayan
history, but unfortunately this achievement is not an open sesame to
the full story of the monuments of the ancient civilization.
Each
of tlic ^reat carved monoliths is a greater riddle than the Egyptian
Sphinx.
There is no short cut to the unfolding of their story, and
archeology must take up the tedious but fascinating task.
With the monuments l)efore us and a limited number of dates to
begin with, we seek to
fill out the outline thus meagerl}^ sketched.
We are doubtless safe in assuming that eai'ly
in the Christian era
certain groups
of the
American
race,
rising
distinctly
above the
general
level of barbarism, began the construction of stone build-
ings and the cai'ving of monuments devoted to the service of their
gods.
They flourished for a few centuries only, and had passed the
zenith of their cultural development long before the Spanish con-
(juerors in the sixteenth
(*entury penetraied the tropical
forests of
Central America.
Numerous important cities that had arisen were
abandoned and
in
ruins and
their story v holly
forgotten by the
decadent generations of the (Vdumbian ])eriod.
THE RUINS OF QUIRIGUA.
The ancient Maya
city, now known as Quirigua,
is represented
to-day
])y
a group of enigmatical stone monuments
only
recently
retrieved from the dense tropical forest vhich has buried them for
unnumbered centuries.
These monuments comprise a large number
of buildings and monolithic sculptures.
Such buildings
as remain
are in an advanced state of ruin, while others are
reiDresentcd by
mere mounds and platforms of stone and earth.
The sculptures are
scattered over the various courts and
plazas, and bear mute
testi-
mony to the high
state
of culture achieved by the people during
the period of their ascendancy—a period assigned by Morley to the
early centuries of the Christian era.
The monolithic sculptures are
of two classes—tall, slender shafts known as steUe, thought to have
special chronological significance, and low, massive forms sometimes
referred to as
altars.
The strife are 13 in number and range from 11 to 20 feet in height.
They are elaborately carved wdih representations of richly appareled
personages, both male and female, with associated symbolic devices
and glyphic inscriptions.
The massive monuments are 20 in number
and
are extremely
diversified
in
sculptural treatment and
in
the
subject matter eml^died.
It is assumed, wdth a high degree of proba-
bility, that
the
entire group
of monuments was the
seat of the
religious establishment or establishments of the city.
All monuments
of perishable material and
all nonmonumental portions of the city
have long since disappeared.
View
of
the
Great
Dragon,
the
Human
Figure
Serving
to
Indicate
Its
Remarkable
GREAT DRAGOK OF QUIRIGUA, GUATEMALA—HOLMES.
449
The task of describing these monuments has been undertaken by
Maudslay, Hewett, and others, and to the publications of these ex-
plorers those who would go deeply into the subject are referred. A
single example of the sculptures—a worlc that takes high
ranli:
in
the world of art—is selected for detailed presentation in this place.
THE GREAT DRAGON.
The
stone,—The
massive
sculpture
sometimes
called
the
Great
Turtle may
well
be
regarded
as
the
sculptural
master])iecc
par
excellence of
th(i Ameri(‘an
race.
It
is a somewhat
o\'oid mass of
coarse-grained
sandstone
of warmish
gray
color
weighing
about
20 tons.
It is upward of 7 feet in height and
is 11 feet G inches in
greater diameter.
AVheii the School of American Archaeology began
its work here the surface was. deeply coated
Avith moss and other
tropical growths, which were carefully cleaned
oil* by Dr. llewett in
1910, repeating the task of Maudslay some 20 years earlier.
The sur-
face
is now^ much wauither stained, dis[)laying sti'eaks and blotches
of dark color, probably due to the wnuithering out of ferruginous mat-
ter contained in the
stone.
The master sculptor appears
to have
utilized in a measure the original irregularities of tlie great block, the
llattish base of which rests at the ground level on a floor composed of
three hewn stone slabs.
The
origin of
the block can not
be determined
with
certainty,
although
it must have been brought from
(juarries
in the
bluffs 2
or more miles to the w^est.
'Unit it should have been carried by any
means at the command of the aborigines over the soft alluvial flood
•plain of the Motagua
is, hovrever, almost beyond belief; but there
seems no alternative to this conclusion, unless we should venture to
assume decided changes of climate or altitude since that titanic task
was accomplished.
It now
lies within
the ceremonial plaza near
the
southern
margin,
the two
principal
sculptured
fronts
facing
north and south.
East and west faces ,—Approaching the stone from the east
it
is
observed that the
entire surface
is elaborately
sculptured, now^
in
high, now
in low
relief, and
in graceful arrangements of strange
forms so diversified and intricate that analysis of the mazelike com-
plex seems at first quite impossible
(pi. 1).
There is a compounding
and
confusion of natural elements—human,
reptilian,
avian, and
grotesque—in
all degrees of convention intermingled with formal
patterns,
scrolls,
cartouches, and
glyphic
inscriptions,
altogether
amazing, yet distinctly attractive and highly decorative.
Notwith-
standing our failure at
first to comprehend a single feature of the
work, the touch of the master was recognized in every form and line.
The west side (pi. 2) is nearly Aentical in treatment and proved to be
450
AKKXTAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916.
equally incomprehensible
; and the reason for this, as was afterwards
learned,
is the fact that the figures on these faces are incomplete in
themselves,
being
continuations and
appendages from
the
sculp-
tured figures of the upper surface, which, to be traced and under-
stood, must be approached by the student from that surface.
The north face .—Proceeding to examine the woik
in
detail, we
pass to the north face (pL 3), and attention
is at once directed to an
elaborately and elegantly costumed human figure, strongly yet deli-
cately carved, which occupies
a central position
in the broad
face
of the block.
The figure is seated, Buddha fashion, and presents a
placid and
dignified
mien.
Including the headdress,
it
is about
7
feet
in height.
Although the features are somewhat mutilated,
the}^
distinctly
suggest
a
young
and
comely
person,
possibly
a
female,
although
there
appears
to be
.some
difference
of
opinion
among students on this point.
Maudslay’s drawing of
this
figure,
leprodiu'ed
in large part
in
plate
4, giACS to the
face
a
delicacy and refinement someT^hat
at
variance
with,
typical Mayan
representations, and
as
a matter
of
course also fails to con\e3
^ an adequate impression of the boldness of
the relief.
The right hand grasps a ceremonial device known as the
manikin scepter, doubtless significant of the office and dignity of the
personage represented, while the left supports a
small, highly em-
bellished, shieldlike device or symbol.
Joyce may be right in his sug-
gestion that the scepter
is possibly a highly elaborated form of the
hatchet, the almost universal weapon of the Indian warrior and a
common symbol of authority.
The costume
is of superb design, testifying to the adianced state
of culture and i^efinement attained by the people of Quirigua.
The
details are so elaborate
as to defy adequate
description, hence the
drawings and photographs must be
relied upon mainlj^ to
tell the
story.
The headdress embodies a crownlike band over the forehead,
surmounted by
a complex
of grotesque masks with
deep-set
eyes
and vicious fangs and a maze of
scrolls, plumes, and symbols,
all
sculptured with a vigor and delicacy worthy of the masters of the
Orient.
Connecting with the top of the headdress are two pairs of
strange appendages which extend to the right and left over the upper
margin of the stone ; they are ornamented with incised checkerwork
and various devices in relief. A graceful necklace spreads over the
shoulders of the figure and expands across the chest into a broad
gorget, in the center of which is set a grotesque mask.
The mask is
repeated at the waist, and from this the garb extends down over the
crossed legs in an apronlike arrangement embodying various serpen-
tine elements and symbols, and terminating
in
radiating plumes.
The wristlets and ear ornaments are %f usual Mayan types, the latter
extending out over the shoulders.
Smithsonian Rnport, 1916 — Hninnos
Plate 4.
ScuLPVuRLD Homan Figukl Seated
in the
DnAc.urEG Mouth.
Seven Feet
in Height
(MauDoLAYJ
GKE8AT BBAGOW OF QUIBIQUA, GITATEMALA—^HOLMES.
451
Seeking to determine the exact relation of the sculptured figure to
the strange forms which surround
it, we discover that it sits in the
mouth of a great reptilian monster, whose upper jaw is arched above,
passing behind the headdress, while closing in on the figure at the
sides the tusklike fangs of the reptile are to be seen.
The outer sur-
faces of the jaws are embellished with scalelike groups of glyphs and
cartouches, and to the right and left in the curves of the upturned
jaw are the deep-set eyes of the monster, the pupils of which are em-
bellished with glyphlike
figures in
relief.
Beneath the figure the
lower jaw of the reptile appears with great rounded fangs at the
sides.
At the right and left near the base and connecting back over
the sides
are sculptured panels in which grotesque and
distorted
demons appear, each holding tightly against his form a device hav-
ing the appearance of
a glyph.
The
possible
significance of the
human figure and its relation to the reptilian monster will be referred
to later.
The south face .—Passing to the south face of the stone, we dis-
cover, occupying a
central place in the surface, a great masklike
visage of forbidding aspect, of the type characteristic of the “ Long-
nosed God” (pi. 5).
Although this deity is given varying attributes
in the different Mayan centers of culture, it is thought probable that
in the present connection it may represent the god of the underworld
and possibly also of death.
The great staring eyes are set in features
of strange conformation, and the wide mouth displays fangs with
molars at the right and left and the usual tusk coils springing from
the outer corners. At the sides are the ears, embellished with squarish
loops and pendants, while above rises the headdress of unique and
striking design.
Inclosing the face and extending in terraced form
across the headdress is a glyphic inscription neatly carved and taste-
fully arranged.
Above the forehead and surrounded by the inscrip-
tion is a beautifully designed scroll-inclosed panel from which looks
out a human face, the hands also appearing at the lower margin,
while above and extending to the upper surface of the stone
is a
superbly chiseled device set against the crown of plumes which ex-
pands widely to right and
left.
Medallionlike embellishments are
overlaid upon the plumes, which terminate on the shoulders of the
image in an ornamental beaded appendage.
To the right and left of the inscription richly embellished, rounded,
columnlike forms or shoulders are encountered which connect back-
ward at the base with flattish scaled plates suggesting the flippers of the
great sea turtle, and it is doubtless these features that gave the original
name—the “Great
Turtle ”~to
the monument.
Observing
their
termination in what appears to be a claw, it is suggested that they
were not intended as representations of the flippers of any partieu-
lar natural form, but rather of a mythical reptilian divinity of n«a*
462
ANirtTAL BEPOKT SMITHSONIAK IKSTHtrTIOK, Ml
descript characters*
Their presence, recalling the open jaws at the
northern end, makes it apparent that the sculpture as a whole was
intended
to
represent the mythical bicephalous
reptilian monster
sometimes referred to as the Earth Monster or God, a frequently
recurring conception in the native pantheon. We may well assume
that the sculpture embodies the Quinguan conception of this deity,
the forms of which
are elaborated in various ways and in endless
combinations according to the attributes assigned
to
it m
tlie my-
thology of the ditferent peoples. A valiant of this conception, found
in Copan, Honduras, is shown in an accornjianying illustration (pi. 0 ).
The shoulders of the soiithein end of the idol are embellished with
vertical lines of ghplis and cai touches, one group of which,
illus-
trated herewith, is the glyphic date, vhile beneath, on each side, are
panels inclosing glyjih-bearing demons.
Encircling the arms above
the elbow
are bracelets of elegant design.
The shoulders are par-
tially covered by the flaring leatherwoik of the headdress and by
scrollwoik which probably lepiesents the outer elaboration of the
jaws of the leptih*, the main poitions of which appear to be hidden
by the inscription.
The upper surface ,—Glimbing to the baik of the strange monster
the imagination of the observer
is profoundly
stirred.
Although
representing no known foim in any kingdom of natuie—a pure work
of
the
imagination—a
stiaiige compounding and
overlapping
of
human, reptilian, and avian elements, it conveys vividly the impres-
sion of
a
living thing—a dragon outdragoning
all
the composite
monsters of the Orient.
So virile are the forms, so tense the coiling,
80 strong the impression of life, that a thrill almost of apprehension
steals ov^cr one, for theie
is a
distinct suggestion that the bulging
imprisoned inner monster might bieak its bonds, uncoil
its length,
and slide away into the deep shadows of the forest immediately at
hand.
This extraoidmary face of the sculptuie is shown in an ac-
companying illustration taken from a model prepared by the Amer-
ican Museum of Natural History,
in which
institution Maudslay’s
full-size cast of the original is installed
(pi. 7 ).
The sxjmboVism ,—It
is not questioned
that
the
great groups
of
monumental remains that mark the sites of the ancient Maya cities
ow^e their existence to religion and that they were devoted to the
service of the gods.
The temples were the sanctuaries of the divin-
ities, the
resorts of their mortal
servitors, and storage places for
paraphernalia and the offerings of the faithful.
The sacred inclo-
sures, the courts and plazas in which the great stone monoliths were
set up^ were the conjuring places of the priesthood where the gods
were consulted and invoked—^the sacred precincts w^here on festive
occasions the people were permitted to enter and to take part in
elaborate ceremonies and where they were made to realize the power
Plate
5
The
Great
Dragon,
South
Front,
Showing
Mask
of
the
Long-Nosed
God,
Surrounded
by
Glyphic
Inscriptions.
The
Date
Occur;
AT
THE
Top
OF
THE
COLUMN
ON
THF
RIGHT
SHOULDER.
OF
THE
TV/O-HEADED
DRAGON
FOUND
AT
COFA
GREAT DRAGOK OF QUIRIGUA, GUATEMALA—HOLMES.
453
and glory of the gods, thus insuring their willing subservience to
the temporal powers.
To the people the
stelae, probably originally
the images of rulers set up at stated intervals, as the dates indicate,
were divinities to be revered and served.
The zoomorphic divinities
represented by the massive altarlike monmnents were doubtless in
the native mind
definitely individualized,
vitalized
beings, eternal
and endowed with varied powers of extraordinary potency.
When,
under the inspired direction of the shamanistic master, the sculptor
carved a wing, it was not of a bird he thought
; when he carved the
reptilian fangs, it was not of a serpent he thought ; when he carved
the turtlelike flippers, he thought not of a turtle.
In
all cases he
had in mind a being or divinity, which, though a vrork of the imagi-
nation, pure and simple, was to him as real as the living forms with
which nature surrounded him.
The assemblage of attributes represented in the sculptured dragon
were not necessarily the invention of the people or the priesthood of
Quirigua, for they must have grown up with the growth of myth
through unnumbered generations.
It is probable that they were but
dimly understood even by the officials who directed the sculpture of
their images and who assumed to be the familiars of the gods. We
may be quite sure that every one of the multitude of features carved
with so much labor and artistic care had associated with it some ele-
ment of m^dh.
The dragon w^as doubtless regarded as the material
embodiment of a divine being perhaps of the highest order in the
native pantheon.
May
it then not be, as some have surmised, that
this image impersonates the Earth Monster , the World God, and that
from the wide-open
jaw^s, facing the ceremonial
plaza, issued the
divinity of the world of man, that through the glyph-hidden jaws
of the southern end peered the grotesque demon of the underwmrld,
and that the strangely compounded visage of the upper surface was
the guardian of the sky?
We must remain content, however, with
mere surmises, until research penetrates more deeply into the mys-
teries of Maya mythology.
Of one thing we may be assured—our
imaginings, howsoever elaborated and fanciful, can be but as shad-
ows compared with the complex imagery with which the 2-headed
12-eyed dragon was invested by the ancient worshipers of Quirigua.
The functions .—The sculptured monoliths of Quirigua were carved
with a definite purpose in view and had a particular and very impor-
tant function to perform.
Although the highest technical
skill of
the people was lavished upon them, and the esthetic perfection of
the
result was kept constantly in view, the primary purpose was
not the gratification of the craving for beauty.
They had a
vital
bearing on the welfare of the people—a practical function of the
greatest
moment.
Through
the
idols
the
mysterious
powers
of
nature, which they were believed to represent, were reached, and
73839*^—SM 1916
30
464
ANKUAL BEPORT SMITHSONUN INSTITOTIOS', 1»16.
by
taeans
of
aji elaborate system
of
shamanistic
conjurings and
appeals, were placated, controlled, and utilized in the interests nomi-
nally of the people, actually of the shamanistic establishment.
The story of the development of this strange ^stem of invo-
cation of the gods through zoomorphic forms furnishes one of the
most interesting and important chapters in the culture history of
the American race, operating at
all times as a strong force in the
direction
of
material,
intellectual, and
artistic advancement, and
this notwithstanding the fact that the whole divine structure was
a work of the imagination pure and
simple.
The beginnings of
the function of the works which we call idols is to be sought in the
vague imaginings of primitive man when he first essayed to localize
and interpret the mysterious powers of nature to which he found
himself subject.
As the
result of his speculations he reached
the
generalization
that all things in nature were imbued with life and power in some
degi'ee like his own; and
special things,
as
stones,
trees, animals,
the heavenly bodies, were regarded as having exceptional potency
for good or evil; some were adopted by him as protective agencies,
as charms and
talismans—incipient
divinities—while
others
wei'e
feared and avoided as agencies of evil.
In time, with the growth of myth, the imagination reached
be-
yond mere natural
forms, conjuring up new
beings,
largely
zoo-
raorphic in type, haijing special supernatural attributes and powers.
Certain reptilian forms, on account of their death-dealing powers
and mysterious ways were prime favorites, and in time images of
these, with strange variations, took the place of the real creatures
and were invested with attributes and powers in a superior degree.
With
the
further growth
of myth
the
conceptions became com-
posites of unrelated
oi-iginals, and the images were elaborated
to
the extent of the mechanical and artistic capabilities of the people.
Carved in wood or stone and modeled in stucco or in
clay, these
became the
centers about which
sanctuaries were
built and
cere-
monies were conducted—all designed to cultivate the favor of the
divinities whose forms they represented for good to themselves and
evil to their enemiea
These activities, growing in importance, led
to the organization of bodies of religious servitors, of a shaman-
istic priesthood whose function it was to care for the sanctuaries,
conserve the sacredness of the idols, and formulate and conduct the
daborate rituals.
But the activities of the priestly establishments
tihus developed, based primarily on the idea of appeal to the gods
in the interests of the community for the commonweal, came, by
a. natural and inevitable extension of unquestioned power, to have
other and ulterior purposes in view.
r0-\.
Top
View
of
the
Great
Dragon
from
a
Model
of
the
Specimen
Prepared
by
the
American
Museum
of
Natural
History,
Plate 8.
Snn'th';oninn
Ri-prirt, 1016 —Holrni’r.
Drawing of a Portion of thl Western Face of the Dragcjn, Smowing the Graceful
Decorative-
Ei. arqration oe
ihe Reptilian Upper Jaw and the Human Visaol Issuing
from the Mouth.
(After Maudslay.)
GREAT PEAGOlsr OF QGmiGUA, OXTATEMALA—HOLMES.
455
The fateful trend.—There is thus another side to the story of the
functions of the idols and of the vast religious establishments of the
Maya cities.
Under the undisputed control of an organized body of
wide influence and a religio-political system hoary with age, the peo-
ple doubtless believed themselves working for the common good and
in obedience to the bidding of dieties whose reality and authority
were constantly impressed upon them.
They had no means of arriv-
ing at a correct knowledge of the truth that the gods of the entire
pantheon were mere fictions and that the revered priesthood, although
the embodiment of the highest wisdom, the promoters of learning,
and perhaps also the conservators of moral standards, was
at the
same time a body of organized parasites, their position and authority
being sustained by the cunning use of the images in stone and the
complex system of festivals connected with their conjuration.
We may not be far amiss in surmising that under the evergrowing
requirements of the shamanistic body in carrying forward their Pam-
bitioiis schemes, the energies and resources of the people were ab-
sorbed in larger and larger measure—in quarrying, hewing,
trans-
porting, building, carving, providing, and serving, and
that/' as the
natural
agencies of deterioration and decay made
inroads! on the
splendid establishments which they had builded, they were. called on
to quarry and carve and build again in an ever-losing struggle against
the elements and against the undetected incubus of the ambitious and
selfish priestcraft. We can readily conceive that these conditions pre-
vailed until the energies and resources of the people weJre impaired or
exhausted, and that gradually the authority of the priekhood and the
demands of the gods through them elicited no response from the im-
poverished people, so that disintegration and decay rapidly super-
vened, and that the end came on apace, as
it must come to all struc-
tures builded on sand, and more especially to those builded on the
treacherous sands of the imagination.
It thus appears that to account for the decay of the MayaVculture
and the ruin of its wonderful cities we do not have to call primarily
on the more drastic agencies of destruction—war, pestilence, chs^es
in the level of the land, floods, and earthquakes, one or all of which,
however, may have aided in precipitating the disaster.
The seeds
of decay were inherent in the system, as they are inherent in every
organization and structure of whatsoever kind that involves the long-
continued, ever-growing, and unrequited waste of the energies and
resources of a people.
Esthetic dgrdftcance.^Vfhil^ the great dragon of Quirigua may be
regarded as representing the culminating stage of religious art in
aboriginal America, it serves also to mark the highest level reached
in esthetid refinement.
The religious motive was the strong dynamic)
force which, more than all other agencies combined, carried culture
466
ANNtAL BSPOET SMITHSONIAIT IlTSTiroTION, 1»1«.
forward through the prolonged stages of savagery and barbarism to
the borderland of civilization.
Due to a highly centralized religio-
political form of government, the people and their resources were
readily
available
in
carrying out
great undertakings, and
rapid
strides in the development of
institutions and arts were possible.
The esthetic faculty dependent largely on nonesthetic activities for its
manifestations was thus afforded its greatest opportunity.
The arts of taste had their origin, as had religion, in the state of
savagery ; and with some very ancient peoples, as the Troglodytes of
western Europe, decided advance was made in both graphic and
plastic representation of life foi-ms, and this quite independently, so
far as evidence is available, of any religious association or influence.
The Maya in the beginning may have passed through a correspond-
ing stage of nonsymbolic art, but howsoever this may be, it was not
until religious symbolism gave special significance to the subject mat-
ter of representative art, that particular advance was made toward
the higher esthetic expression.
With this great group, as with the
American peoples generally, the esthetic in its higher manifestations
grew as a vine upon the strong stem of religious symbolism.
Ee-
ligion furnished the conception and the energy and skill necessary
to its realization;
it prepared the design, supervised its application
to the stone, and drove the chisel that carved
it.
It demanded re-
sults in form, finish, and embellishment of the highest order, for in
the view of their devotees the gods appreciated the beautiful as well
as the essential.
We do not lose sight of the fact, however, that ap-
preciation of the qualities regarded as pleasing to the gods had
its
origin in that which was pleasing to the man.
Certain qualities of
form, line, color, and arrangement gave pleasure to the eye ; certain
qualities of finish gave pleasure to the touch, and this appreciation of
the qualities called esthetic, was a thing of slow growth in the human
mind, but
of
great moment
in
the
history
of
culture.
To the
pleasure afforded by perfected qualities of the works themselves were
added always the incentive of religious fervor, the ambition to excel,
and the fascination of creating for creation’s sake.
The importance of the esthetic element in Maya art can hardly be
overestimated.
It
is doubtful
if any people at a corresponding
stage of cultural
evolution was more highly
gifted with
artistic
l^ius and appreciation and gave more attention to its application
to sU fonns of art than the Mayan race.
Every plastic form and
every line of the dragon bear testimony to this
fact.
It was not
t^l^on that stipulated that no straight
line and no right angle
tdiould appear in the image of the dragon ;
it was not religious re-
atricfion toat provided that no curve should be the arc of a circle,
toat every curve should be subtle, and that all outlines of glyphs and
Smllhsonian Report, 1916,—Holmes.
Plate
9.
}•
.
Drawing of a Portion of the Relief Sculpture of the Eastern Face of the Dragon,
Showing One of the Lateral Eyes and the Remarkable Embellishments Surround-
ing
It.
(After Maudslay.)
!:>m
t!u.(
R‘'port,
1 9
1 P — Holnirs
Plate
10.
1. A Demon Space
Filler, Probably a Highly Elaborated Glyph.
2. A Demon Space Filler, Probably a Highly Elaborated Glyph.
QMIAT DRAGOir OF QUIBiatTA, GtrAOT.MALA.—HOLMES.
467
cartouches should take the roundish, calculiform character.
Every
feature
of
design had complete
esthetic
supervision
(pis.
8,
9).
Throughout America plastic freehand methods always prevailed over
the mechanical.
In the creation of this monument the great motor
force was
religion, but the ever-watchful
esthetic impulse joined
hands with that force in making it a masterpiece of art.
Dependence of art on religion is amply shown in what has been
said, but the fact may be further illustrated.
If in the course of the
progressive decadence of a primitive culture the religious impulse
should lose its hold on the people, all save the most ordinary esthetic
activities would cease and
it
is manifest that no additional block
would be hewn from the quarry, no great stone would be carried to
sacred precinct, no mythic conception would be applied to the stone,
and no hand would be available to undertake the task of realization.
It is observed that the ancient Maya sculptor abhorred blank spaces
in his designs and
also that in cases there
is an overcrowding of
subject matter, but no people has ever filled in waste spaces more
effectively than the sculptors of Quirigua.
The space-filling figures
are not, however, mere meaningless embellishments, but are doubt-
less
generally
significant, having
reason
to
be
in
the
particular
places where they
are introduced.
In this particular masterpiece
the
introduced
elements embody
animals, human
and
grotesque
figures with symbols and
embellishments
all
in
agreeable
accord
with the composition proper. A somewhat definite idea of the gen-
eral character of
the design and the remarkable elaboration and
beauty of the work can be gained by a study of the photographs and
drawings herewith presented
(pi.
10).
Technic aspect.—The technic
history of the
great
stone begins
with its removal from the quarry and transportation to the present
spot. How this herculean task was performed must remain a matter
of speculation.
With a people unacquainted with the highly de-
veloped appliances of civilization, the task would seem beyond the
possibility of accomplishment.
It is quite impossible to say whether
the removal was by land or by water.
If by land, a road had to
be constructed over ground now rough, now yielding and unstable,
and a great force of men with rollers and ropes would be required.
If by water, a broad and deep canal had to be dug, and a raft of
large proportions constructed and launched to sustain the immen^
weight.
Unless decided evidence of the use of the latter method
appears, the former must be accepted as the one probably employed.
The designing and carving of the monument, the methods and
means, are matters of great scientific interest on which we have but
meager light.
It was not a task within the reach of an uncultured
people.
The complicated conception had to be clearly in mind, the
458
AKKUAL KEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
design had to be worked out in minute detail, and the application of
the drawings to the irregular rounded surface of the stone was a
matter of no little diificulty.
As a i^reliminary step the shape of the
stone had to be modified to suit the purpose, the surface smoothed
before the outlines could be applied in pigment, and the many fea-
tures adjusted to their several places ])reparatory
to the beginning
of the sculptor s work.
The execution of the work
is
a
di^ep mystery and
its successful
completion a great marvel.
A lump of coarse sandstone—according
to Maudshiy
a
breccia composed
of
feldspar,
mica, and
quartz,
very absojhent, and weighing about loO pounds to the cubic loot”
had to be attacked with tools the nature of which remains to-day
a matter of conjecture.
It
is generally believed that these people
were Avithout hard metal
tools, and although stone tools were prob-
ably ecpial to the task, few traces of such tools applicable to tlie pur-
pose have been
found.
We thus pause before
a
second mystery,
for had stone tools been used in the arduous and prolonged task of
crumbling with pick and luimmer and smoothing by abraders, they
would
still exist and ought to be found frequently
in the work of
clearing and excan ation, for it seems highly prol)able that the carv-
ing of the various monuments was caiu’ied on, not only on tlio spot
whez'e they now stand, but after final placement upon their founda-
tions.
If bronze were
used,
it may have
disap|)eared by
dcc^ay.
However, there are no traces of the use of this metal
in any form
and no documentaiy testimony supporting the hypotliesis of
its use
by the Mayan peoples.
A striking feature of the sculptural work of Quirigua, well illus-
trated in
tlie exam])le here pj’esented,
is the mastej'ly AAorkmanship.
The design
is adjusted
perfectly
to
the shape
of the
stone,
and.
there
is no suggestion of incompetence on the part of the sculptor
and no indication of the lack of elfectiveness on the part of the im-
plements
used.
The
forms,
shallow
or
deep,
simple
or complex,
are all carved with equal directness and vigor.
The chisel may not
haA^e accomplished
all that the conception required, for ideals may
rise entirely above the capacity of material embodiment, but there is
no suggestion of hesitation or inelliciency in the completed Avork.
Culture statm.—The date inscribed in hieroglypliic characters on
this monument occurs on the
left shoulder of
tlie southern
front,
and, as read by Morley, corresponds Avith the year 525 of the Chris-
tian era.
Certain groups of the Maya race, including the people of
Quirigua, had made such advance in culture as to justify the claim
that they had
attained
the
state known
as
civilization.
Glyphic
writing was well advanced, and students are pretty well agreed that
a phonetic method of record, the achievement of which best marks
GREAT DRAGON OF QUIRTGUA, GUATEMALA—HOLMES.
459
the close of the barbaTian and the beginning of the civilized state,
was an accomplished fact—not the perfected representation of
ele-
mentary sounds, perhaps, but rather symbols for words and syllables.
In many of the arts the Maya had made remarkable progress—in
architecture, sculpture, the cutting of gems, pottery, the textile art,
and
metallurgy,
they
could compare
favorably
with
the
several
countries of central and western Euro{)e
at corresponding periods
down to the year 525 A. D.
The
future ,—The
great
stone
structures
of
Quirigiia
crumbled
beneath the attacks of destructive climatic agencies,
aidcvl possibly
by earthijuakes and other natural forces, and were deserted by an im-
poverished and disheartened people; and
it was not long before the
shattered
walls
Avere deeply buried beneath
their oavu
debris and
covered
])y the quick-growing tiupical
Aegetatiou.
The monolithic
sculptures scattered about the courts and
plazas remained entirely
hidden from vieAv by the thick veil that nature had spread oA^er them.
To-day all are brought to light again and stand exposed in the open,
the delight of students and
the
inaiwel of the visiting world.
In
this condition they arc unfortunately subject to the attacks of wind
and i'ain, the wear by repeated cleaning, and injury by vandal hands.
Nature, after disaster had fallen upon the city, spread over the ruins
a mantle of protection, but to-day the explorer has exposed them to
further ruin.
No wall, howsoever strong, Avill stand exposure in the
open in this climate,
foi* a single generation.
The restored walls of
the principal building of Quirigua, from 4 to G feet in thickness and
not exceeding 12 feet in height, laid up in 1010 with Portland cement,
are to-day
in a state of ruin as complete as the original
Avails were
Avhen
first brought to light by the School of American Archfcology.
In this state they are ready to welcome, as did the original ruins a
thousand or more years ago, the quick-groAving veil of vegetation.
The question of the future of these monuments thus becomes
a
matter of interest to the
aa hole civilized Avorld.
So precious are they
to history and science and so valuable as a material asset to the peo-
ple of Guatemala, that steps Avill certainly be taken to shelter them
from the dangers Avith Avhich they are beset.
Is it better then, con-
sidering impending
obliteration,
that they
should have remained
forever entombed in the forest ?
Certainly not, for the stage of civil-
ization has now arrived in Avhich the historic value of such monu-
ments istappreciated, and their story, so far as archeological science
can reveal
it, will soon be written into the literature of the world.
This record must be so
full and lasting that should the works them-
selves entirely disappear the world shall still have, and for all time,
the full advantage of the story.
Future generations
Avill, however,
hardly
excuse
the
present
should
no
adequate
steps
be
directed
460
ANKUAL EEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION^
1916.
toward the preservation of what remains of these masterpieces of
ancient American art.
Should the extraordinary upper surface of
the dragon, shown in an accompanying illustration, continue as now
exposed to the elements and to the wear that will come, what must
we anticipate
its appearance will be after
tlie lapse of a thousand
years?
The strongly relieved features will be leveled with the gen-
eral surface and the deep-set eyes lifted to heaven will, from the tears
that
fill them with every storm, be blind depressions in tlie roughly
pitted surface of a great meaningless bowlder of sandstone.
As soon
as the work of exploration and record is completed the work of pres-
ervation, of covering in, should be taken up as a national obligation
of the Ivopublic in whose custody these monuments must remain.
A PEEHTSTOEIC MESA VEEDE PUEBLO AND ITS
PEOPLE.
By
J. Walter Fewkes.
[With 15
plates.]
INTRODUCTION.
The Mesa Verde, or Green Plateau, is situated
ill the southwestern
corner of Colorado and was
set
ajiart by Congress from the
TJte
Peservation for protection of
its prehistoric remains.
Its form
is
oval, measuring about 42,000 acres, with an average elevation of over
7,000 feet above sea level, rising abruptly on the north side to 8,700
feet, over 1,500
feet above the plain.
Its surface
is cleft by deep,
almost parallel canyons opening into the Mancos Valley on the south,
between which are spurs of the mesa sloping gradually southward.
In tlie canyons
(jil. 2) are located the most remarkable cliff dwellings
of the Southwest.
The top of the plateau
is dotted with mounds
of earth
and
stone.
The
present
article
deals with
one
of these
mounds, which was excavated and the exposed ruins repaired by the
Smithsonian
Institution, during the months of July, August, and
September, 1910, at the request of the Secretary of the Interior, fol-
lowing a recommendation of the writer in his report to the latter on
field work at Sun Temple in the summer of 1915.
Clusters of mounds composed
of
artificially worked
stones and
earth situated on the surface of the mesa have long been known, and
from
indications
these
piles of
stones were believed
to mark the
sites of buildings.
None of these mounds, however, had been opened,
or their contents investigated.
The plan of operations was to
de-
termine, by excavations, the character of the buildings concealed in
them, and
to interpret their cultural relations and
significance. A
cluster of mounds known as the Mummy Lake group was chosen as
promising and advantageously situated for this purpose.
The exca-
vation of one mound of this cluster revealed a large building of a
type new to the plateau.
The importance of the results of the work and their bearing on
southwestern archeology may be
better appreciated
after reading
what immediately
follows. A portion of the area now known as
461
462
ANNUAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916 .
Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico was inhabited
in pre-
historic times by Indians culturally unlike those of any other x’egion
of North America, and for that reason this unique territory bears
the name Pueblo culture area.
It is, in fact, the only aboriginal cul-
ture
area where
buildings have determined
the name, being
dis-
tinguished from all others mainly by architectural characters.
This
limitation of characteristic terraced communal houses to a geographi-
cal area leads us to associate climate or other conditions of that area
with peculiarities of buildings, as cause and eifect.
Of man when he first entered the Southwest, we know
little save
that his physical features show that he was an Indian.
The time
of
his advent
is
in
doubt.
Considerable obscurity
also
exists
re-
garding the direction whence Indian colonists entered this district,
but
there
is no
doubt
regarding
the
geographical
locality where
Pueblo culture, judged frojn the character of buildings, originated.
The immigrant dlans that first peopled the Southwest are supposed
to have come
from
people who
built
neither
cliff
dwellings nor
})ueblo», conse(iuently this style of dwelling originated exactly wliere
it
is now found.
But the Pueblo culture must not be interpreted solely by peculiari-
ties in buildings, for although it receives its name from architectural
characters, there are inffuential factors that
it shares with those of
other tribes of Indians which
ai*e very important.
One of the most
notewoidhy of these is the possession of maize or Indian corn as a
reliable food resource.
Agriculture
is one of the corner stones of
the Ihieblo culture, as masonry is another.
When man first entered
the Southwest he knew little of the advantages of stone as a build-
ing material, for he built his hut of mud, sticks, or possibly of skins
of
animals.
The
North
American
Indian
became
a
good
stone
mason as a result of a life in caves.
Nowhere outside of the South-
west were elaborate buildings’ constructed of dressed stone by the
aborigines north of Mexico.
Masonry and agriculture, then, are the
primary factors that determined the essential peculiarities of Pueblo
culture.
The Mesa Verde was set aside as a national park on account of its
prehistoric stone buildings and monuments.
While
it presents rare
facilities for a study of aboriginal architecture, it shares with other
regions of the Southwest the condition that imperishable aboriginal
buildings
have
survived
from
prehistoric
times.
Evolution
of
masonry in this region is a development which occurred in prehistoric
times, or before the advent of the white man.
No European ever
saw an inhabited cliff dwelling on the Mesa Verde, and no article of
European manufacture has ever been found in the undisturbed debris
1 Stone walls and
vaults
were,
of course,
constructed
elsewhere by
Indians
j
cf. Mr.
Gerard B'owke’s
article, Bur. Amor. Ethnol.
Bull. No. 37,
et
al.
MESA VERDE PUEBLO—PEWKES.
463
of
the
rooms.
These
cliff
dwellings were abandoned
before
the
Spanish conquest.
The inhabitants of the caves on the Mesa Verde were ignorant of
hieroglyphs or
letters, and therefore have
left no written account
of their origin and early history, although vague traditions are pre-
served by their descendants, esj)ecially among living Pueblos, as the
Ifopi.
The most reliable data we now have to aid us in interpreting
their culture are their buildings and archeological remains, or monu-
ments, and
Jiiinor
anti({uities, called
artifacts, especially
objects of
burnt clay, that they have left behind.
Their houses are the most
significant.^
As pointed out by Westropp, in referring to prehistoric
and historic cultures of other races: ^SXrchitecture
is the external
form of their public life;
it is an index of their state of knowledge
and social progress.”
One type of Imilding characteristic of this culture is illustrated by
Spruce- tree House and
Clilf Palace, but this
is not the only form.
There are others, such as Sun Temple, brought to light in the sum-
mer of 1915,
in which we find a building sj)ecialized
for religious
purposes.
Field work
in the Mesa Verde during the summer of 191G
first
^e^'ealed
still another type differing considerably from the two pre-
ceding.
This type, locally new, is known to ethnologists as a pueblo,
commordy defined as a terraced community building constructed in
the open or not attached to
cliffs.
It
is a representative of many
buried houses on Mesa Verde, and
it
is not too much to say that
formerly there were as many buildings of pueblo type on toj) of the
plateau as there were
clilf dwellings
in
its canyons.
Manifestly a
knowledge of the Mesa Verde variety of pueblo
is desirable, ajid a
description of
it will enlarge our conception of i3rehistoric culture
in this locality.
The object of the present article, then,
is to make
this known as a contribution to oui- knowledge of
tiie aborigines of
Mesa Verde.
The gi*neral condition and situation of mounds on the surface of
the plateau
will
first be considered.
THE MUMMY LAKE GROUP OF IVIOUNDS.
One
of
the
best known
group
of mounds
in
the Mesa Verde
National Park is situated south of a reservoir called Mummy Lake.
There
is no good
reason
for
calling
this
prehistoric
reservoir
a
lake, for it is not a lake, and no mummies have ever been found in
or near
it.
The term
Moki Lake,” by which
it is sometimes desig-
nated,
is equally meaningless, but both names are so firmly fixed in
literature that it is difficult now to substitute others.
^ Probably pome writers on
classical archeology would hardly
consider
cliff
dwellings
architectural
forms.
464
ANlSrUAL BEPORT SMITHSONUN INSTITUTION,
1916.
The
best
description
of
this
reservoir
is the
following,
quoted
from Baron Nordenskibld’s
“Cliff
dwellers
of
the Mesa Verde”
(p. 74)
A structure of considerable size, wliicli was probably utilized for purposes of
irrigation,
lies on Chapin Mesa, some kilometers above
the great
ruins and
not very
far from the slope
into Montezuma
Valley.
A
large depression 30
meters
in diameter
is surrounded by
a
low,
circular
wall
4.5 meters
thick.
Water was probably conducted to this reservoir from some neighboring gulch.
Traces of a
ditch which formed
the connection have becm observed north of
the
reservoir by Richard
Wctherill.
A view of the reservoir
is given
in
fig-
ure 43, which, however, .shows only a part of a low, ring-shaped mound over-
grown with
bushevS,
all that
is
left of the thick
wall.
Quite mnir the
reser-
voir we find the ruins of a considerable
village, but the walls are now leveled
with the ground, leaving only huge heaps of stone to mark the site.
Mummy Lake, or Moki Lake (pi. 7, fig. 1)
, is an artificial depression
surrounded by an oval or circular ridge of earth, in places outlined
by double walls of stones suggesting rooms.
Excavations at the base
of these stones, however, show that their foundations do not extend
far below the
surface; but work tlms
far has not been
sufficient
to prove conclusively that there were not rooms on the
]:)eriphcry.
Mummy Lake
lies on the northern edge
of
a group
of mounds
where the slope of the surface of the plateau would seem to indi-
cate that water could be
readily drawn from
it.
It
is probable
that the farms of the ancients were situated between the pueblos
of the Mummy Lake group, and that
these
farms were
irrigated
by water drawn from this reservoir by means of irrigating ditches.
In
the
time
that
has
elapsed
since
tlie Mummy
Lake
pueblos
were deserted the
re.servoir,
like the
ditches, has been
filled with
wind-blown sand or
soil, so that
its depth has greatly diminished,
and at present water remains in
it only a short time.
Probably in
prehistoric days
it contained a perpetual water supply of a purer
quality than now, when
it is fouled by cattle excrement and made
impure by mud washed
into
it from the surrounding banks; and
if such were the case the reservoir probably supplied the neighbor-
ing pueblos with drinking water, since springs in this neighborhood
are remote and very difficult of access.
For instance, at the bottom
of Soda Canyon there is an unpalatable soda
spring, a climb from
which to the pueblo is very arduous.
Another spring, at the head
of the same canyon, now used
for' watering stock,
is over a mile
distant, while a third possible source of palatable water is near the
head of Navaho Canyon, even
farther away.
There was a small
reservoir, possibly communicating with
the larger by
canals, now
clogged with sand at each mound in the group.
One of these minor
reservoirs is indicated on the map near the mound excavated.
A much worn trail extended from Mummy Lake to Spruce-tree
House,
just
east of the house excavated, and between
it and the
MESA VERDE PUEBLO—FEWKE8.
465
rim of Soda Canyon.
This trail, used by horsemen before the Gov-
ernment road was constructed, was probably an
old
Indian path
of great antiquity, connecting the various pueblos of the Mummy
Lake group
with
Spruce-tree House and
Cliff
Palace.
A
steep
branch trail descends from
it over the rim of Soda Canyon to the
spring above mentioned, near which are mounds of ruins sheltered
by Steamboat Rock.
This trail may have been used by water car-
riers in prehistoric times.
The position of the mounds on the plateau near Mummy Lake were
first designated on an excellent map of Mesa Verde, published by the
United States Geological Survey.
It is evident from this map that
the
cluster
of mounds near Mummy Lake
is only one
of
several
groups; for instance, from the rim of Soda Canyon, looking north
and
east, four similar clearings can be seen, in each of which are
several
artificial mounds,
all of which have the same general form
and are covered with sagebrush.^
No regularity is noted in their ar-
rangement
(j)!. 1), but they vary in size and shape, all appearing to
have, as a common feature, a central depression, which, judging from
that excavated, indicates a large kiva. We find superficial evidences
of rectangular and oval houses, and
in
one
insi;ance the building
under the mound may have a D shape.
Fragments of walls project-
ing above the ground are absent in all cases, but in one or two in-
stances the direction of the buried wall can be followed for a few
feet by surface indications.
As
these communes or
clusters of
small
pueblos
are more
con-
spicuous in clearings than among the thick cedars, the question nat-
urally
arises whether they were
built before
the
cedars grew
or
whether man burnt or otlierwise removed the trees of the forest before
he laid their foundations.
The author inclines to the belief that the
clearings were made by the hand of man, and that cedars were grow-
ing on the mesa when man appropriated
it for his habitation or for
planting.
When
once- removed
the
constant tramping
of
people
would
certainly prevent
trees from again growing on the cleared
areas.
At
the
time the buildings were
inhabited they were
sur-
rounded by farms cleared of underbrush, and
it appears from the
amount of sand and soil filling the rooms of the pueblo that the wind
played a great role in transporting sand to the mound from the sur-
face of the bare earth.
Sagebrush or trees would tend to anchor
the soil and prevent its blowing away, which implies that the sage-
brush has grown
since
the
fields were no longer
cultivated.
As
shown on the map (pL 1), one or two of the smaller mounds of the
group lie outside the clearing or in the cedars, a few of which trees
1 This relation
of mounds to sagebrush covered clearings
Is discussed by Dr. Prudden,
Amer.
Anthr.,
Vol.
16,
No.
1,
1914.
466
AKOTAL REPORT 8MITHS0KIAN IKSTITtTTIOlSr,
1916.
also appear on top of the mounds.
It may be mentioned that there is
no evidence of a sagebrush clearing in the area about Sun Temple,
which supports the theory that
it was unfinished and uninhabited.
Had Sun Temple been a domicile we would expect what we find in
the neighborhood
of Mummy
Lake, some
evidences
of
cultivated
fields.
The
sagebrush
clearings
are
very
fertile and
throughout
the
summer months
are carpeted with
flowers, the most abundant of
vhich is the ^‘Indian paint brush”; later these plants, rare or un-
known among the cedars, are succeeded by various species of asters.
On account of the large number of flowering plants
in the sage-
brush clearings, unusually tame humming birds are very common,
but with the advent of autumn they likewise vanish and the leaves
of the scrub oaks change their colors and the mesa top is brilliantly
painted with bright yellow and red.
Almost everywhere, especially
over the surface of the mounds, fragments of pottery are abundant,
and here and there on the level surface between the mounds are re-
mains of low stone
walls, suggesting
pit-houses,^
gardens, or
irri-
gating ditches.
There are several clusters of mounds visible from near the Mummy
Lake group.
On the side of Soda Canyon there is an elevated out-
crop, called Steamboat Rock, which protects a
cluster of mounds,
with sunny southern exposure, from the north winds.
In a clearing
on
hills near the head of Soda Canyon there are also mounds or
sites of former pueblos.
It
is important to note that these groups
of mounds always occur
in sagebrush
clearings;
their
occurrence
among cedars, where they are smaller, is common but less conspicu-
ous.
The many flowers blooming in these localities show that the
land is rich, and
it is probable that Indian corn could still be grown
on the Mesa without artificial irrigation.
MOUND EXCAVATED..
The mound in the Mummy Lake group chosen as a type for ex-
cavation to determine the character of Mesa Verde pueblos is situ-
ated four miles and a quarter due north of Spruce-tree House, and
is one of sixteen scattered at intervals on both sides of the Govern-
ment road.
It stands about an eighth of a mile east of this road,
a few steps from the rim of Soda Canyon.
This pueblo (pi. 4) might
be called Far View House, for the distant southern outlook from
it
is very fine and has been commented upon by almost every visitor.®
I It would be
futile In the present state of our knowledge to speculate on the number
of the Inhabitants of these buildings long ago fallen into
ruins,
If simultaneously Inhab-
ited.
There is no doubt it was large, much greater than suspected by early Investigators,
We are on the threshold of a great research and every year’s
field work will advance m
a »tep in deciphering the history of this interesting race.
•The name Par View House, which calls attention to this fact, was suggested by one of
my workmen, Mr. Jason Myers.
Smithsonian
Report,
1916.
—
Fewkes,
PLATE
2.
Typical
Mesa
Verde
Canyom,
Looking
South.
LATE
Far
View
Mound
from
South
Side
before
Excavation.
Photograph
by
Fre
South
Side
of
Far
View
House
after
Excavation.
Photograph
by
George
L.
Beam.
Model
of
Far
View
House.
'For
Details
Consult
Fig.
MESA VEBDE PXTEBLO—^FEWKES.
467
From its highest rooms the corners of the four States of Utah, Ari-
zona, New Mexico, and Colorado—the only case in the country where
four
States meet in one point—can be seen
far
to the southwest.
Sleeping Ute Mountain, Ship Rock, once called
the
Needles, and
distant mountains
of
Arizona,
rise on
the
horizon
to
the
south
and
west.
In
the
less
distant
foreground,
beyond
a
forest
of
cedars,
one
can
trace
several
important
canyons
of
the
Mesa
Verde, among which may be mentioned Navaho, Mancos, and Soda.
When the wind
is favorable, the
flag
al
Spruce-tree camp can be
seen
as a speck waving abo\e the trees; the course of Spruce-tree
Canyon can be traced without
difficulty through
its whole length.
The surface of the land south of the ruins is covered with a dense
forest of cedars and pihon trees sloping to <he south.
Looking back
from the well-known tower at the head of Navaho Canyon or across
country from the fine ruin, Spring House, one could make out the
workmen on the ruin, with a good glass.
Not many feet
(80) from
the southwest corner of the court there
is in view
a
large mound
pleading
for excavation which may have an
interesting
story
to
impart regarding aboriginal culture.
Two mounds in the group are
situated
in the cedars beyond, and
a
third, of large
size,
lies just
south of the edge of the sagebrush clearing.
The site of the pueblo
is the most prominent one in the southeast corner of the area, and in
a way
this pueblo may be
said
to dominate the
others.
It was
probably the largest, the most populous and
imjiortant.
When
excavation work was
begun,
the
entire
surface
of
this
mound, like
all of the group, was covered with sagebrush
(pi.
3)
and, like them
all, shoved
a deep circular depression in the interior
strewn with stones and debris.
Some seeker after curiosities had dug
a shallow trench on the highest point of the north
side, revealing
a fragment of a well-made wall and the sides of a doorway.
From
this
a trench had been dug across the mound
to what was even-
tually found
to be
the south
side.
This excavation had
not
de-
termined the form, size, or height of the building, and probably did
not reward the workmen with the small objects they sought.
Almost every
\isitor to the pueblo while the excavation was in
progress remarked on the quantity of debris that
filled the rooms
and naturally asked whence
it came.
Many
visitors were sure
it
indicated
a
great age;
that
a long time had
elapsed
to
fill
the
rooms.
The wiiter has also given much thought to this condition
and concludes that this alone does not prove a great antiqity.
It is
difficult to explain this condition and to draw conclusions therefrom,
but an examination of the arrangement or stratification of debris in
the rooms
is
significant.
For
several
feet below the
surface the
dfibris consists mainly of fallen stones mixed with adobe, resulting
ftofn the overturned tops of the walls.
Penetrating deeper or below
468
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
this stratum, soil free from stones was found.
This material, iden-
tical with the sand of the plateau, appears to have been blown into
the rooms or brought from the surrounding fields by wind storms.
The accumulation of debris due to falling walls and the addition of
wind-blown sand would progress very rapidly as long as the wall
projected above the ground, but would then cease.
That time might
be measured by
centuries,
certainly
not by
millenniums.
Lower
still occurs a layer of ashes with fragments of charcoal, a “ pay dirt ”
in which
artifacts
are common.
This
is mixed
with
adobe,
evi-
dently remnants of plastering.
Deeper sometimes follows another
layer of sand or an seolian deposit; a sequence not uniform and not
the same in thickness in
all rooms.
Evidently some of the rooms
Fig.
1.—Ground plan of Far View House.
Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado.
had been deserted and the sand accumulated to a depth of 2 or 3
feet, after which they were reoccupied and foundations laid on the
sand, the new walls having been constructed to the height of the
adjoining walls on this foundation.
GROUND PLAN OF BUILDING.
The arrangement of rooms reduced to a ground plan
is seen on
figure 1.
The lowest story of the main building has 40 secular roouus
and four ceremonial chambers or circular kivas. A few of the secR-
MESA VERDE PUEBLO—FEWKES.
469
lar rooms have not been excavated to their floors.
The majority of
these are arranged in two tiers on the north and west sides.
They
are
two-storied;
tlie
floor beams
of the
second
story, which
are
rafters of the first, were found and left in place.
The ro^v of rooms
north of Iviva A
likewisi^. show evidences of the existence of a third
story, so that
it may be said there were about 50 secular rooms in
the building.
All the secular rooms on the west side were completely excavated,
and eartli was removed from all kivas.
Tlie court or dance plaza is
situated south of the main structure and
is inclosed by a low wall
measuring 110 feet on the south side, 37^ feet on the east and 31 feet
on tlie west side.
The peculiarity of this pueblo consists of a large central circular
kiv{\, around which are grouped secular rooms, to which are added
smaller circular kivas.
This central room recalls a tower, but, unlike
some of the towers, tliis and the smaller kivns luive i)ilasters attached
to the walls for support of a vaulted roof.
The great
size of the
central kiva suggests that the room was not limited to one clan;
it
points rather to a fusion of clans forming so intimate a union of
several families that the room may no longer be considered as limited
to men of one clan, but the meeting jdace of a fraternity of priests,
drawn from several
clans.
The formation of such
a
fraternity
is
an advance, sociologically speaking, upon what we find indicated by
the
small
clan
kivas
of
cliff
dwellings and
implies more
recent
construction.
The regularity of the secular rooms, as shown in plate
5, strikes
the observer at
first
siglit.
The partitions separating these rooms
run
north-south
and
east-west
and
are
continuous
through
the
pueblo.
No such regularity
is found in
clifl' dw^ellings, although
it
is a marked feature of pueblo ruins along the Chaco and elsewhere.
Inhabited pueldos as Zuni, Walpi, and others show
this character
only to a limited extent.
The rooms of this pueblo are consolidated into a rectangular form
with straight walls broken on the south.
The building
is oriented
approximately to the cardinal iioints, and terraced to secure sunny
exposure on
the
south
side.
The method
adopted
by
the Mesa
Verde people
in
orienting their buildings,
as Sun Temple, seems
to have been followed
at
this pueblo, and
reveals a knowledge of
solstitial sun rising which is instructive.
The sun priests of the pueb-
los had, of course, no compass and probably the polar north was un-
known to them.
Their north, west, south, and east, as with the Hopi,
are not the same
as ours and
the
line of the south wall of Sun
Temple was determined by the position of the sun.
It was not made
haphazard, but was carefully thought out and determined by astro-
nomical observation before the foundation was laid down.
At the
73839°~sm 1010
31
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
autumnal equinox theoretically the sun rises in the east and sets in
the west.
In other words, sighting from the shrine along the
so-
called south wall on that date we ought to see the sun rise on a con-
tinuation of that
line,
if the wall extended exactly east and
west.
Observation shows that such is not the fact; the south wall does not
extend exactly east and west.
On the morning of the 21st of Sep-
tember, in company v^ith several others, the writer determined this
by observation, and found the line of the south
wall
if extended
would touch the point of sunrise on the horizon a
little more than
20° north of the extended line of the so-called south wall.
The same is true at sunset as viewed in the opposite direction as ob-
served by my friend, Mr. T. G. Lemmon.
The sun on that date sets
about 20° from the extended line of the so-called south wall, which,
if projected, would touch the point of sunrise at the summer solstice.
This
is so exact that the builders of Sun Temple probably
deter-
mined the direction of the wall by observation of the sun as seen
from the sun shrine at that solstice.
The point of summer solstitial
rising of the sun, as observed on the horizon, as well as sunset in mid-
winter were cardinal points among them, as among
tlie Hopi, and
determined the lines of
their temple devoted
to sun worship.
It
seems to have been in somewhat the same way that the orientation of
the pueblo at Mummy Lake was determined, but as the south wall
is more irregular and the building more patched upon this
side,
it
was not as easy to make observations there as at Sun Temple, but it
was possible to use the north wall for that purpose.
Inasmuch as some of the highest walls had been reduced in
alti-
tude by the
fall of their tops there had accumulated around their
foundations a mass of detached fragments.
The I’emains of fallen
walls were especially extensive along the north wall, and the removal
of this material was a work of considerable magnitude.
Scrapers
and stone boats were used for that purpose but the wall
itself was
laid bare by hand.
The funds appropriated for this work were in-
sufficient to permit the removal of this mass to a considerable dis-
tance to make the desired grading, but an automobile road was con-
structed around the ruin so that
it can be visited with little incon-
venience.
The excavation was begun on
the northwestern
corner
of
the
mound
(pi. 6), which later proved to be a small square room
(pi.
6,
fig.
3)
annexed to this angle of the building.
It was found that
the greater part of the northern wall had been reduced to about
6
feet
in
height, and
that
the
partition
walls
of
several
rooms
formerly attached to
it had been shattered.
The east wall
(pi.
6,
fig- 4) was in somewhat better condition, but inclined so much out-
ward that it was considered advisable to construct a buttress to hold
it up.
The south wall
(pL
8,
figs.
1, 2) was irregular and much
North
Wall,
Second
Stage
of
Excavation.
Photograph
by
4.
East
Wall,
at
North
End,
Photograph
by
E.
A.
Weil.
E.
A.
Weil,
Smithsonian Rrpnrt,
1 Q 16 —Fc'wkos.
Plate
8.
2. Masonry of North Wall.
Photograph by Mrs.
F. W. Chinkscales.
MESA VEE0E ETTEBLO—FEWKBS.
4 *?!
broken down
; here
(fig.
1, a, a, a,) buttresses were necessary.
Near a
recess situated midway in the length of the wall props {m, aa) had
been constructed by the aborigines to hold it from falling while the
building was still occupied.
The east wall also leaned considerably
and had to be repaired.
There is fine masonry in certain portions of
all these walls
(pi. 9, fig. 2; pi.
10,
fig. 2), but on the whole
it was
inferior to that seen at kSun Temple.
As the number of rooms is greater than in Sun Temple, the work
of excavation was more laborious than in the preceding summer, the
shattered
walls
necessitating more
repair
work.
The
walls
of
a
few rooms had been constructed on sand
foundations,
indicating
that these rooms had been deserted and reoccupied.
Other walls
showed evidences of having been repaired while rooms were still occu-
pied.
The writer had no doubt that the building was a habitation,
as nniny objects of household use were found at all depths from the
very inception of the work.
The main nortli wall, exclusive of a small room of unknown use
on the northwest angle, measures 113 feet from the northeast to the
northwest corner, and was formerly about 20
feet high.
The east
wall extends
5()|
feet and the west wall
C4-|
feet, both averaging
about
10
feet
high.
There
is
a
court
surrounded
by
remnants
of a wall rising a foot out of the ground on the south side.
This
wall rises highest where
it joins the southeast and southwest angles
of the main building.
About irtidway in its length there is a recess
in the south
wall, evidently intended
to hide the entrance ladder,
resembling
a similar recess at Sun Temple and
Clitf Palace.
The
angles of this recess and the accompanying wall show good masonry;
the corners inclined slightly outward, not being properly bonded to
the remaining wall.
The masonry throughout
is fair but shows all
the faults of cliff dwellers’ work
; joints unbroken, corners not bonded
or properly tied to the other walls.
The adjoining surfaces of the
superposed
stones were
not
flat,
the mason
relying upon
slivers
of stones, set in mud, to fill the intervals between them.
He so mul-
tiplied the number of these stones that it weakened the walls, for the
niud in which these were inserted easily washed out and the walls
became unstable in course of time, notwithstanding they are thick,
though in some cases the walls are narrow, not more than a few
inches wide.
Marks of human hands, and
in
a few
instances im^
pressions of corncobs were seen in the pointing of the walls—the
latter perhaps accidental ; no marks of a trowel were found.
l^atge, flat^ thin, unworked stones set on edge occur at the south-
west inner corner, where the wall surrounding the court juins the
south wall of the main building.
These stones are of such a
they may be called megaliths, as it would require three JtaeU
ohe of them.
Their insertion in the wall is regarded m a
472
AKKtJAL ^EtKPOBT SMITHSOKIAK IKSTlTtJTIOK,
1916.
of a stage in southwestern masonry antecedent to the employment
of hewn stones.^
As a rule there were no stones in the wall con-
struction that could not be carried by a single pair of hands.
A majority of stones show evidences of artificial j^ecking or dress-
ing on their surfaces, a few being smoothed by attrition.
Plastering
as a rule
is absent, but appears in layers over the surfaces of the
small kivas.
Its absence on the rectangular rooms and presence on
the kiva walls suggests that
it was protected by the vaulted roofs
of the latter, which fell long after' those of the former.
There are many
stones with
incised decorative
figures, possibly
mason marks,'’ different from those of Sun Temple set in the inner
walls of the building.
The spiral
(fig. 2), representing the serpent
of the water, occurs several times.
The same figure was noticed on a
round room
lately
discovered
a mile
from
Spruce-tree
House
and
on
a
round
toner
in
Cannon
Ball
ruin,
near the McElnio.
One of these
spi-
rals was accompanied by
radiating,
peripheral,
parallel
lines,
suggesting
a figure of the feathered snake.
Sev-
eral of the more striking figures from
stones fallen or
still remaining in the
walls are shown in the accompanying
figures
(fig.
3).
They
resemble
de-
signs on black and white pottery ware.
Various
interpretations
have
been
suggested
to
explain
these
figures,
some of which arc fanciful;
there
is
no
reason
to
doubt
that
they
were
primarily decorative, but they may also be symbolic.
The compli-
cated form of several incised figures suggests something more than
meaningless efforts at embellishment, but it is too much to hope that
they have any value as inscriptions.
Although
these designs
are
regarded as decorative, the limitation of the spiral to round rooms,
towers, or kivas hints at a deeper significance.
There is an obscure
legend among the Hopi that circular kivas are connected
in some
way with snake ceremonials, and the association of the spiral sign
and circular rooms seems to support, in a way, this idea.
Fio.
2.- -Serpent symbols
incised
on
rocks
in
masonry.
TYPES OP ROOMS.
The rooms have two shapes, circular and rectangular, with
tri-
angular
recesses between them, which
are
inclosures, not rooms*
eifctilar rooms
are
evidently
kivas
or
ceremonial
chambers,
4«Kllbe« an extendve
wall
of a
niln
in Montezuma Canyon construe^
mwiiMir.
2. North Wall, Looking Wlst.
Photograph by Fred Jeep.
r cwUcs.
Pi ate
11.
in
1
)
1 v
-
1. Southwest Angle, Partially Excavated.
Photcjgrat'h by
J. Wirsula.
2. Southwest Angle, Partially Excavated.
Phoiograph by
J. Wirsula.
MISA ‘vMnm I>UBBL(WFEWBtES.
473
evolutions of the men’s rooms of an early time.
The four circular
kivas are identical in form and architectural features with similar
rooms in
clilf houses, which identity may be explained by the fact
that
religious
buildings
preserve
archaic
forms.
They
are,
as
a
rule, better constructed than secular dwellings.
The secular rooms
vary considerably, but have
a
general
likeness
in
form,
size, and
position of doorways.
The
majority
of
rooms found in Mesa
Verde cliff houses fall
into
the
following
types:
1. Ceremonial
rooms or kivas: These
are
circular,^
some-
times
D'Shaped,
gen-
erally
subterranean.
There are two
varie-
ties
of
kivas— those
that
formerly had
a
vaulted
roof and
those with a flat roof.
Ban(|uefteb
and
pi-
lasters,
fire
holes,
ventilators,
and
de-
flectors are present in
the former.
2. Storage
rooms
These
are
generally
situated
on
the
ground flooi or below
S.— incised
figures
on
masonry,
the others.
They are
without windo\^s and were apparently entered from the roof; but
often
with
side entrances communicating one
with
another.
The
largest number of rooms in
cliff house are for storage of corn and
other i)Ossessions.
Tliis tyi)e may be regarded as one of the oldest.
3.
Sleejving rooms: This type
is the nearest approach to a living
room, but is
l aiady specialized for this sole use.
4. Milling rooms: In these inclosures, often covered, but generally
without roofs, we commonly find a mill for grinding corn, and some-
times a
fireplace for frying paper bread or ‘‘piki.”
A room
for
this latter use
is sometimes differentiated from the milling room.
•
—
•
—
—
There
Is
said
to be a rectangular kiva In one of the undescribed
cliff dwellings
of
the park.
474
AKNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTTTUTION,
1916.
Cooking was done out of doors, either in a secluded corner of the
court or on housetops ; several rooms have corner fireplaces.
5. Circular rooms: These rooms are sometimes lookouts, but
as
often dedicated to ceremonials.
In addition to those mentioned above, there exist also inclosures
of various forms, especially where we have circular kivas set in the
midst of a mass of rectangular chambers.
All types of rooms above
enumerated are not found in the excavated pueblo, but when present
they appear to reproduce
essential
features
characteristic of
cliff
dwellings.
As a
rule,
all the different
varieties are larger in the
open-air ruins than in the caves, where the protection of a natural
roof makes o}3en, outdoor li fe more agreeable and convenient.
Wooden beams of floors and rafters of roofs, very much decayed,
were found, especially in the rooms noidh of the large kiva.
The
ends of well-preserved cedar floor logs of a basal room protruded
into one of the rooms north of kiva B.
CEREMONIAL ROOMS. KIVAS.
The
well-known
prescribed
characteristic
of
cliff-house
kivas
depression
wholly
or
partially underground—is
preserved
in
the
pueblo by building rooms about their outer wall.
The kiva floor is
not at a lower level than the
flooi’S of surrounding rooms, but the
walls of other rooms inclose the kiva, and thus sink it to
all intents
below
the surface.
This
condition,
wliich
occurs
in some
of
the
kivas of the cliff dwellings, was universal at tlie Mummy Lake riiin.^
There were no wdndows in any of the ki^ as, and entrances were
by hatchways in the roof.
The surface of a kiva roof was too small
for courts;
the ceremonial dances probably took
place within
the
inclosure on the south side of the pueblo.
The method of construc-
tion of all the kivas is alike; they were roofed the same way
(fig. 4).^
The central kiva
is much larger than the remaining three, suggest-
ing the name
‘‘ assembly kiva,” it being possible that instead of serv-
ing as the ceremonial room of
a
single
clan,
it was the room
of
a priest fraternity composed of several clans, or even an assembly
place of
all
the people of the pueblo, reflecting a more advanced
sociologic condition than in
cliff houses and more
like that found
among pueblos of the Eio Grande, where we have but two kivas for
the whole population.
As shown on the accompanying gi*ound plan
(fig.
1), the three
small kivas are constructed on the same general plan as the kivas
of Spruce-tree House and
Cliff Palace.
All have six pilasters for
^The Hop!
kiva
is
constructed undergipund because
tradition
declares
that
It
sym-
bolically
represents
the underworld from which
the
ancients emerged
into
the
present
world.
This
esoteric prescript was also
religiously
observed by
clilT dwellers
so
rigidly
that v/hen necessary the
floor was excavated in solid
rock.
MESA VEEDE PUEBLO—PEWKES.
476
the support of a vaulted roof, and in some of these kivas the charred
remnants of tlie rafters still remain.
The most eastern and northern
kivas
(B,
C, D)
show evidences of a conflagration.
The amount
of smoke on the plastering of the walls is greater than would appear
on the plastered walls if the roofs had not been burnt; moreover, the
surfaces of the walls are colored bright red.
The central kiva, A
(pi.
12),
is constructed on the same general
lines as are the small
kivas.
It
likewise had
a
vaulted
roof supported
on
pedestals,
a
fii-eplace,
ventilator,
and
deflector.
No
ceremonial
opening
or
sipa])u^ was detected in the floor of this kiva, wdiich is also true of
B and C
; kiva D has the neck and part of the handle of an earthen
cup set in the east wall forming a hole just below the level of the
top of the banquette.
When seen from
the top
of the room
this
insertion resembles a metallic pipe, for which
it is often mistaken by
visitors.
Whether
or
not
the
opening
represents
a
ceremonial
orifice
is
not
known, but
if
it does
this
is the only instance laiown
to
the
writer where
a
si-
papu of this kind
is found
in
a
side wall and not
in
the
floor between the
fii’c-
place
and
the
kiva
wall
opposite the deflector.
The
construction
of
a
vaulted
roof
over
a room
32
feet
in
diameter
was
certainly a feat for stone-age masons that
is wuudhy of more than
passing notice.
.Naturally the writer could not believe this possible
without the introduction of upright su})ports resting on
the
floor
near the middle of the room.
No evidence
of such
verticals was
found and no depressions in the floor for their insertion about the
fireplace were observed.
It seems, therefore, that the masons accom-
plished the vaulting by logs resting on peripheral pedestals
(fig. 4),
as in smaller kivas.^
The cliff dwellers are said to have been unacquainted with the arch
and keystone, but they were not unfamiliar with the so-called Maya
1 The opeclng
in
the
kiva
floor
called
the slpapu
is
still
used
in Hop!
ceremonials,
through
which
to
communicate
with
the underworld where
a
ghostly company
of
the
dead are supposed
to
live engaged
In the some occupations as when
alive.
*Thc method
of couslructiou
of
a vaulUd kiva
roof
in
a Mesa
Verde
cllflP house
Is
shown
in a
restoration
at
Spruce-tree House, taken from
a portion
of a
roof
still
pre-
served in Square Tower (Peabody) House.
The illustration in the text above was drawn
from a photograph of the last mentioned by Mr. Gordon Parker, supervisor of the Monte-
zuma National
B^orost,
‘
W;-.
*!
F'ig.
4.—Beams of kiva
roof resting on a pilaster.
476
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION^
1916.
arch.
The masonry about the entrance into the ventilator
(fig. S) of
the large assembly kiva, A, recalls this form of arch and is unique in
the construction of Mesa Verde ruins.
It consists of a flat slab of stone
forming the top resting on other stones, each set a
little back from
the one above
it, making a form of arch, but not the keystone type,
which, so far as known,
is ab-
sent
in Mesa Verde
buildings.
It may be
said that on the
Avhole the best masonry is found
in the kiva
walls, as is true in
other types of buildings.
The
indications
are
lliat
the
large
central
kiva,
A,
is
the
oldest
and that
the
other
three, em-
were later added to
its outer walls.
Changes
in
the
walls and
reconstrudion
of
sections of
the same
were made after the original foundations wei*e
]aid.
This
is espe-
cially noticeable in the position of the supj>oits of the roof.
Evi-
dently the roof of the great kiva fell in l)efore those of the smaller.
Fig.
6.—Maja ardi
in
flue of kiva A
(Schematie)
bedded in surrounding rooms.
SreULAR ROOMS.
Besides the circular kivas this pueblo has many chambers which
were
secular
in
character, crowded
about
the
ceremonial
rooms.
Among these the rectangular form predominates, although the inter-
vals left between some of their walls and the outer kiva walls are
inclosures of triangular or other shapes
(see
]>!. 13).
These recesses
often have doorways but were not used as rooms, as is also indicated
by the fact that the wall
is jagged and
destitute of evidences of
chinking or plastering.
It may be seen, in the ground plan, that there are no courts or
open passageways running between the rooms in the pueblo, and that
the partitions ai’e made compactly, forming a solid mass of buildings.
The
1‘ooms,
as a
rule,
are
larger
that
tliose
of
cliff
dwellings.
Their entrances are higher and broader, generally rectangular, but
there are two doorways situated back of
tlio large kiva, apparently
in a third story, which are T-shaped like those in
cliff houses, open-
ing out over the roof of this kiva.
There are no external, lateral
doorways in the north, east, and west walls, and but three instances
where rooms open directly on the court through the south wall.
The
evidences of a third story are confined to the north side, which sug-
gests a terrace to the south; but
as
all the rooms
are not exca-
vated
it is not possible to determine whether or not three-storied
rooms lire limited to this section or how extensively a terraced form
ohairacteristic of a large pueblo was followed.
The smoke on the
Smithsonian
Report,
1916.
—
Fevvkes
PLATE
13.
Central
Kiva,
Looking
West
from
p,
3
on
Ground
Plan,
Fig.
1.
Photograph
bv
T.
G.
Lemmon.
2. Southeast Rooms, from Kiva D to Southeast Angle.
Photograph by
T. G. Lemmon.
Spring House, Showing Natural Bridge.
Photograph by George
L. Beam.
MESA VEKDE PUEBLO—FEWKES.
477
walls of
several rooms above corner
fireplaces, the abundance of
household utensils, as pottery and other objects, show that the pueblo
was once inhabited and that people dwelt
in the buildings many
years.
Nowhere
is the plastering so well preserved
as
in the walls of
kivas between the floor and the level of the tops of the
pilasters.
The
stratification
of
this
plaster
recalls
a
custom among
living
pueblo people.
It is customary annually in February for the Hopi
girls to replaster
all the kivas, an episode which forms a part of
lustral rites that pervade the Powamii or purification from the evil
god who has control of the
fields in winter.
A somewhat similar
ceremony may have taken place in the Mesa Verde
puebloKS.
The
successive layers of smoked clay are indicated on sections of plaster
from the wall of kiva B, and number at least 20.
This kiva had
been plastered 20 times.
On the floor of a second-story room, below those in which are the
T-shaped doorways, were found slabs of stone set upright forming
a grinding bin, in which a grinding stone or a metate was found in
place.
In the wCvSt corner of the same room the walls showed marks
of smoke and an arrangement of stone slabs indicating a fireplace.
hepatr and preservation of walls.
As has been pointed out in an account of Sun Temple,^ the destruc-
tion of the walls of ruins standing under the open sky is largely due
to violent rains or the infiltration of snow water and its subsequent
freezing.
To obviate this destructive agency the tops of all walls in
Sun Temple were covered with Portland cement laid on adobe with
a foundation of broken stones or rubble.
This precaution has been
found to accomplish the required results.
Not a rock of the walls
of Sun Temple fell from its place in the winter of 1915.
The tops
of the walls of the kivas of the pueblo excavated during the summer
of 1916 were treated in much the same way, except that a coarse groat
was added to sand in the cement.
In the repair work at Far View House it was necessary also to add
a few courses of masonry to the tops of the exposed walls, and to
prop up the outer walls on the west and south side with buttresses.
The largest of these buttresses appears as steps on the west outer
wall, which leaned
so much that
it certainly would have fallen as
soon as uncovered
if not held up in this way.
This buttress was
constructed about fallen walls.
To prevent the partition walls on the west tier of rooms from
falling when their supports were removed their west ends were tied
1 Excavation and Repair
of Sun Temple, Mesa Verde National Park,
Department
of
the
Interior,
ldl6.
478
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
with new masonry to the inner side of the west wall.
This was done
Avith adobe and
Avill be effective for a few years only.
The tops of
all walls ought to be covered with Portland cement.
In order to show the extent of the repair work on the tops of the
walls the added courses were set a little back of the original wall,
a method adopted from European archeologists.
Opinions may differ as to the amount of new masonry allow^able
in the repair of our ancient ruins, but the fact
still remains that
unless the walls are protected they
will
fall in a few
years
into
piles of stone.
To prove that statement one need only inspect exca-
vations where no repair work has been done.
The amount of the appropriation was so small that
it was not
possible to
treat
all
the walls
in
the same manner, much
to
tlie
writer’s regret.
OKMKTERIES.
Although no excavations were attempted for the sole purpose of
finding human bones,^ an almost complete skeleton of an adult was
excavated from kiva B, about 6 feet below the surface.
This skele-
ton was without pottery and showed no evidences of having been pre-
viously buried with pious care, the distribution of the bones suggest-
ing
a secondary hurried interment,
possibly
some* time
after the
pueblo was deserted.
Skeletons were not found under the floors.
A low mound in which the dead were systematically buried, called
the cemetery, is situated near the southeast coimer of the building, a
few feet from the east and south walls.
As with the cemeteries of
all members
of the Mummy Lake
gi'oup,
this mound had
been
trenched and its contents removed many years before the writer began
work, evidences of broken mortuary vessels left by the worlonen being
abundant over the surface. A few skulls and larger bones were re-
moved from the cemetery south of the pueblo, but there remained
with the dead no whole pieces of pottery, so successfully had the
graves been rifled by my predecessors.
The bodies found were flexed
or bent in a contracted position.
MINOR ANTIQUITIES.
As stated
above,
the two
factors
available
for a loiowledge
of
the history of a people ignorant of letters are buildings and smaller
movable
antiquities, such
as pottery and other
objects.
We have
already treated the former factor, and there remains to be considered
the
latter, embraced
in the term
minor
antiquities.”
So far
as
relics
go, information drawn from
these supports
the
conclusion
^ It may be well to call the reader’s attention to the fact that this article Is intended to
deal only with cultural
features upon which the pueblos have been
differentiated from
other stocks of American Indians.
MEBA VEEDE pueblo—EEWKE8.
479
derived from architecture, but a consideration of their significance
in
all
its bearings must be left to a more exhaustive technical
dis-
cussion than
is here possible.
During the removal of earth fi*om the rooms a large number of
these small objects were found, but in the f)resent paper it is impos-
sible to do more than consider a few of the many relics excavated in
the course of the summer.
The inajority of the objects came from
the doors and in debris of the rooms, but a numbei* were picked up
outside the walls.
These objects are practically identical with those
found in
cliff dwellings, indicating a similarity of culture notwith-
standing there
is a noticeable variation, especially
in designs used
in pottery decoration.
Many duj)licates of stone objects, as metates,
manos
(hand
stones), pecking
stones, mortars, and the
like, were
gathered together and
left in a conspicuous place where they could
be seen by
visitors, but the majority, and
all unique
objects, were
brought to Washington to be deposited in the National Museum, as
required by law.
Several of the smaller stones with incised figures were set
in ce-
ment on the south wall about midway in its length near the ladder
recess;
other larger stones and some with
incised
figures were ar-
ranged on
the
deflectors
of the
kivas,
wdiere they can
readily be
insi)ected.
Many
visitors
commented
on
the
large number
of
household
implements found here as compared with the paucity of the same at
Sun Temple.
The explanation of this fact is ajjparcnt, for the open-
air house was inhabited for a considerable time while Sun Temple
never had a population.
The scarcity of wooden implements, bas-
ketry, and woven fabrics of various kinds is probably due to the ex-
posure of the rooms after they w^ere deserted.
Objects of this kind
left behind long ago decayed
; in some rooms there is evidence on the
walls
of an
extensive
conflagration
which would have
destroyed
everything inflammable.
STONE IMPLEMENTS.
A good
series of stone hatchets and stone mawls was excavated
from the rooms.
These are generally grooved and polished, some-
times with sharp edges, although liatchets with rough surfaces and
those with blunt edges worn down by hammering are also numerous.
A few blades, possibly knives, are very finely chipped.
There should
also be mentioned well-made arrowheads and
half
a dozen
well-
fashioned spear points, but none of these have shafts.
Celts called
tcamahia, peculiar to cliff dwellings, were also found. A stone club
unlike any weapon previously reported from the Mesa Verde was
found on the surface.
480
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
PECKING STONES.
A very large number of implements that were formerly used in
dressing the stones of the masonry were naturally excavated
both
inside
tlie rooms and
outside the
walls.
Some of
these had
pits
on the two opposite faces and were pointed, others were girt by a
shallow groove midway in their length.
They were made of a much
harder stone than that composing the walls of the building and were
evidently brought from a distant locality, probably from the Mancos
Eiver.
One of these made of hematite was more angular than the
others.
It would appear that these pecking stones were sometimes
furnished with a handle.
The maiyy stone mortars and
pestles, some of which were much
worn, and the numerous metates and manos are instructive.
There
were also found flat stones on which pigments were ground, and the
iron oxides used for paint were not missing.
All of these objects are
identical with those from the cliff houses and add their quota of evi-
dence to that contributed by the ceramics and architecture, that the
pueblos and cliff dwellings of the Mesa Verde were inhabited by peo-
ple Avhose cult objects were identical in character.
BONE IMPLEMENTS.
The assortment of bone implements,
dirks, needles, bodkins, and
the like is instructive. They vary in form, in Icind of bone, and other
particulars.
It is rare to duplicate a perforated needle, one of which
was found in kiva A.
The skin scra))cr made of a bear bone
is the
same as those reported from Cliff Palace.
The sections of small bones
cut off in a cylindrical form are probably ornaments.
Their sha})e
resembles those from Spruce-tree House, suggesting that they were
strung on a cord Avorn about the neck.
ANIMAL FIGURINES.
At least three different forms of stone idols were found, all buried
in kivas. In the ventilator of kiva D one of the workmen discovered
the head and part of the body of a quadruped made of sandstone,
Avhich resembles a bear’s head.
Another figurine of the same soft
stone had head, eyes, and ears fairly well made, but the body elon-
gated and angular, destitute of both legs and tail.
The third specimen
(fig. 7) was pointed at one end, rounded at the opposite with flat side
or base, reminding one of the cl ay image of the Horned Serpent made at
the winter solstice ceremony ^ at Hano, one of the villages on the East
Mesa of the Hopi.
This striking likeness more than anything else
has led me to suspect that it is an idol.
^ Winter Solstice Ceremony at Ilnno
: Amer. Anthrop., Vol.
I, No.
2, 1899.
MESA VEKDE PUEBLO—FEWKE8.
481
CORN fetishes.
In previous reports on Cliff Palace and Oak-tree House the wiiter
called
attention
to certain half-oval stones found
in
kivas that ho
identified as idols or fetishes. They represent the magnified end of an
ear of corn, and resemble specimens made of clay or wood
still used
in Hopi ceremonies, where they are called ka'tukwi, corn hills; they
are in reality idols of Muyinwu, the god or goddess of germination.
When wooden forms are used, symbols of corn of difrerent colors
iiro
painted on them, or when made of clay a mosaic composed of kernels
of
different
colored corn
is
regularly
arranged on
their
surface.
They are placed by the ITopi on the floor of the kiva before the altar
and from time to time are sprinkled with prayer meal.
Two stone
specimens were found in the ruin, both of wliich have tlie same gen-
eral form as that from Clilf Palace; one
(fig. b)
is covered with
a
white substance like meal;
tlie other has, near
its apex, tivo small
holes of about the diameter of a lead pencil.
I’o'i'Trair.
Ceramics
as
well
as
architecture
presents
important
evidences
of
racial
(silture and the accpiisitions from the pueblo, Far View
House, are
particularly
significant.
We have extensive
collections
of poltery from cliff dw'cllings, but no spe<;imens ha\e been described
from the open-air ruins of the JSIcsa Verde.
It
is therefore a pleas-
ure to the writer
to be able to add to our material the
first collec-
tion from one of
the Mummy Lake mounds'
that has ever been
deposited in the National Museum.
This pottery is iiractically the same in form, color, and symbolism
as that from the
cliff dwellings, and
sui)])orts the evidence of the
architecture, that the ruin
is jirehistoric and comparatively old.
It
belongs to those archaic generalized types, widely scattei ed over the
Southw'est, which
antedate specialized and more modern
varieties.
We find a large proportion of indented, coiled, rough ware, white
with black decorations, and a few specimens of imported red with
black
fignn's.
The figures on the
la.st mentioned are mainly geo-
metric, linear predominating, with curved designs but no life motifs,
human
or
animal.
There were
comparatively
few whole
vessels.
ANIMAL REMAINS.
Portions of animal skeletons were found in considerable numbers,
especially in room 20, which was evidently a dump place and
filled
lA
considerable amount
of “pot hunting”
has
been
done
in
the
cemeteries
of
this
group,
in which many specimens
of mortuary pottery have been found and
later soid
to
various museums.
These are now
labeled,
“ Maucos ”
or “ Mesa Verde,
and are useless
for a study of the differences In individual
cliff houses or comparisons between Mesa Verde
pueblos and
cliff
dwellings.
482
ANKUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
with d4bris.
Skeletal rejects found here may logically be supposed
to reveal the character of the animal food of the natives, but the
bones have not yet been fully identified, so that conclusions based
on them must be tentative.
We
are, however,
justified
in saying,
in this preliminary
account, that bones of birds, and quadrupeds,
such
as rabbits,
deer,
antelope, mountain sheep, and
elk, are
per-
haps the most common.
Judging from the number found, it would
appear that meat formed a considerable part of their diet, but the
indications are that the inhabitants were primarily vegetarians, sub-
sisting mainly on corn, beans, melons, and various wild
fruits and
herbs, pin on nuts in season, and other products, many of which now
grow wild on top of the plateau.
CONCLUSIONS.
We can not say, without more extensive excavations, how much
variation may
exist
in
the
forms
of Mesa Verde pueblos
or the
arrangement
of rooms
in
tliem, but
all the mounds
superficially
examined sliow as a constant feature a marked central
depression,
apparently
indicating
a
large
kiva
around
which
were
arranged
other and smaller rooms.
We find surface indications of the pres-
ence of all forms of secular and small circular sacred rooms, from a
tower
with rooms arranged around
its outei* wall ” to round kivas
embedded among
square
rooms.
The
peripheral
wall
of one
or
two impart
a
circular form
to the mound; that of
others,
a
rec-
tangular
outline.
The theoretical
signification
of the mounds on
the Mesa Verde
plateau has not escaped the attention of Baron Nordenskiold, who
arrived at this interesting conclusion which the present writer’s exca-
vations prove:
Much may be said in favor of the opinion that the villaf^es on
th(‘ mesa and
the
cliff dwellers are the work of the same people, though no
positive proof
of this can be given.
*
As far as can be gathered from the heaps of
ruins that now mark the site of these villages, the walls are constructed in the
same manner as the best built parts of the Cliff Palace or Balcony House, of
hewn stone in regular courses.
The arrangement of the rooms, the plan of the
building,
etc., can
not he
ascertained without
extensive
excavations,
for
the
execution of which
I had no
time.
The far more advanced
stages of decay
attained by the ruins may possibly he adduced as evidence of their great age.
The
evidence
offered
by
Baron
Nordenskiold
to
support
the
theory
that
the
cliff dwellings were abandoned
and
subsequently
repeopled
is not as strong as might be desired.
It is very probable [writes Nordenskiold, whose honored name will always be
associated with the Mesa Verdel that some of the cliff dwellings were inhabited
contemporaneously with the villages in the open, and perhaps even later than
they.
This is suggested by the excellent state of preservation shown by some of
the former, for instance, Balcony House. We are forced to conclude that they
MESA VEBDE PUEBLO—FEWKES.
483
were abandoned
later than the villages on the mesa.
Some features,
for
ex-
ample, the superposition of walls constructed with the greatest proticienoy on
others built in a more primitive fashion, Indicate that the
cliff dwellings have
been inhabited
at two
different periods.
They wore
first abandoiuHl and had
partly fallen into ruins, hut were subsequently repeopled, new walls being now
ere(!te(l on the ruins of the old.
The best explanation
liereof seems to be the
following: On the plateaus and
in the valleys the Pueblo tribes obtained their
widest distribution and
their highest development.
The numerous
villages, at
no great distance from each
other, were strong enough the defy their
hostile
neighbors.
But afb'rwards, from causes
diflleult of enunciation, a period
of
decay set in, the number and population of the villages gradually decreased, Jind
the inhabitants were again compelled to take refuge in the remote fastnesses.
Here the people of the Mesa Verde finally succumbed
to their emnnies.
Th('
memory of their last struggle's is preserved by the numerous human bones found
in many places strewn among the ruined cliff dwellings.
These human remains
occur in situations where
it is impossible to assume that they have been interred.
The supposition tluit tlic cliff dwellers were exterminated by their
enemies in their eyrie homes appears to the writer improbable; nor
is there ample proof that siich a catastrophe as that mentioned in the
closing lines of the above quotation took place while they inhabited
the plateau.
Tlie ‘‘niimcrons human bones found
in many
places
strewn among the ruined cliff dwellings” admit of another explana-
tion.
The disjointed
skeletons may
ha\'o been
left there by ^‘pot
huntei's” who toi*e them out of their graves and sacrilegiously strewed
them over the floors of the rcK)ms.
The writer does not believe all
the aborigines of the plateau were destroyed in or near their
cliff-
dwellings or on the plateau.
He holds the opinion that they mi-
grated in groups large or small to the plains.
The
Utes, their ene-
mies, have
a
tradition that
they
fought and
killed many
of
the
ancients inhabiting the valleys at Battle Rock, near the Sleeping TJte
Mountain at the entrance to the McElmo Canyon.
In a comparison of the pueblo above described with cliff dwellings
protected by the natural roof of a cave
(pi. 12) the amount of denud-
ation of walls should have
little weight in determiniiig chronology,
for the wear resulting from rains beating on the walls is reduced to
a minimum in the latter case, while in the former
it
is very great.
The walls of pueblos built centuries later often
suffer much more
erosion than cliff houses in the same length of time.
The relative excellence of the masonry is also not a safe chronologi-
cal guide, for it degenerates as well as improves with successive gener-
ations of workmen.
Poor masonry generally but not always ante-
dates good masonry.
The houses in llopi villages, still inhabited, are
not as well made as those of buildings now in ruins, in which they
say their ancestors
lived.
If legends are reliable the
skill of the
Hopi masons has deteriorated
; they have lost the ability they once
exercised.
Thus
it by no means always follows that the walls of
a well-made pueblo ruin are necessarily more modern than one with
484
annual report SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
ruder walls.
These considerations throw doubt on the theory that
the character of masonry or the amount of erosion are good criteria
by which
to determine the
relative age
of
pueblo buildings and
cliff dwellings.
The second question, ^‘How old are the cliff dwellings?” is impos-
sible to answer, but we know that cliff dwellings were not inhabited
in historic times.
Comrades of Coronado, in 1540,
left no records
of
cliff dwellings
in New Mexico, but Castaneda mentioned many
inhabited pueblos, which is an argument in support of the theory that
the latter was a phase of architecture subse(|uent to the
cliff house.
No
light
is thrown by the
writer’s excavations on
relative chro-
nology, for no one can
tell the age of either type of ruins in the
Mesa Verde; nor
is
it
possible to say that the buildings
at Mesa
Verde are older or younger than some of the Chaco, Animas, Mc-
Elmo, or Montezuma Valley ruins, although the walls of the pueblos
on top of Mesa Verde are as a rule worn down more by the elements
than are those in the valley and therefore of a greater antiquity.
The annual erosion of an
artificially exposed wall on Mesa Verde
is probably about the same in extent as in case of Avails in the valleys
mentioned.
Since,
as a
rule, the walls of the
latter stand higher
out of their mounds, the logical conclusion would be that the higher
Avails are more modern than the lower, but other facts must also be
considered before this can be stated as a laAV.
In
a general Avay Ave can explain the supposed later construction
of pueblos in the San Juan or
its tributaries by the theory that
their ancestors lived on the Mesa Verde, and
that they
left
their
ancient homes and
settled
in
the Mancos
or Montezuma
Valley,
whence they
later spread down the river to distant
points,
as far
as evidences of their culture can
iioav be traced.
This would seem
a more natural conclusion, considering all the facts, than the theory,
formerly advocated by the writer, that pueblos Avere developed in the
river valleys before the ancients went on the mesa.
The likeness of the pueblo excavated to the open-air community
houses along the San Juan and
its tributaries
is
close enough
to
indicate identity of culture.
As long as we were unacquainted with
the essential features of the pueblos on the plateau we were unable
to make close comparisons with adjacent
cliff houses.
The resem-
blances of community houses 100 miles distant from the cliff dwell-
ings were known
to be
close, but
the pueblo excavated
furnishes
us
with
a
connecting
link
in
our
chain
of
similarities
near
at
hand and on that account is of preeminent importance in a cultural
comparison.
The resemblance between the pueblo on Mesa Verd^ and those
of the McElmo and Montezuma Canyons, and the
similarities to
MESA VERDE PUEBLO—EEWKES.
485
buildings in the La Plata and Animas Valleys have long ago been
recognized as a likeness of culture, but whether the latter are older
or more modern than the Mesa Verde pueblos
is
still one of the
many unsolved problems awaiting additional research.
If the plateau building excavated owes its form to a survival of that
developed in caves, it is therefore evidently of later construction and
this would indicate that the pueblos of the San Juan and its tribu-
taries are also of later date than the clilf dwellings, or, in other words,
that architectural characteristics of Mesa Verde pueblos were origi-
nally formed in cliffs and the congested forms there produced were
later transmitted to the valleys.
The Mesa Verde pueblo presents no certain evidence that its type
building
is more modern than the cliff-house phase, but
if the
above conclusion be correct a natural corollary would be that identi-
cal open-air community houses in the San Juan and its tributaries
were settled subsequent to the
cliff dwellings of which the Mummy
Lake settlement is a survival.
Although we have no way of telling
how old the Mesa Verde cliff dwellers or plateau habitations are in
terms of the Christian calendar, the writer, unlike some other arche-
ologists considers them comparatively modern
; which docs not mean,
however, that man has not lived on the mesa in some degree of culture
for a long time previously, but only that he was not a
cliff dweller
or
a
Pueblo Indian
several
thousand
years
ago.
We have some
evidence of the existence of a pit-house culture, with certain kinship
to the puebloan, but the age of this no man knows with any more
precision than he
docs the
cause which forced man
originally
to
make any kind of a home in the secluded
fastnesses of the Mesa
Verde.
An answer to the last and most
difficult of all questions, “ What
became of the inhabitants? ” is implied in the preceding lines.
The
writer has held that the
cliff dweller constructed
a pueblo after he
abandoned the caves, and believes man later moved to the valleys,
where his culture still survives.
This culture is most apparent among
the least modified living pueblos, as the Hopi.
Of course
it is not
claimed that individual clans migrated directly to the Hopi country
from Mesa Verde, but their culture traveled down the San Juan River
Valley and ultimately was brought to Hopi land.
It is certain that some of the Hopi clans lived in cliffs.
The Snake
people have definite legends that they once inhabited the great cliff
houses of the Navaho National Monument Betatakin and
Kitsiel.
These Hopi legends, and similar stories found among other pueblos,
are supported by many facts besides architectural and ceramic
re-
semblances.
Ownership in eagle nests near
cliff ruins are claimed
through inheritance by the Snake clans, because they were ancestral
73839®—SM 1916
32
486
ANNUAL REPORT BMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
property.
Water from the cliff dwellers’ spring is still sought and
used in some ceremonies of the Hopi for the same reason.^
These and many other facts support the legends that some of the
Hopi clans are descended from cliff-d welling clans or those formerly
living
ill
pueblos
near
cliff
dwellings."
Not
the
least
important
fact supporting this statement is the identity in artifacts among the
two peoples.
As
the only other building situated under
tlie open sky on the
plate^iu
is Sun Temple,
it
is natural to consider whether the newly
excavated ruin throws any light on the ])urpose of this mysterious
stni(‘.ture.
In general form there
is no likeness between the two buildings,
although certain details of masonry show the handiwork of a people
in
tlic same stage of culture.
The Mummy Lake pueblo lacks the
unity and dignity of the religious building and presents evidences of
having been repeatedly
patched,
as
if constructed
at
intervals by
different masons, often unskilled workmen.
Its wudls have been shat>
tered and
repiaired.
Buttresses wei’e constructed by the aborigines
to prop
it up
in places before they deserted
it, and, as a rule, the
masonry
is poorer.
In Sun Temple Ave
find two kivas in an open
court s(^parated by passageAvays from bounding
walls;
in the new
ruin domiciliary and ceremonial rooms are massed or crowded
to-
gether, the court being situated not Avithin the main structure but
extramural, surrounded by a
Avail on the south side.
There is a certain likeness in Avhat has been designated the kiva of
the annex of Sun Temple to the small kivas of the pueblo, but the
arrangement and
form
of rooms about them
are
different.
The
ventilation of the Sim Temple kivas Avas acconijilished in a different
Avay.
The secular rooms are larger, doorways higher and broader in
the ruin excavated at Mummy Lake than in Sun Temple.
The writer desired to find decisive evidences in his
field work at
Mummy Lake supporting or denying that the name, Sun Temple,
Avas Avell giA^en to the mysterious ruin opposite Cliff Palace.
In that
hope he was disappointed, but not wholly.
The work aboA^e briefly
outlined confirms his belief that Sun Temple and Far View House
of the Mummy Lake group
of buildings were constructed by an
1 On a
visit
to Betatakin
n
large
cliff house
of
the Navaho Monument,
In
northern
Arizona, a few years ago, a Hopi courier, who was on a pilgrimage there to obtain water
from an ancestral spring, told the writer, in sight of the ruin, that the ancestors of the
Snake people once
lived
there.
If the ancestors
of
the
largest
clan
in
AA^alpi once
inhabited
the
cliff
houses
of
the
Navaho Monument, and
if the
cliff dwellers of the San Juan had a culture identical with
them, can
it reasonably be doubted that
cliff dwellers transmitted their blood and culture
to pueblos, where they
still survive?
2 A discussion of all the causes of the desertion of the Mesa Verde villages,
cliff dwell-
ings or pueblos would take me too far afield for this article.
Little can be added to the able
remarks by Dr, Prudden in his analysis of the influence of climatic changes.
See loc,
cit.
MERA VERDE PUEBLO—EEWKES.
487
aboriginal people in comparatively the same cultural stage as the
cliff dwellers.
Far View House is a pure type of pueblo building, limited to pre-
historic times,
its essential
differences from the mixed
or
historic
type, characteristic of modern pueblos, being
its compact form and
circular kivas embedded in surrounding house walls.
It is desirable, now that the general features of one of these have
been excavated, to extend the work to other neighboring mounds of
the group.
The writer hopes some day to see all these mounds exca-
Fkj.
C.— Corn
fotiRli.
vated and repaired.
The
sight of a dozen
large, well-constructed
pueblos in an area half
a mile long by a quarter of
a mile wude
would be as instructive as exceptional.
The excavation and repair
of this cluster of mounds would be a worthy task for any institution
to undertake, fraught as it is with so many problems of archeological
interest, but
it would
require an enthusiastic devotion to
scientific
research supported by
a large sum of money and many months of
arduous toil by skilled workmen.
488
ANNUAL EEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916.
Flu.
7.—Stone Wol.
THE ART OF THE GREAT EARTHWORK BUILDERS OF
OHIO.^
By Ohaklks C. Willoughby.
[With
13
plates. 1
One of
oTir most
interesting as well
as least understood archeo-
logical culture groups
is that which attained
its greatest develop-
ment in southern Ohio, and whose outposts extended
into some of
the neighboring States.
This group of people had attained a high
degree of native culture and had become wealthy and powerful ac-
cording to native standards.
They had mastered certain simple geo-
metrical problems, which were apparently unloiown to their neigh-
bors; they had
leaimed
the
principle of the
lathe, and made
the
first cutting tools of iron so far Imown in America.
It seems that
nearly all of the greater earthworks of southern Ohio were built by
them, but some of the smaller mounds, inclosures, and burial places
should doubtless be attributed to other tribes.
The great earthworks under consideration are unquestionably pre-
historic and apparently antedate the occupancy
of
this region by
any known tribe.
They consist mainly of round, square, and octag-
onal
inclosures, protected ways,
burial mounds, and
a few domi-
ciliary and effigy mounds.
No object of European origin has been
found with any of the original burials in these mounds.
Intrusive
burials of the later Indians are, of course, occasionally encountered,
but these must not be confused with original interments.
Most of
the
artifacts,
illustrated
in
this
paper,
w^ere taken from mounds
containing skeletons and clay altars or places of sacrifice.
The ex-
plorations were conducted under the general direction of the
late
Prof. F. W. Putnam, by Dr. Metz, Mr. Moorehead, and othei's.
The
specimens from the Turner and Liberty groups are in the Peabody
Museum of Harvard University, and those from the Hopewell group
are in the Field Museum at Chicago.
The skeletons and altars for the greater part were found near the
base
line
of the mounds.
The
altars
are
usually heaps
of
clay,
raised
1
foot or more
in
the
center and have
sides sloping
out-
^Reprinted by pemlssion from Holmes’s Anniversary Volume,
pp. 469-480, WasWng-
ton,
1916.
489
490
AWjrtlAt BJBPOIlT BMIfHIONIAir
MM.
i
ward and a depression a few inches deep in the top, which usually
shows signs of extreme heat.
These altars are of various sizes, but
usually the cavity or depression is about 3 feet in diameter.
In the
larger mounds, which have been systematically explored, notably
those of the Porter, Hopewell, Turner, and Liberty groups a consid-
erable number of skeletons were found in the same mounds with the
altars.
The number of altars occurring in a single mound ranged
from one to four.
It is from the altars that many of the objects de-
scribed in this paper were taken.
Other specimens illustrated were
found with skeletons or in deposits near them.
SYMBOLIC EARTHWORKS
Among the most interesting of the earthworks, when regarded in-
dependently of the
artifacts they
contain,
are
the
effigy mounds,
which appear to be related symbolically to certain objects recovered
from the tumuli.
A brief notice of some of them may be of interest.
The Serpent Mound of Adams County is the best known of the few
earthworks of this
class.
The illustration of this work shown on
plate 1, i, is reproduced from Prof. Holmes’s drawing, made in 1886,
and undoubtedly represents the
effigy much
as
it appeared
to
its
builders.
MacLean’s plan, made from careful surveys in 1886, agrees
with the above very
closely, the principal difference being in the
broadening of the extreme projection in front of the oval and the
adding of two small spurs thereto.
Squier and Davis’s drawing is
incorrect in several respects, and seems to be more like a sketch-plan
made without surveying instrument than the accurate survey claimed
by them.
In the Peabody Museum of Harvard University there is an
unfinished plan from a survey made by Thomas P. Gore, of Hills-
boro, Ohio, in 1878, which corresponds to those of MacLean and
Holmes with the exception of the wishbone-shaped section in front of
^he oval which is not indicated.
In this plan the embankments upon
either side of the rear half of the oval which connect with that of the
triangular inclosure appear as shown by both MacLean and Holmes.
Portions of these, and the wishbone-shaped embankment inclosing
the front of the oval, were much less conspicuous than the oval and
the main portion of the serpent.
These were not considered by Prof.
Putnam as parts of the effigy at the time of its restoration.
Before
entering into details regarding the peculiar features of this earth-
Wrki I desire to call attention to the serpent head wrought from eop-
shown in plate
1,
which was found with many other copper
Nfiibfeeti in the great mound of the Hopewell group.
is well known to anthropologists, the serpent occupied a prOittI*
place in the religious life of many tribes north of Mexico,
ip Mexico and Central America, and it appears in eombina^
the oeonic symbol, or some of its parts, in various sections^
StTli!h'.nrii,in
— Wi||nup;|iby.
Platt
1.
Symbolic Earthworks and Analogous Forms from the Burial Mounds, Ohio.
a, Klhj^r of Stoiio,
I’aiiii ('n'ok Valley, probably
ro[)re.son1 iiip: boar claws-
b
c
be in-I ius m
an,!
liiVl
,
Ipl'O'vai ;-.
i;
'
.• .v.vm.v
Iu
(.tciI
hK'l,.MUv
jirui-
IlNiiii
,l„i,
Ji L
A wL
I.s,'i|,„n
.V.hmis N.iimiy:
A.
,• .siiiic
i,i
l„i ni „lL: n„„i,
Ji' a<i.
Ill copjH'f, Jl<)iH'W('ll <;nnijt.
(About Oj.;
^
CuF^PLH Symbols from
fhl Ohio Mounds.
i,
J ui iirr
Lil
I li‘ Mi.inii
;
a, h, (l~,ii
,
I Rhhuvc'II
!v(»s.s Ouiinl y.
(ABoiilO.y)
Cui’F'LK Objects from the Ohio
IV!(junds.
I'"H1
Ili(, IImim'u,.!!
i:o-.s(
oiiiii>
. cxrciiliti-
//,
M,
111.'
hii-tirr IT-Mip.
O,.
kkf 6? umnwom BtJltBBftSr^WILtOtTGirBY.
4»
Th^ cosmic symbol in
its complete form
represents the world as
known to the Indians and usually consists of a circle or concentric
circles inclosing a cross and a central disk or circle.
This is said to
represent the sun, the four directions or four winds, the horizon, and
also the earth, air, and water: sometimes a dot or a circle appears in
the center of each of the four world-quarters.
The swastika
is un-
doubtedly derived from this sign.
The serpent, which may be re-
garded as the god of wind, rain, and water, and the antithesis of the
sun, often appears in combination with the cosmic symbol or parts
thereof.
The shell serpent gorgets of Tennessee are well-known
amples.
In these, the serpent is coiled in the center of the disk and
the four arms of the cross connect it with the outer cii^cle as in fig-
ure 1. A rarer form in shell of a serpent head with a circle and cross
also from Tennessee, is also shown m the accompanying drawing.^
Eeturning to the copper symbol
(pi.
1,
7c),
it is at once apparent
that we have
a serpent head in combination with the cosmic
sign.
The outline of the latter instead of
being
circular
conforms
to
and
/
forms a pait of the outline of the
head, and
the arms
of
the
cross
^
which radiate from the central sun
circle are unequal.
In the seipent
portion of the symbol we have the
forked tongue
(which was not at-
^ -Combined cosmic and serpent
tached
to
the
head when
found,
symbols
but evidently belongs with
it), the nostrils, eyes, two U-shaped de-
signs back of the eyes, and on each side near the base of the head an
eyelike design with two curved toothlike appendages, analogous to
those on the mica serpent shown on plate
9,
7n,
These probably
represent the four horns which appear on most serpent designs north
of Mexico, and replace the plumes of the serpent deity of Mexico and
Central America.
With the above interpretation in mind, we will turn to the draw-
ing of the serpent mound with a clearer understanding of this re-
markable effigy, which probably represents a serpent in its entirety^
combined with the cosmic symbol.
The outline of the serpent head is marked by the interrupted oval,
from the front of which projects the tongue.
It is intei^esting to note
that in MacLean’s drawing there are two narrow diverging projeotione
from the sides of this appendage near its free end, which he cells the
forelegs of the
frog.”
If these pointed projections really exi#te4|
they undoubtedly represented the fork of the tongue,
The^ Ikhl*?
oval inclosing the altar of stones where fires symbolizing the mn ITeri
^ The Archeologist,
vol.
2, p
12.
492
akkual beport Smithsonian institution,
igie.
kindled is doubtless similar to one of the inner circles which occur
in many of the symbols of this class.
This, together with the outer
interrupted oval, was compressed to conform to the outlines of the
reptile’s head.
The opposite openings in the outer oval may repre-
sent two arms of the cross.
They seem to be analogous to similar
openings shown in h of the stime plate.
It is not improbable that
these may have been at one time a cross within the oval.
I am well aware that the above interpretation of the serpent effigy
is at variance with
all others, but
it
is much more in keeping witli
what we know' of the symbolism of these Indians than that of Squier
and Davis, who saw in
it a serpent with open jaw^s swallowing or
ejecting an oval figure, or of MacLean, wdio thought it represented a
frog ejecting an egg into the open jaws of the snake.
A very remarkable earthwoi’k wdiich seems to be
of
like nature
to the one described above occurs on both banks of the Ohio River
near Portsmouth.
It
is shown on plates 27 and 28 of Squier and
Davis. A portion of this is illustrated on our plate 1,
li.
It consists
of a truncated central mound surrounded by a ditch and having a
graded way to the top.
This
is inclosed by concentric circles inter-
rupted by passageways in the form of a
cross.
This great cosmic
symbol
is 1,300 feet in diameter and
is connected with
a group of
works 3^ miles distant by serpentlike parallel
lines of eartlnvorks.
This gigantic conventionalized figure probably embodies ideas similar
to those of the serpent mound.
In Paint Creek Valley, near Bournville,
is an
effigy of stones^
which
is reproduced on plate 1, cu
It
is about 250 feet in diameter
and doubtless represents the foot and claws of the bear.
Analogous
designs are shown in h and
<?.
The former is cut from copper and the
latter forms a part of the design incised upon the human femur
illustrated in
Z, plate 6,
The earthwork in the form of a cross with the central sun symbol^
shown in
occupies a narrow spur of land in Pickaway County.
This undoubtedly embo<iies a meaning similar to that of the cross
and central circle represented in
A, and
A.
The gateway to the
great inclosure near Hamilton, Butler County,®
is represented in
/.
This
is probably also symbolic, as we have a like design upon the
bone shown in
and plate 6, i and
Z.
artifacts of metal.
In common with other American tribes, the builders of the great
earthworks of Ohio had become proficient in working native coppei*.
This metal seems to have been highly prized in this region and was
made into a great variety of ornamental or symbolic forms.
Its
igQtiier and Davis,
plates 3 and
30.
*Ibid.,
plate
26.
•Ibid,,
plate
8.
ART OF EARTHWORK BUILDERS—WILLOUGHBY.
493
practical use seems to have been limited principally to ax and adz-
blades, ^vl^K*h occur in considerable numbers with burials or as parts
of sacrifical deposits.
Indeed, it is not improbable that these copper
blades were esteemed as much for their intrinsic worth as for their
efficiency as tools.
A large numl)er of C()])per blades were found near
two skeletons in the great mound of the Hopewell group, the largest
of which weighed
.‘tS ])ounds.
The
gi*eater number
of
tlie
artifacts
of copper
that have been
recovered are of an ornamental or symbolic character.
Most of the
copper from which
they
were made
undoubtedly came from
the
Lake Superior region, although some may have been obtained from
erratic masses carried southward by the ice sheets in ghutial times.
The purest and most ductile
])ieces wei'e used in the formation of
thin
sheets
for
covering
various
ornaments,
or
for
cutting
into
symbolic forms;
and
the
less malleable masses were worked
into
objects which did not
re(|uii-e
as much hammering.
Some of the
nuggets taken from the altars in an unworked or slightly worked
state
contained
impurities which
rendered
their
further working
impossible or unprofitable.
Experiments conducted by the present
writer^ show that alternate hammering and annealing are essential
to the successful working of native copper into thin sheets, and
it is
probable that the aid of
lii
was sought by most Indians in working
this metal into any form that required much hammering.
The specimens shown on plates 2-5 were taken from burial deposits
and
altars
in
the
great mound
of
the Hopewell
group
(Clark’s
Woi’ks), Koss County, from the mounds of the Turner group, lattle
Miami Valley; and from the Liberty giuup of Iloss County, most of
them coming from the
first locaility.
Figures i and
I represent the
straight-armed swastika.
As will be seen by turning to
/, plate 10,
it is not improbable that the^e objects were worn at the back of the
head.
The design shown
in k
is undoubtedly
a cosmic symbol, and the
analogy of its more prominent features to those of the serpent head,
plate 1,
seems apparent.
The designs
g, and h are undoubtedly
derived from the human
face, and they show
a marked
sense of
Ipimor on the part of the artisan who made them.
On plate
3, a
and
c, are represented two
gorget-like
plates such
as
are usually
found with skeletons.
One of these shows the remains of a piece of
twined woven textile which had been preserved by contact with the
copper,
d and g are drawings of a crescent-shaped gorget and what
is probably a bracelet.
These were found with a skeleton.
And on
the same plate, A, is a conventionalized representation of the double
serpent head which
appears
on
the
Cincinnati
Tablet.
What
is
^ American Anthropologist,
n.
s., Vol.
5,
p. 65.
49|
ANNUAL EEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION^
1916.
apparently a frontlet
is illustrated in
o.
Two of these were taken
from one of the altars of the Turner group.
So far as we may judge
from specimens thus far recovered, the great earthwork builders of
this region had not attained a proficiency in embossed work which
equaled that of some other sections.
Overlaying, however, was fol-
lowed in making a considerable variety of objects.
One of the most
elaborate
examples
of
this work
is shown
in two
of
the
head
dresses on plate
4.
The antlers of the largest of these are made
from carefully selected branches of wood, covered with thin sheets
of copper.
The cores of the sprouting antlers on the second head
dress
(c)
are also of wood, very neatly covered with thin sheets of
the same metal.
Some excellent examples in overlaying are shown in
the ear ornaments, bracelets, beads, and button-like objects where the
foundation is of clay, wood, or copper, and the overlaying is of thin
sheets
of
silver,
meteoric
iron,
or
selected
copper.
Bracelets
of
metal occur frequently with burials and are sometimes found upon
altars, and while the form varies somewhat, they are usually of the
simplest
construction.
Some
of
these
are
of
copper,
very
neatly
overlaid with thin silver.
One of the most common personal ornaments of metal
is the ear
plug,
illustrations of which
appear on
plate
5.
These
are
often
found with skeletons and also occur in consideiaible numbers on the
altars. A part of the head of a terra-cotta effigy from an altar of
the Turner group
is shown
in
/i,
Z, which
illustrates
the manner
of wearing these ornaments.
Another fragment showing the
per-
foration in the lobe of the ear for the insertion of the ornament
is
illustrated in
o.
Unusually
fine specimens of these oimaments are
shown in n and p,
A pair of each of these was found with the ex-
tensive copper deposit in the great mound of the Hopewell group.
Various methods of constructing these objects are shown in u-gr, L
A hollow rivet, made by rolling together a strip of copper, usually
connects the inner plates of the two disks.
One of these is shown in
e.
Their relative positions are illustrated in the cross sections
a,
c,
/.
Another
Jess common method
of joining the
disks
is
illus-
trated in g and
/.
Here the ends of the pulley-shaped piece of cop-
per are much expanded, and to these the disks are secured by turning
under the edge of the outer plate.
In g the upper disk has been re-
moved to show the construction.
In most of the specimens each of
the two disks which are joined by the rivet is made up of two or three
plates, the outer of which
is of carefully wrought copper, silver, or
meteoric iron.
Sometimes, to assist in keeping the plates in their
proper positions, the space between them
is filled with clay
4),
which upon drying adds much
to
the firmness of the ornament,
j^metimes the rivet
is reinforced by hammering a piece of metal
,
Engravings from the Hopewell Group, Ohio.
ABT OF earthwork BUILDERS—WILLOUGHBY.
495
around it as illustrated in / 6, or by the use of an outer band
6, ap-
plied as / 7, or the rivet may be wound with vegetal fiber or cord as
in A,
and a 5.
OTHER METALS.
The occurrence of meteoric iron in most of the mound groups that
have been systematically explored, in the form of nuggets or worked
into various objects, shows that its malleability was generally under-
stood by the peo])lc of this region.
It was worked into headplates,
breastplates, beads, coverings for ear plugs, adz blades, chisels, and
drills.
Plate 4 e shows a meteoric iron blade, and several chisels of
this metal with portions of antler handles
still adhering to two of
them are illustrated in
/.
Native
silver
sometimes
occurs
in
considerable
masses
in
the
mounds.
There are two nugget.^ in the Peabody Museum of Harvard
University, the combined weight
of which
is
1.3]
pounds.
These
were taken from a mound at Grand Rapids, a northern outpost of
the Ohio culture group.
Silver seems to have been used principally
for
overlaying
copj)er
and
wooden
objects,
such
as
buttons,
ear
plugs, and bracelets.
Many beads were also made of silver, some of
them being quite massive.
Gold was very rare indeed in the mounds.
There are one or two
references by early writers to finding of gold
objects, but the only
authentic specimens known
to
the writer
are
several
small
sheets
hammered from small nuggets, which
vvere taken from an altar of
the Turner group and are now in the Peabody Museum
at Cam-
bridge.
ENGRAVINGS UPON BONE.
The decorated human femora illustrated in plate 6, a and
were
found with skeletons in the great mound of the Hopewell group, and
the designs engraved upon them are shown developed in
h and
The different parts making up the composite human head and
its
appendages
in
b
are
illustrated, somewhat
reduced,
in
c-h.
In
o
and d we have human heads wearing headplates supporting antlers
similar to those shown on plate 4, b and
a.
What appears to be the
beak of the spoonbill is represented in h.
Two more of these remarkable engravings are illustrated on plate
7.
The upper one,
a, was taken from an altar of the Turner group
in a fragmentary state. The developed design appears in b and
e?, and
the moi'e prominent features composing the design are shown some^
what reduced in d^
/.
The conventionalized head of what may be
the bison appears only when the design c is reversed.
The specimen illustrated in g was found in 1801
in a mound at
Cincinnati.
The developed design, h and
are from drawings by
406
Ai^^KlTAL MPORT SMITHSOKIAlir INSTITUTION,
1916.
Dr. G. B. Gordon, and
are described by him
in volume
2 of the
Transactions of the Department of Arclneology of the University of
Pennsylvania.
It is a highly conventionalized drawing of one of the
carnivora.
The remarkable designs illustrated on plate 8, g and K, are incised
upon disks cut from the parietal bones of a human skull.
They are
from an altar of the Turner group.
The designs are alike, excepting
that they are reversed.
Eaili consists of three highly conventional-
ized bird forms joined together.
The central bird with ears and with
large
legs terminating in four claws probably
represents an
owl.
The other two are less easily identified.
The spatula -like implement shown in
Z>, made from the rib of
a
large mammal, is also fi’om the Turner group. The bird incised upon
the handle
is one
of
the most
artistic Indian
dravvings thus
far
known.
The lines were originally filled ^^ith red pigment.
Those shown in r,
c, / are from the Hopewell gionp.
c is carved
upon the thin bone of a huge bird and represents the ocelot;
the
markings upon the body are true to nature, and although somewhat
conv^entionalized, they occupy their i)roper position.
mCA OBJECTS.
Mica was highly valued and
vv^as obtained in considerable quanti-
ties by
the
earthwork
builders,
probably
from
the
Appalachian
region.
The crystals or plates are often of large
size, and are fre-
quently found
Avitli skeletons or as sacrificial deposits in the mounds.
The thin sheets into whicli these plates aie easily divided were some-
times cut into ornaments or symbolic
figures, such as are shown on
plate
9.
These were taken fiom altars of the Hopewell and Turner
groups with many fragments of similar objects cut from this mineral.
The edges are as smooth and even as though cut with a sharp steel
implement.
Experiments, however, show that small flaked knives of
flint will do Ihe work equally well.
The perforated disks, a and
c,
were cut with some kind of instrument for describing accurate cir-
cles.
Fragments of large symbolic designs of a nature similar to
those cut from coiiper aie shown in e~h.
The general method of lay-
ing out a design is illustrated in L
This was evidently done in free-
hand with a sharp
flint.
Figures
I and o are in the form of stone
knives or projectile points.
Figure
I was lying in contact with an
obsidian implement of like form and has incised upon its surface the
outline of what is apparently a barbed spear point.
That these peo-
ple were familiar with the atlatl or spear thrower
is evident from
the design shown
in
n.
An interesting delineation of the horned
serpebt is shown in m.
It should be noted that the disk from the
eenter of which the long horn projects has two short arms which lie
Sniitl-.n,,:-,.
R.
(
f',
upon
iip'Mia, Iavo
(1<'\(>i
shown ill h: j\
|,nt
in
ls(i). (aller
r.
//,'I'M,
-!
l,y.
Platf
7.
Engravings from thl Chiu Mounds.
poiiioiiof a
hiiiitaii nliM. 'I'urtn'r Rioiip of
nionii.lsi"
s
c‘, roiupioic dt'
iiin
lopinoiiis;
^/,
principal
<l(GiRH sliowii
\\li('io c
is iom'imvI;
(,
priiicip
iJ
(l(''o'ipi
U'ip.ii (lo.siipi slio\\'ii
III c:
(/, (Mipi.iviiiL: up.m huno foniid
in mound nl Cinninnati
. (ioid<m);
A, /, foiiipjolodoapii upon y,
1 wo dcveiopinonls.
folate
8.
Engravings from
ihe Ohio Mounds.
,
(if
I liiit
; lirll
(>ii”r:iv<ul
n|i()ii
lioili
/<,
lt';ii'm<*iil;iiy
siKiliil.iliktwihjt'cl m ulo
fi oiii
T'il)
[i()ii<‘:
c,
ri'Mii <> of ()r*'l:»l upon
l)ir<l
I kiiic; d , (Miyni \ <'(1
;> lit lor ohjccl
;
/
,
i| i'''l
upon/;
7
, onyniviii”
iip;iii i>uiic;
I-
‘
.‘'rom
1
ti<- p:ii nitiil boncuil
I ho luuiiaii .skull.
(Aliout
i/,
/(,
'I’ui u'‘i’ yioiip;
,!!;
yroup.
ART OF EARTHWORK BUILDERS—WILLOUGHBY.
497
against the horn for a part of its distance.
If we eliminate the long
horn we have remaining a disk with two arms and a central perfora-
tion, a form analogous to those occupying similar
positions upon
either side of the serpent head shown in
plate
1.
The grotesque
human head,
is another good illustration of the humor of these
Indians.
The excellent representation of the upper portion of a bear
is illustrated in
ft.
This is one of several taken from an altar of the
Turner group.
Portions of these
effigies were carefully painted in
red, brown, and pink pigment.
Several birdlike objects which had
originally been painted were taken from this altar.
One of these is
shown in d,
TOBACCO PIPES.
The remarkable collection of tobacco pipes obtained by Sqiiier and
Davis from the altar of one of the tumuli of ‘‘Mound City”
is too
well known
to
archeologists
to
be
considered
here.
Mr. W.
C.
Mills, of
the Ohio Arclueological and
Historical
Society, made
a
similar find
in 1015d
One of the most elaborate pipovs so far recovered
is illustrated on
plate 10,
h,
Tliis was taken from one of the altars of the Hope-
well group and represents the spoonbill resting on the back of a fish.
The cavity for tlie tobacco is in the body of the bird and the perfo-
ration
for the passage of smoke extends through the body of the
fish, the outer opening being its mouth.
This appears to be made
from a kind of claystone and
is coloi’ed black by the confined smoke
of the altar fires.
A front view of the bird’s head and beak is showm
in h.
The incised lines extending from the nostrils to the tip of the
beak should be compared with those represented
in
?, which
is a
drawing of the head and beak of a roseate spoonbill.
A portion of
the beak of the spoonbill carved in ivory
is represented in m; this
was taken from an altar of the same mound as the pipe.
Ivory was used to
a considerable extent by the Ohio earthwork
builders.
The source of at least a part of
it was the fossil tusks of
the mammoth.
In c we have one of the simpler forms of pipes of this culture area.
It
is cut from
a
beautiful
piece of green serpentine, and a large
pearl was probably
set
in
the
cavity
near one
end.
The
finely
formed pipe shown in d has the design c reversed upon the bowl.
A very unusual pipe from the Liberty group
of mounds, Eoss
County,
is illustrated
in
/, g.
It
is carved from a very compact
brown stone.
The neck and part of the head have been broken off.
The opening to the bowl
is through the mouth, and the smoke was
drawn through a perforation in the neck.
igee W.
C.
Mills, Exploration of the Tremper Mound
in Scioto County,
Ohio,
Anniversary Volume,
pp.
Ii34-o68,
pis.
1-5, Washington,
1916,
498
'
I ANNUAL KEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1»16.
It II
This carving probably represents the head of a snake priest, for
a portion of the rattle of a serpent appears just above the swastika
at the back of the head.^ This becomes clear upon comparing the
design with one of the
rattles in the
tail of the conventionalized
serpent shown in
and also with that of the serpent monster illus-
trated in plate
11,
h.
The swastika, which
in
this instance
is ap-
parently a wind symbol, adds to the probability of this interpreta-
tion.
The design upon the face doubtless represents facial painting.
This is shown developed in h,
IIOT.LOW EFFIOIKS.
Plate 11 shovs a class of objects from the tumuli, the use of which
is unknown.
They are all hollow, and most of them are pierced by
one or more holes.
The Avails of some of them are \ery thin, and
considerable skill must
liaAc been required in tluur making.
An cared
oaaI
is represented
in
a.
The notched beak, the
ears
which project upA\ard over the eve, and the outline of the rutf ex-
tending backw^ard and downward from tlie eye, are all characteristics
of
this bird.
This
is made of a stone resembling serpentine, and
like most objects of
tliis class
is finely executed.
Two other birds
carved from antler ai'e shown in d and
/.
The notched beaks seem
to indicate that the}^ were intended to represent hawlfs.
The
first
was found upon an altar, and the second accompanied a burial in the
great mound of the Hopewell group.
The tadpolelike object
(c)
is
made of serpentine; a part of a pearl still remains in the eye.
It is
probable that
all of these
effigies once had
pearls inserted
in their
eye cavities.
The beetle illustrated in
h
is carved in light-colored calcite and
was taken from
the group of mounds at Grand
Itapicls before
re-
ferred to.
What is perhaps the liead of a doe
is shown in
c.
This
was obtained by Squier and Davis, and the drawdng
is from a cast
in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge.
One of the most interesting effigies of this class is represented in
A, L
This is carved in red slate and was taken from an altar of a
mound of the Turner group.
It was broken m many pieceij, nearly
all of which were recovered.
This probably represents a mythical
watet monster analogous to those occurring in the mythology of th©
Pawnee and other tribes.
It has the
tail and head of the serpent.
Th© plates of the serpent’s head are shown above and below^, and the
four horns characteristic of the serpent deity north of Mexico are
present.
Two of the horns are carved in relief upon the top of th©
head) and two are made separately and inserted into holes drilled in
Oftoh fiida
Like most effigies of this class,
it is hollow, but the walln
iye not perforated.
R, pr't,
I'^l'
-Willmi
'i.|
f^LAir
9.
Mica Oiul:cts from the Ohio Mounds.
I '(•pf’ir portion of hnnr p.iinl<Mi
III color
f
~/i,
fr.iiriiic As of
Wci-ic ic. of
I he N.uni' ch umcIim'
i > ^llo\\ n
upon
pl;il(^2;
/, c. .no
ill
I lie I’oriu
ol
Hint
knivo.s or Sfionr
points;
in, horned M'l pi^ni
;
/p coji}' of
at lat 1, or spoor
t hro\o‘r.
PlATL
10.
u,
R, p.Mf,
'
-W'
Pipes and Othef^ Carvings
froivi
the Mounds.
0*,
^
/;,
l’i|i<‘N Iroiii
(
!i(‘ Hopewell ;.':ruiip;
c, from niuinid
it)
f,
r/,
t)]-(>l\(iii pipr fioni
I
Ei1m‘I
I y
‘j;r(»iip;
/(,(!(
lyMi Up
iii
1Set' ol
f
,
(j;
/,
(i»>\ <‘l;»p(‘<l stMluvu
«U*u'/u Upon
> luiu'
h;ill IVom
(lit'
Eil)*M
1 ) pro up;
/,
lie,: id luid
|»e
i k of
i o e iie spttoiihilJ dr. twit Iroiii
I lie;
in, htvik
ol
spoor dull e;ii
\ «^d
ill
j\ oi'v,
J lojtewell yroUp.
(Ahoiit }j,)
R.
R'R
vy.iin,, ,cu'.
Watt
\
1.
Hollow Effigils from the Mounds.
Immim
1 hti
1 loju'w oil j^roup;
/>, fruiu
m, iuoiiikI
ii\
Mioliipan;
L
frioii tho Turiioi- proiip;
</,
/i,
twi) views of
/, ivdiictvl.
(AluHil
j j.j
mif 01* MftTHWORK
—^hhOVQntt.
49d
STONE BINGS.
The beautifully formed stone rings shown on plate 12
and
in cross section in figure 2, are among the most interesting objects
recovered from
tlie Ohio
mounds.
Similar
rings were found by
Squier and Davis and
others.
Those illustrated were taken, with
fragments of others, from the altars of the Hopewell group.
These are probably ear plugs.
Some of them are perforated lat-
erally with four or eight holes as shown in the side views, c and d.
It
is not
improbable
that
these
perforations were
for
attaching
feathers
or
other ornaments
placed
within
or hanging from
the
central opening of the ring.
Most of these arc made from the brown
micaceous mineral called “gold stone”
bj^ Squier and Davis, and
are beautifully polished.
> > >
Fig.
2.—Crofc.8 sections of lingb on plate 12 , a, c, d.
The most
remarl^able thing about them, however,
is their sym-
metry.
Their outlines form true circles and their surfaces ‘are pre-
fectly symmetrical.
They could not have been made without some
mechanical device based upon the lathe principle.
The only other
evidences of the use of the principle of the lathe by this people that I
have been able to find is shown by a beautifully finished perforated
disk of fossil i\ory from
a mound
in Indiana and by certain shell
beads that arc altogether too symmetrical to have been made by any
other known
process.
The fourth ring shown in the plate,
&, was
made by the writer from a piece of slate.
The only implements used
were stones such as may bo picked up on almost any field, and two or
three rude chipped knives.
After roughly forming and perforating
the slate disk, a stick about 0 indies long was fitted tightly in the
perforation and
its ends rounded and hardened
in
the
fire.
The
stick was then placed between adjoining limbs of a
tree,
its ends
being inserted in depressions cut into the limbs.
With the aid of an
iijnprovised bow, the stick bearing the ring was revolved back and
forth, and
the
ring finished by
the
use
of
the
wstone knives held
against a crossbar.
Sand, water, and ashes were used for polishing.
The above device formed, of course, a rude lathe, but it was merely
the adaptation of the bow drill which was known to the Eskimo and
ftfOme other American tribes in prehistoric times.
TEXTILE FABRICS.
The textile fabrics of this people did not differ materially fitm
thoee of many other tribes of the United States.
They appear
principally of the twined-woven variety which was so widespread
d'l
loo
‘
^AKlrtTAL R1P0»T SMIITHBOiriAll!’
tm.
among people who had not adopted the loom.
Many fragments of
this cloth have been preserved by contact with metal objects, or have
been found charred on the altars, or with cremated human remains.
Some of
this
cloth
is of
a remarkably
fine texture,
for weaving
done principally with the fingers unaided by mechanical devices.
Plate 13,
Or-c, shows small sections of twined-woven cloth at the
right, at the left enlarged drawings of each which illustrate more
clearly the relation of the warp and woof cords.
Other examples of
this weaving are shown in g-i.
The wavelike arrangement of the
warp cords in i is very unusual.
The twined woof cords in all of the
above specimens
are
relatively
like
those shown
in
the
sectional
sketch in
i.
In
f we have an example
of the simple
in-and-out
weave ; this is probably a piece of the upper portion of a bag.
This
type of weaving was sometimes followed
in this region in making
much finer cloth.
What appear to be fragments of netted bags are
illustrated at the right in d and
e.
Enlarged drawings appear at
the left, showing the stitch.
This type of netting
is fotmd among
the northern Athapascans, in California, in the Pueblo region, and
in northern Mexico, but is rare in other sections north of Mexico.
A HALF CENTURY OF GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS.^
By J. Scott Keltie, LL.D.,
Late
Secretary
of
the Royal
Geographical
Societyy
London,
[With 2 plates.]
When I was honored with a request from your council to open this
new session of the Jioyal Scottish Geographical Society, by a lecture
on geographical progress during the last half century, 1 am afraid
I accepted the invitation with a light heart.
It was only when I be-
gan to face the subject that I realized its magnitude.
To do it justice
would take volumes.
In the brief space of a lecture I can only hope
to indicate succinctly the lines upon Avhich the main advances have
been made; to bring before you an impressionist picture, mai’ked,
it
may be, by some of the bewildering confusion characteristic of that
evolution
in the domain of
art.
*
*
*
First of
all,
it may be useful to make it clear to ourselves what is
the field covered by the subject, the progress of which during half a
century
it
is our task to
trace.
I think for our purpose we may
regard geography as the science which deals with the distribution
of the features of the earth’s surface and of all that it sustains, min-
eral, vegetable, and animal, including man himself.
In fact, man is
the ultimate factor in the geographical problem, the
final object of
which is to investigate the correlations which exist between humanity
and
its geographical environment.
It
is evident, then, that before
the geographer
is in a position to apply
scientific methods to the
problem which it is his function to solve he must
first have an ade-
quate knowledge of the data which form the terms of the problem.
Such data can only be obtained by the exploration of the earth’s sur-
face conducted by
scientific methods.
Therefore in attempting to
review the progress of geography during the past half century, our
first task
is to ascertain what have been the main additions to our
knowledge of the earth’s surface by means of exploration.
Secondly,
we should endeavor to ascertain what progress has been made in our
methods of dealing with such
results.
Has there been any marked
^An
address
delivered
before
the Koyal
Scottish
Geographical
Society
In Edinburgh
on Nov.
18,
1016.
Reprinted by
permission from
the
Scottish Geographical Magazine,
December, 1915.
73839“--sm 1916
S3
601
502
annual report Smithsonian institution,
1916.
advance in the application of scientific methods to geographical prob-
lems?
Thirdly, what improvement has been introduced
into geo-
graphical education?
In attempting to take stock of the results of the exploration of the
unknown and little-known regions of the globe during the last half
century, starting for convenience with the year 1860, I think
it
is
safe to say that we have to go back to the half century which followed
1492 (when Columbus stumbled on a new world)
before we find a
period so prolilic.
The two poles have been rea(4ied and large addi-
tions made to our^ knowledge of the polar regions.
The unknown
two-thirds,
at
least, of the Dark Continent have been more or
less
provisionally mapped, and all but an insignificant f raction partitioned
among the powers of Europe.
Great ai‘eas of North America have
been surveyed and occupied, while much has been done for the ex-
ploration of Central and South American
ddie map of Asia has to a
large extent been reconstructed, while the vast unknown interior of
Australia has been traversed in all directions.
Even much of Europe
has been resurvoyed.
A new department of science, oceanography,
has been created as the result of the Challenger and other oceanic
surveys.
Dut
let us deal with the subject in somewhat more detail,
beginning
at the north.
The leading episodes that have marked the progress of exploration
since 1860 must be within the memory of many of you, though prob-
ably few of the jiudience can go back to the forties and
fifties as T,
alas, can do.
But time will not ])ennit of my dealing in detail with
the episodes that ha\ e marked the progress of discovery, only with
the
results.
What, then, has been the result of all the half century’s strenuous
efforts to unravel the secrets of the lands that fringe the great ice-
bound ocean around
the North
Pole.
In
I860 the north coast of
Greenland had never been reached, and
the east coast beyond
north
M^as only known
in patches.
Our knowledge of the Arctic
archipelago was gi’catly
defective.
What lay between Spitzbergen
and Nova Zembla was entirely unknown; the coast of Siberia was
imperfectly mapped and the seas beyond
largely unexplored.
No
soundings had h^m taken
in the Arctic Ocean, and
the
farthest
north reached was a
little over
82*^, a latitude reached by Hudson
some 300 years ago.
Now Greenland, largely through Peary’s work,
has been extended to over 83° north, and the whole coast has been
practically charted;
the
Arctic Archipelago has been
greatly
ex-
tended; Franz Josef Land has been
placed on
the map;
a large
island has been discovered to the north of Siberia and another
oti
the west of the Arctic Archipelago; great additions have been made
to our knowledge of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla; depths of 2,000
fathoms have been sounded in the Arctic Ocean; and the North Pole
GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIE.
503
itself has
l)een
located amid
thick-ribbed
ice.
Besides
these
geo-
graphical
discoveries, substantial contributions have been made
to
other departments of science which enable us to understand better
the regime of these inhospitable regions in the general economy of
our earth.
There
still remains much
to be done, especially in the
wide region to the north of Bering Strait, })elV»re our knowledge
is
complete.
Turning to the other end of the earth, there is a great gap between
the work of Boss, AVilkes, D’Urville, and Bellingshausen, and the
outburst of enterprise in the exploration of the Antarctic continent in
quite recent years.
BonBgrevink and the Belgians under (lerlache
began the campaign some 18 years ago.
But undoubtedly the
first
organized attempt on
a great
scale to
scatter our
ignorance
of a
continent as large as Europe, though jn-obably of liille use to human-
ity, was made by
the great expedition under
Capt.
Scott, whose
tragic and heroic death with his four companions some years later
places them high up on the nation’s roll of honor.
Amundsen, who
discovered a new and easy route, rushed in and reaped the fruits of
the 10 years’ labors of these indomitable
Bi-itish
explorers.
Then
there is Drygalski’s expedition, and we have Bruce, Shackleton, and
Mawson
(from Australia) and Charcot on the Craliam Land
side.
John Murray saw the land from the Challenger in the seventies, and
with
his
usual
insight
surmivSed
that
here
lay
a
great
continent.
Before the campaign began the only big gaj) was that made by Ross
in the Ross Sea ami along the great ice barrier, with somewhat hypo-
thetical patches elsewhere.
Now,
it may be said truly that
in the
period with which we are dealing, and especially in the last 18 years,
enormous additions have been made to our knowledge of the outline,
and even a large extent of the interior, of the most repellent land on
the face of the earth.
It may be said that with Ross's discovery as
a basis within the last 15 years the whole coast line of the Antarctic
continent has been
laid down from King Edward ATI
Land
to
Kaiser AVilhelm Land, considerably more than
a quadrant of the
circumference, and that from the observations which have been made
the interior is a lofty ice-covered plateau, bordered in juirts by still
higher mountain ranges, with indications that in past ages a climate
favorable
to temperate
or even
subtropical
vegetation must have
existed.
The meteorological work carried out, especially by Mawson’s
expedition, may turn out to be of practical service to meteorology in
general and to that of Australia in particular.
In the interests of
-' science at
least.,
it
is hoped that the entire outline of the Antarctic
Continent will be laid down and further investigations (‘arried out
sufficient to satisfy our natural curiosity as to the past history of this
great ice-bound land.
504
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
As a contrast to the frigid regions with which w^e have been deal-
ing, let us turn to the most tropical, and in 1860 the most unexplored
of
all
the
continents,
Africa.
One
of my
earliest
geographical
recollections is of a map of Africa somewhere in the forties and early
fifties on the wall of the school of my boyhood
; begrimed and faded,
with the word
unexplored ”
in large capitals, from the Sahara to
the borders of the Cape.
1 am afraid we boys were not sorry for
the great blank without a single name to plague our memories.
As repiTsented on the best maps of 1860, Africa from about 10^
iioith to about 20° south, was mainly a blank, checkered here and
there with
conjectural and imaginary
features.
Livingstone
and
Burton and Speke had been
at work.
We
see the course
of the
Zambezi laid down, and
a ague indications given of liake Tanganyika,
Victoria
Nyanza, and Lake
Nyasji.
The
Nile
is timidly
bi’ought
down in dotted lines toward the Equator. A little bit of the lower
Congo
is shown
Avitli many dotted
lines of
conjectural
tributaries
joining it from
A arious directions, but no indication given of its real
course.
()ui‘
|)ositive
knoAvledge
Avas
comparatively
intinitesimal.
It
is not
t(K) much
to say
that of the
11,000,000
s(iuare miles of
Africa something
like
6,000,000
Avas
practically
unloiown, and
of
the
remaining
5,000,000
probably
not more
than
1,000,000
Avas
mapped with anything approacliing accuracy.
The
real
inspiring
initiative of the modern exploration of Africa undoubtedly rests with
David Livingstone, who in the fifties led that ever memorable expe-
dition across south-central Africa which placed the great Zambezi
for the first time throughout its length upon the map.
But it is impossible to follow in detail the work of the multitude
of explorers Avho, since 1860, have entirely clianged the face of the
no longer “ Dark Continent.”
The Avork of the great army of explores during the half century
has changed the face of the continent and
filled up the enomious
blanks that disfigured
tlie maps of
1860.
While the outline of the
coast remains as rigid as in the old maps, unindented by any of those
great oceanic intrusions which mark the other continents, exploration
has revealed
a surface much more diversified than the geographers
of two
generations ago would have
led
us to expect;
while
the
interior is mainly of a plateau character, the borderlands all around
are more or less mountainous, with peaks rising in certain cases to
heights approaching 20,000
feet.
It has four great river systems
and many subsidiary basins; a profusion of lakes, abundant forests,
and park lands, and open areas that may be turned to the uses of
humanity.
Even the greatest desert in the world, the Sahara, has
its mountain ranges and lofty plateaux, sometimes snow clad.
Un-
fortunately the abundant water-supply is not well distributed, though
even the Sahara and the Kalahari have underground stores which
GKOGKAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIE.
505
may yet be utilized with good results.
We have found that the con-
tinent is not nearly so hopeless as was believed from the standpoint
of P]uropean settlement and enterprise.
The white man has learned
better how to adapt himself to tropical conditions, while there are
many regions with altitudes that afford a climate in which the Euro-
pean can
live in comfort and wholesomeness.
Still, so far as we
can see at present, the resources of the continent must be developed
mainly by native races under the guidance of their white brothers.
As to these white brothers, we must next consider the areas that
have fallen to the share of the various European powers.
The scram-
ble, which may be said to have begun when Stanley went out for the
King of the Belgians to annex the Congo in 1879 and was virtually
completed
in 1880, has culminated in the absorption of the whole of
the continent, ex(‘ept Abyssinia
in the east and Liberia
in the west.
Britain lias no need to
lie dissatisfied with her share, which now
in-
cludes
the
whole
of
Egypt
and
the
Egyptian
Sudan.
*
*
*
Britaiivs
sliai’c amounts to
<‘1,500,000 square
miles, with a popida-
tion of 5J1,000,000;
h'l ance to 4,500,000 square miles, witli a jiopulation
of only 42,000,000; and (lermany
1,000,000, with
a
pojmlation of
12,000,000.
The
rest
belongs
to
Portugal,
Sjiain,
liiberia,
and
Abyssinia.
Of the total tianle
in 1914 Ib itain claimed £155,000,(K)()
(of which 90,000,000 were expoils), or two-thirds, leaving only one-
third to the othei* ])()wers.
Much
still remains to be done before our knowledge of the geog-
raphy and economic i)otentialities of Afri(;a can be regarded as ade-
quate. A great network of routes and moi'e or less provisional sur-
veys have been laid down all over the continent, but the broad meshes
between these lines have yet to be filled in.
To accomplish this sat-
isfactorily we require the services of specialists trained
to scientific
investigation
in the various departments of science on which geog-
raphy, in its broadest and highest aspects, is based, for
it is only as
all the raAv material from all over the surface of our glol)e is brought
together and systematically arranged that the geograjdiical student
will be in a position to work out the many problems, physical and
human, with which his science has to deal.
I fear I must treat America Avith brevity.
In the most po])ular
American textbook of geography a few years before our half century
it was gravely stated that the Alleghenies of North America were
the continuation
of the Andes in South America.
Half
a century
ago much of the region Avest of Lake Ontario
in the noi th and of
the Mississippi in the south was the home of the Indian, the trapper,
and the buffalo.
Canada consisted still of Upper and LoAver Canada
Victoria on Vancouver Island Avas only a Hudson’s Bay Co.’s post;
and so Avas Fort Garry, noAV the great city of Winnipeg.
Vancouver
j City did not exist.
How Canada has since pushed AvestAvard you all
606
annual report SMITHSONIAN INSTITTTTION,
1910.
kno^^.
Winiiij)e^’. Vancouver, and
Victoria
are
nourishing
cities:
the
wliole
liabitablc
country
luis
l)een
inoi'c
or
less explored and
provisionally
nia[)])e(b partly by individual explorers but mainly by
the Vauadian Survey; waving fields of wheat have taken the place of
the rank grass of the ])rairie; gj*eat cattle ranches reach to the foot of
the Eocky Mountains; coal mines are being worked in the east and
Avest.
The
ai’ca of settlement and of agriculture has been pushed
some degi ees farther noilh and northwest
; the British
Atlantic has
been
connected
with
the
British
Pacific by
railways which make
Britain indepemlent of
all foreign routes.
The
cat(‘r})illar
shading
which
indicaited
the Eocky Mountains
from Alaska
to (hlifornia has given
place
to complicated
ranges,
with
(‘iiaracteristii*
buttressing
features, great
])lateaus with many
olfslioots,
and
beautiful
coast
ranges.
All
the
vastly
increased
km^wledge
of (tniada
has
le<l
to the
de\’elopuient
of
its resources
at
a const aiidy increasing rate.
The whole country has been united
into one
ginait Dominion, divided
into many ]h*oyinces,
in place of
the
I'ppcr and Lower Canada
of half
a
(\‘ntury
ago.
The popu-
lation has increas(‘d from :k0()0,U00 to o\er
S,Ol)0,()()0, but (hnada
is
cajjable of sustaining tmi times (hat nurnlxu'.
()\'er
ri0,()()(),(){)0 acres
of land
are occujhiab and of this
I0,00(),0t)()
acres
arc* under wheat
and
an
e([ual
ar(*a
undcu'
oats.
The
annual
value
of
thc‘
mineral
products
aloiic' amoiiuts to about
;)U,()(K),0()0
steading, and of manu-
facture's
to
lMO.U()0.0()()
stc'jling,
Avliile
the
total
C'xports
approacdi
closely to
lOO.OOOd'^^Xt.
1
gi\'e
these
liguiass
as airordiug some idea
of the vast progrc'ss made' i^y Canada in the half centiuy
in expand-
ing
tliis great coiintiy and
obtaining
a. knowledge of
its
resources.
l>ut
tliei'e
is ample room
for
still
further exploj’atioii and
dc'velop-
ment, and niojp detailed aiid accurate map]>ing; during the nerxt half
century the ])!’c)g?‘ess acdiievecl must be* mucdi givater than in the past.
What Canada has done
in
tlie north
the
Liiited
State's lias deme
on a muedi
greate*r
seaile
in the south—naturally
so, Avlum one con-
sidei’s the
diH'cremce
in
climate
ovei*
tli(‘
Avliole
area.
Not to men-
tion
the work of individual
ex\[dorers,
the
siii-ve'y men have pene-
trated
into the
remote's!
regions; ha\e
told
a Avondering Avorld of
the canyons of the Colorado, those
r>,()()0-fe(it-dco]) gorges which are
luatcliless specimens of nature’s sculpture; of the gorgeous beauties
of the Ahdlowstone Parlv; the Avikdiories of the Yosemite; the great
des(U'ts Avhicli
tlie coast ranges deprive of moisture; and the Eocky
Mountains themiselves with their picturesepie
[leaks and rich upland
paidLS.
'
As a result of
all
this activity the whole of the 3,500,000 square
miles
of
the Eeimblic has
lieen
occupied;
with
the
exception
of
remote
Alaska,
all
the
old
Territories
liave
been
organized
into
States; the population lias risen from 30,000,000 to over 100,000,000;
OEOOIUPHIO PROGRESS— KELTIE.
507
excluding Alaska, 1,800,000,000 acres of the total 1,000,000,000 aeres
have
betui
ap])ropriatct]
and
j’oserved.
These
figiii'cs
niay
alFord
some idea of tlie activity of the United States during
tlie half len-
tury
in
exj)1()ring
its enormous
teiTitoiy and
taking
stock of
its
resources.
As to
Soutli
Ameiaca,
it
Avas
in
ISiU)
that
Hates returned,
after
11 years’ sojourn
in the Amazon Basin, mainly
as
a
liaturalist, but
with abundant
f|^‘sh
infujanation
on
tin*
g(H)g?*a phy
of
Itiat
enor-
Tuous
riser
})asin.
Since
that
time
a
host
of explorers—British,
French, Gejanan, Ana'rican, Swedish—have
]>(‘nel ratcal
itilo the
I’e-
ceRs(‘s of the contiiamt, exploi-ing
its multilude
of
I’ivers, climbing
and map])ing the great Andean Bange, investigating the inteia'sting
anti(juities
of
the
continent,
studying
its
nati\es
of many
tyi^es,
and
reporting upon
its
resoiii'ces.
The
Arg(mline
and
Chile,
the
two most advanced of South American
States, ha\e
sui\(*y('d and
mapptal,
at
haist
])ro\ isionally,
theli^
exttmsive
t(M*]*itoih‘S,
Avhile
l)oundai'y commissions have
added
liiuch
to
our
Jviiowhalge,
The
result
is that
the
maj)
of South
Ame!*i<*a
is
vao’y
diliereiit
fi'om
Avhat
it
Avas half
a
(‘(‘iitiiiy
ago.
Still,
it. must
he
said
that
moi’e
i*emaliis
to
Ije
done
in
Ihi^
an ay
of
pioneer
exploration
In
South
America than in any otlun* eontimmt ex(H^]>t
the Ant a retie.
.Vt least
1,000,000 S(piaiv miles are practically
imcxi)loi(al, whih*
a large area
of the remainder
is imperfectly known.
In
the
nortluuai
l)asin
of
tlie Amazon wvy miah
still I'cmains to
))i‘ done.
A
\ ast extent
of
the
grcait
forest
aiaai
(d'
Biaizil
has never
h(‘en
})enel raltnl.
Maj.
FaAveett
in
a
i-ecamt exploration
in
the*
lh)li\ In-Brazil
border came
aeia)ss a
forest, tribe
that, thouglit tliemselves the only
peo])le
in the
Avorld
exee})t a hairy tribe some miles away.
In
\\uu‘zuela. Colour
bia, Ecuador, ami
('acii
iu Bern and
Ikdivia
gi'cat areas are
all but
uiiknoAvii;
even
the
interior
of the
(biianas
has never heen
ade-
quately
ex]:)loi'ed
;
aud
A ery
inueh
ixmiaius
to
be
done
before
the
magnificent
chain
of
the
Amies can
be
regai’ded
as
sidllcicmtly
inap])ed.
South
America
has
been
attracting
incrensial
attention
in re(*ent years, and
it
is to be ho])ed tliat
in the near
futui'c serious
attcm])ts
Avill be made
to
(‘om|)let(* om*
kuoNYledg(‘
of
a
(‘ontiueut
teeming with
features and
ra<*es of
iiiteivst, and
the abundant
re-
sources of Aviiicb are ea])ab1e of
\’ast deA elopment.
If now wc turn io Australia Ave
sliall
find (hat as imadi heroism,
endurance, and self-denial have been displayed in the exploration of
the interior of tliat great southern continent as there has been in
tlie
case of Africa.
Half a ccntuiy ago wc kncAV
litlie more than tlic ihii
of the continent.
Men (*ould only wondei* what lay in the nnknoAvn
interior; was
it
pictures(|ue mountains, flowing iBers,
griait
lakes,
luxuriant forest and pasture lands, or was it only a southern Sahara ?
During the
last half century (he
Australians ha\e made the most
508
AKNTTAL REPOBT SMrTHSONIAN TNmTllTlON , lOKl
strenuous and
praisewortliy
efforts
to
diseover
the
characteristics
of this great continent of which they are the stewards.
All the Aiis-
tralian States have for years had well-organized
sui've^^s
at work,
and New South Wales and
Victoria
are now
fairly
well
inap])ed,
and their features and resources known.
One of the great episodes in Australian exploration
is the terrible
disaster that befell the Burke and Wills expedition which,
in
18()0-
01, actually crossed the continent
fi’oin Victoria hwthe Stony Desert
and the Mackinlay "Range to the estuary of the Flinders River in the
Gulf of Carpentaria; the two leaders paid
for their zeal with their
lives.
Aluch more
suc(‘essful was Macdouall Stewart who,
in
1S02,
after two pre\'ious attempts, ci’ossed the center of tlK‘ continent from
Adelaide to Port Djirwin along the route now oc‘cu])ied by th(‘ trans-
Australian
telegraph
line
and
the
ti'anscontiiamtal
railway
now
under construction.
Tie brought back good
n(‘ws of
fine
range's of
liills, gi-assy
])lains, and
fair sup])lies of
watei*, and
altoget li(U‘ gave
the Australians new hope of their contiiuuit.
About the same tinu^
two other expeditions crosseal
tlu' continent from ncn‘th to south and
south
to north,
in search of Burke and
Wills, adding much
to
oui'
knowledge of
(,)ueensland.
Tlie Stony
Desi'rt
of Sturt
was found
flooded
with
water, and
all
around
its
holders
W(U*('.
rich
pasture',
grounds.
The
general
I’esult
of
the many
exjdoi’ing
('Xj^aalit ions
in
the
eastern
half
of
Australia
has
been
to show
that
while
there
are
great patcdies of desert th(‘re are extensive' ai'eas of (‘xcedhmt counti*y
which would be as valuable as the finest land
in Europe
if only the
rainfall
could
be
dej)ended
u])on:
but away
fi'om
the
coast
you
can
not expect 10
inches
a
year;
occasionally
there may
be
more,
hut sometimes also mueh
less.
Still, about IIh* westeiai half of the continent nothing was known,
though
in the north and northwest
vaiioiis (‘xpeditions had found
rivers and
plateaus and
hills, and
the
country
in
the
immediate
neighborhood
of Perth and
along the
W(‘st
(Yiast
Avas
faiidy
well
surveyed.
The
first
successful
attempt
to
cross
fi*oni
east
to west
was made
in
1878
by
Col.
Warburton,
who,
with
his
son, some
natives,
a few
AfgTians, and
a troop
of camels,
started
from
the
center
of the continent and
crossing mainly
Ix'twcen
20'^'
jind
22
south latitude reached the De Gray
ITivei*
after
h'rrihle
sufferings
through want
of
food
and
Avatcr.
Nothing
mai'lual
their
dreary
Avay but
a
desert of sand
hills and
spinifex,
with
here and
theie
a
sc;anty water
hole.*
Since then the c()ntinent has been crossed and recrossed
in
all
di-
rections by
hk)rest,
Giles, and
their
successors.
The
(Rscovery
of
gold in Western Australia led to further explor'ation of that terri-
tory and an influx of immigrants adding greatly to the scanty popu-
(iEOOHAPTJTC
PR()(VPESft— KELTTE.
509
latioii of half a centiu’v a^o.
All these expeditions, combined witli
tlie
ofIi(‘ia]
survey's, have adonled
a
fair knowledge
of
the main
features of the
intei'ior, whi(*h
are much more valued than was at
one time sipiposed.
At
tlie same time,
tlie numerous rivers shown
on the map in central and
westeiui Australia lack that permanency
which
is necessary for successful agricultural operations.
But great
scliemes
ai*e on
foot for irrigation and
storage, and,
as
is known,
the immense underground sipiply of water has been tap])ed, though,
as
it
is not unlimited,
its use ought to be carefully
regulated.
The
population during the past half century has tiahled, and the ma-
terial progress dui*ing ipceut ATars has been
so great that the Im-
perial Government
felt
justified
in combining the
various colonies
into one great commonwealth.
Ihidei*
Ibis new ivgime there
is no
doubt that
a much more
detailed
ex])lorati()n
of
the
continent on
scientific
lines
will
lie carried
out
iti
fu(ui‘e,
Avitli
benefi(‘ial
results
on
its develoi)ment, inineral, agrieultui*ah pastoial, and manufactur-
ing.
In the annual ])roduction and commeire of the Gommoii wealth
gold has (‘eased to be the most important
fa(‘tor.
The
agricultui*al
{U'oduction alone amounts to about 50,000,000 sterling, the
])astoral
to close on
(>0.000.0o0,
wliile dairying piaxlucts yi(dd
1^ 0 ,000,000 and
maniifacf invs
.5S,000,000.
Mining
products amount
to
some
25,-
000,000.
The
total
ex])orts are now almost
80,0(H),()00, and
of that
wool alone
is valiual at ovei* 20,000,000.
This will
afford some measure of the extent to which
Australia
has been explored during the
])ast half (‘enliiiy.
When we remem-
ber what man has been able to accom})lish in older countries by tree-
planting,
irrigation, and other judicious methods, there
is no need
to despai]- of
Australia.
At
th(‘ worst there
is ])1enty of room
for
the hundred millions which
it
is estimated—by Australians—will be
the population of the continent
a century
lienee.
We may be sure
there
is
a
great
future
in
store
for our
southeim dominion,
with
British energy to make the bc‘st of gc'ograydiical conditions.
Although
New
Guinea,
esi)e(‘ially
the
spacious
western
sec'tion
belonging to Holland, remains one of the few regions which affords
am])le
scojie
to
the adventurous
])ioneer
explorer,
still, much has
been done
in
recent yeai's
to furnish
a
fuller knowledge of
its
in-
terior,
especially
since
the narrower eastern
section
was annexed
by Great
Ih*itain and Germany.
Half a century ago
it was prac-
tically
a blank.
Into the discoveries that have been made
in that
magnificent
a]*chii)elag(> that
fi*inges southeastern and eastern Asia
I can not enter.
Much has been done
in the Philippine Islands and
in Formosa
liy
th(‘ Ihiited States and Japan, to which respectively
these islands now belong.
Though many additions have been made
t(^ our knowledge by Bi itish and Dutch explorers in the other islands
510
ANNUAL UKPOLT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
of
tlie great Asiatic
archipelago,
still
iiiuch
remains to be
acc*Dm-
plished, especially by the scientific explorer.
As
foi' Aew Zealand,
its exploi*ation during the last half century
has been cari ied on mainly by
its well -organized survey, so that
it
is now
to
a
large extent well mapped,
wliile the peaks of
its
pic-
turesque mountain
ranges have
been
ascended
by many
Alpinists,
with the
1 ‘esult that the ma]> of what
is now the Dominion of New
Zealand
is very dilfei'cnt from that of half a centuj‘y ago.
Tlie de-
velopment of
its resources
Inis kejh
pace
with
the
j)r(^gress of
ex-
ploration, so that the value of
its expoi’ts have reachtal the amount
of
c£‘2;h00(), ()(){), mainly wool, agii(‘ultural and
dairy products.
The
population has grown from a few thousand in
is<)() to ovei‘ a million.
As foi‘ the gi'eat continent of Asia
itself, the primitive home of the
human
I'ace, ac'cording to some, and therefore the longest known of
all the (‘onlinents. 1 can barely touch
it.
Dnlike
Austi’alia ami the
NeAV World,
its great features,
its matchless mountain
systians,
its
magnificent
rivers,
its
s[)a(*ious table-lands,
its sandy
deserts, have
long been known
in
tlu‘ii' main
haUniass.
Ihit duimig the
last half
centui'y vmy much
lias been done to
fill
iji the thuails of these fea-
tures and give tliem precision.
War and comnur-t have here been the
great handmaids of geogi'aphy.
In om* own
gi'eat Asiatic depend-
ency— India—we have acted on
th(‘
vvis(‘ principle that to govern a
country well, yon must know
it
well.
i)\\v of
tin* gi'iritest entei'prises
ever undertaken by any
( lov ernment lias
Ihm'Ii
broiigiit
to
a
eomjile-
tioii dui'ing the hal f ciuitury.
Nothing is moix* credit able to us in our
conneetion with India than
this gieal
( rigomuiKTi ical surviy, begun
about
a century ago and compleliMl
(juiti^
i‘(‘ceiitly.
We have
mea.s-
ui*ed eveiy mile of the country; we have jilott^al
all
its mountain sys-
tems, laid down
tlu^ coui'ses of
its mighty
rivtu's, mapped
its deserts
and its forests and
its great alluvial
plaijis, whicli now form one of
tlie great wheat granaries of the world.
Many of the towering peaks
of the ilimalavas have been
jiieasiiicd
in their lu'ights, and some of
them
scaled, and those grand
glaciers, which
the
gi’eat Humboldt
declared
could
not
exist,
have
been
explored
and mapped;
the
meteorology of the
])eiiinsuhi, on
whicli so much
dcjicnds, has been
and
is being worked out on
a magnificant scaile, while the (Jeological
Survey lias done mueli to unrid<lle tlu^ evolution of India and reveal
its
mineral
treasures.
Our wars
with
Afghanistan
have enabled
us
to
map
partially
at
least
that
troublesome
country.
Our
explorers, some of them native Indians, some of them llritons of the
fine old adventurous type, have faced many dangers, jienetrated into
nearly every corner of cenlral Asia, and
brouglit back treasures in
the way
of knowhalge.
But
all
around
our
Indian
boi*ders our
modest militaiy expeditions have always heeii accompanied by sur-
veyors, British and native, who Jiave gemually leturned with a rich
GEGORAPIITC PKOC4KESS—KELTIE.
511
harvest of geogi‘ai)hy.
()nly
(jiiite
reo.c'iiLi}^ the age-long pr(l)lein of
the Sanpo-I>rahinapii(i’a
lias been
all
l)nt solved by the enterprising
son
of
the
soelety’s
late
secavtarv, Capt.
Erie
Ihiiley, when some
thousand
or two
squai'e
miles
of
the
r(‘gioii were
surveyed and
mapped.
Burma and the Malay States are being sui‘\eyed; Siam has
been
juapf})ed, while similar services are being rendeied by France
in the tei-ritoiies under her domination.
Partly through the enter-
prise of individual
ti'avellers and partly as a
lesult of Sir Fiancis
Vounghusbamrs
expedirum,
Tibet
and
Lhasa
are
no
longtu’
the
luystei’ies
that
th(‘y
wei*e,
and
the
great
I)rahma})utra
has
l>een
traced
to
its
sour('e.
Sven
Iledin,
(amlirmed
the
existence
and
explored the great i’ang(^ beyond the Himalayas conjectured to exist
by Trelaunay Saunders as far ba(“k as the seventies.
But
1 can not att(‘m])t to record the ^^ork of individual exploi'ers.
The
TTigh
,Pamii>;
luivc
betm
fully
ma})i)ed.
'Flu* Kiuai
Lun, the
Tian Shan, and
tlu'se other great i*ang('s that
lie betwetm
Tib(‘( and
'^I’lirkestaii and soutlierii
Silxu'ia ha\'e been ])lott(Ml in their main fea-
tures.
The Oobi, the Takla
iMakan, and
othei*
d(^s<Mt n^gious have
been exjdored, as has the 1'arim basin and the shrinking lakes scat-
t('red about
in the eastward, while many of the niarwdous nunains
of anci(‘nt (uties and towns ha\‘e b(x‘n
dis(*o\'(u‘etl.
The ujqxu’ courses
of the
great
rivers,
the Hwang,
the Yangtze, and
othei’S flowing
to the south
that.
ris(‘
in the region of
tlu*
nortIu*ast of Tibet have
been ap])roximately mapped.
Pj-ogresshas been mad(' in the accurate
mapj)ing
of
China, though much
still
remains
to be done
in
this
interesting land.
Jaj)an has
1xh‘u
as well
ma])|)ed
as
India.
Our
knowledge of Mongolia and Manchuria have been givatly iiu'reased
this has also been the case with Siberia, tlirough the surveys
foi* the
Trans-Sibei‘ian
Ivailwa}^ which has inade
it ])ossible to rea(di Ja]^an
and Pekin in about a fortnight from London.
Southern Siberia
it-
self,
it has been found, may compaip witli Canada as a wheat-grow-
ing country.
In
ccaitral and
northern
Siberia much
still
7‘emains
to be done, especially in connection with the hydi’ography of its great
Arctic-flowing
rivers.
To
tlie
evei-- progressing con([uests of
Biis.sia
we owe much of our Icnowledge of ( entral Asia.
Half a century ago
her borders scarcely extended beyond the (kasyuan shores.
Little by
little her ex])lorers traveled east and north and
south,
followed by
her armies, uutil she marches with China, and
is within measurable
distance of India.
The ancient Oxus has been traced to
its source,
though y)roblems remain in connection with
its old channels and the
fluctuations of the Aral and Caspian, and the conditions of ancient
civilization in these ivgions.
We know
a g(H)d deal more about Per-
sia than we did half a ciuitury ago, though
thei*e
is much room here
for the investigations of the
(jualilied exphu’er, especially
as
to the
present and
jjast conditions of the Lnt desei t.
Just half a (xmtury
612
ANN-tlAL EEPOKT BMTTHSOKIAK INSTITtJTTON,
1916.
ago Palgrave succeeded in crossing Arabia.
Various explorers have
been at work since then in the west, the north, and the center.
Quite
recently
it was crossed again
in the opposite direction from
Pal-
grave’s route by Capt. Shakespear, who, alas, a few months ago laid
down his life in the interests of the empire.
But for the pioneer
Arabia
still presents a
fruitful
field, especially in the great south-
eastern desert, which is practically unknown.
While Palestine has
been adequately surveyed and accurately mapped by the Palestine
Exploration Fund, and much geograi)hical and archeological work
done in the rest of Tiii*k(‘y-in-Asia. there
is much of interest still to
accomplish here by the veil-trained explorer.
While, therefore, the
map of Asia has to a large extent been reconstructed dui'ing the last
half-century, it has, with certain exceidions, been mainly the work of
pioneers.
There is aini)le room for accurate work all over the conti-
nent, especially with the various historical and economic problems
dealing with the distribution and grouping of different physiographi-
cal and animate tyj^es, in vhich Asia abounds jierhaps more than any
other continent.
It
is more than half
a century ago siiRo Mrs. llemans asked the
question
“What
liuVst thou
in thy trea^nie <a\os and
lells,
Thou
hollow -sounding and injsterious main?’’
The question has been answered to a large extent by the deep-sea
researches of the last 50 years, and on the basis of the->e researches a
new department of science has been created under tlie name of ocean-
ography which has now
i)]enty
of work
to
do.
There have been
numerous expeditions whose main purpose has been to explore the
ocean from
its surface to
its
deepest
dejiths, but undoubtedly the
greatest of them has been that which for three years sailed all over
the oceans in Her Majesty’s ship
(liallenger.
The ocean has now^
been sounded in thousands of places, specimens of its bed have been
brought U]) and analyzed
; its denizens ha\ e b(‘en captured and brought
to the light from
all depths;
its saltness and
its temperature have
been tested in all quarters of the globe; its surface and undercurrents
have to some extent been charted; and in e\ery Avay it has been sub-
jected to the never-satisfied curiosity of humanity.
It would be hopeless for me to give you anything like a satisfactory
summary of the results.
As to depths, I may say that the average depth of the Pacific
is
something like 15,000 feet and of the Atlantic 12,000 feet.
The great-
est depth yet found in the Pacific
is 31,014
feet,
off' the Marianne
Islands, while in the Atlantic the deepest trustworthy sounding is
27,866 feet, near the Virgin Islands.
The waters of the ocean seem to
be in a state of constant circulation, cold undercurrents coming down
from the poles and warm surface currents going south and north in
LATE
The
V^orld
\n
1860.
Showing
Extent
to
which
It
had
been
Surveyed
at
that
Date.
Plate
GEOGBAPHIC PROGRESS—KELXIE.
513
return.
One of the best known of those great ocean currents is the
Gulf Stream, about the regime of which popular ideas have had to
be considerably modified.
As to the distribution of life in the ocean,
researches of the (Jlmllenger and other similar expeditions have dis-
closed thousands of new forms in
all seas and at
all depths of the
ocean.
There does not seem to be any part of the open ocean so deep,
so dark, so still, or where the pressure is so great as to have effectually
raised a barrier to the invasion of
life in some of
its many forms.
Even in the greater depths many divisions of the animal kingdom are
represented.
We have had revealed to
iis from these hidden depths great, broad
valleys, si)acious plateaus, gently undulating ihlges rising here and
there into mountains, whose peaks overtop the water in the shape of
the islands that stud the l)osoin of the sea, with here and there j^re-
cipitous gorges covered with the debris of the myriads of animals
that have found a home and
a grave in those waters during untold
years.
I need hardly lemind you
that the many
island groups which
stud the bosom of (he s[)a(‘i()us Pacific have, like Africa, been parted
among the i)ov\ers of Euro])e, as well as the United States, with the
result that much has been done to add to our knowledge of the islands
and their vanishing peoples.
The accompanyijig niai>s will sIioav roughly by different shading
the progress which
I have tried to outline in the exploration of the
globe during the half century.
(Pis.
1 and 2.)
The raising of the standard of geography during the last 30 years
and the increasingly rigid application of
scientific method to geo-
graphical resear(;h and to the practical application of its results has
had considerable
effect on the organization and equipment of
ex-
ploring expeditions, and of the type of men selected
to carry out
exploring work.
So long as a great part of the world w as very much
of a blank we w^eha)med any authentic information that could help
to
fill
it up, even though the explorer was a pioneer without any
special training.
But now that the main features have been filled in
w ith varying degrees of accuracy we must insist that explorers shall
have a training adequate to the conduct of their work on
scuentific
lines.
Dr. de Filippi’s recent expedition to the Karakoram may be
taken as a model of what the expedition of the future should be, with
its ample staff’ of specialists in every department of science involved^
in the work the expedition had to accomplish, and its complete equip-
ment with the
latest instruments necessary to give the most
satis-
factory results.
But this condition has been increasingly recognized
in recent years.
514
ANNUAL BEPOBT BMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
ThivS is the place to refer in a Avord to the great service rendered to
exploration, and
to geography
in
general, by photography
since
it
began to be ap[)lied to this purpose.
The old wood engravings, and
even j)lates, A\liich were used for illustrations in the prephotographic
days, Avhile sometimes wonderfully good fj-om the artistic, and even
from the geogra]:>hlcal standpoint, could seldom compete in the latter
respect with the photographs taken by a discerning eye.
I remember
well the ditliculty in pei’suading some of the Jiiore conservative mem-
bers to j)er]nit
tlie introduction of lantern
slid(‘s at the meetings of
the Eoyal (ieographica! Society as luring too tri\ ia1 and too childish
for a serious scienlitic })ody.
I need not remind yon of the universal
nse now of this method
foi’ scientdie lectures of alt kinds.
One other featui'e Avliicli has inarked the dev(‘1opment of geograplii-
cal work during the half (*entury migl\t be pointed out.
Fifty years
ago
geogra])hi(‘al
enter|>i‘ise was
tlu' work of individual
ex])lorers,
sometimes backed by their
( Joverninents
: but
in recent years
a
re-
markalde circumstance in geographical method has ])een the giauvth
of international cooperation, as shown in the international congresses
and intei'natioJial bodies, such as the International (h'odetic Associa-
tion, the International
Meteoi-ologieal
OoniniiittH', the International
Council
for th(‘ Study of the Sea, Avith sp(‘cial
I'cfei-ence to lisheries;
tl]e inteiaiational maj) of 1: l/KKhOOO; and
tlie great l)athymet]*ic ma))
of the oceans undeidaken by the Pi*ince of Mona(‘o with an interna-
tional
(‘ommittee.
] haA’c thus (‘luh'avored to present to you. I
f(\ai‘ in a very siimmai'y
fashion, the results whieh have been achieAed during the past half
centui'V toward the completion of our knowledge of the liome of tlie
human
race.
I think you
Avill admit that so far as i*esults are con-
cerned
it will compare favorably Avith any other half century in the
history of exploi'.ation.
I
Iuia’c had necessarily to confine myself to
what I may call the superficial ivsuhs of all this acti\'ity.
But apart
from the fact that
a ast aicas of previously nnkriowii lands liaA^e been
brought within human ken and provisionally majipied, abundant ad-
ditions have been made to all the aspects that come Avithin the sphere
of geography.
Many departments of science
liaA C profited by these
explorations—the charactei* and distribution of physical features of
minerals and vegetation, of animal
life, of climatic and economical
conditions, of man himself
in his various races and
varieties.
Of
some of the results of all this knoAvledge you may have been able to
form some idea from the figures 1 have given as to the groAvth of the
population and the greatly enhanced value of the results of economic
development.
For the more detailed and precise
is our knowledge
of the habitable lands of the globe the moT*c arc
Ave in a position
to turn them to the best account for the benefit of humanity.
As I
have pointed out, there
is still a certain amount of pioneer work to
GKOGRAPPriC PK0GRP:SR— KPLTIK.
515
be done, especially in Soiitli America, but the cx})lorer of the fntnre
must be very
differently
equipped
from
the
])ioTieer
of
the
])ast.
Something more
is wanted now than
a
daring
spirit and
a
geo-
graphical
instinct.
What we now want, cyen
for pioneers, aiv men
who have been thoroughly trained and who will be content to devote
themselves to
a
lijnited region and work
it out
in
all
its details of
leatures, and geological c!iara(*ter and metcoradogy, and animals and
plants; ever kee])ing in mind that man
is the (enter of
all, and that
we only reach
fhe
last stage'
(d‘
tlu' problem
v hen we liave wm ked
out the action and
rcaiction that
is constantly taking place between
man and his topogra|)hi(*al surroundings,
if
in (he solution
cjf su(*h
j)robl(uns
as
th(*se
(h(‘r(‘
is as nmch
activity shown
in
the next cG
years as thc're has beem in the past half centui’v in (he work of pio]it*er
exploT'ation, there
will not oidy be an
iin j)recedentedly
rich haiwest
for science, but also, 1 venture to think, magi)ilic(*nt results la'ariug
on the social and indi\ idiial welfare of man, who cau not but benefit
from a better knowledge of his g(‘ograj)]iieal settings.
in the
vast amount
of the work
of
ex])loratioii dm’ing the
half
century, the British
Kiii])ire, I think, may claim the lion’s share.
“ A\’r
sail(‘(i
shij) (*on]U sail.
V\'i' UncKhMl many
a
ici.chly
vS(ale,
Pray (Uxl
aiir yaa'atness
ijia>
ii<>j
fail
TliiMKi^Ui
cravcJi G'ar of
l)eiiis"
1
fea]‘
1 hav('
left little tiuK' to
d(‘a! with the otluu' two s(*etions of
th(' subj(‘ct -the
|)rogr(‘ss that has Ikhui made in raising the standard
of g(’ogi'a})hy as a d(q)artm(*nt of scientific
ieseai-<‘li, ami tin* im])rove-
meuts that have been introducod into g(‘ograi)hical edu(*atioii.
Until
about
/lO years ago
i
fear g<‘ography was not
treated
seriously
in
either of tliese as])eets.
J^ong before that, in the early
seveiitic‘s, at-
tem})ts
Avej-e made by the l\oyal (Jeographieal Society to induce the
uui\ ersit ies to reeogni/e the subj(‘et in their eiirrieula
; but the society
was politely lloutcd.
The subject, we
wej’c assui*ed, was beneath the
dignity of university ipcogiiition, and was only suited for elementary
scdiools.
At tliis WT need
not. he surprised w lum w e examine the geo-
graphical literature of the period.
It
is true, that in eertain of our
gj’eat narratives of exploration— Franklin, Boss, Darwin, Bates, AVal-
lace, Liyingstone, and others—the
seientifie side of the subject was
dealt with seriously, but the few' works w hich existed on genei-al geog-
raphy were
entii-ely
descii|)tiye
; no attempt was made to show the
relations
wdiich
existed between the
various distributions o\er
the
earth’s surface and the interaction betw'oen these
{fiid the human be-
ings w'ho had to adapt themselves to the geographical conditions or
modify them for the benefit of humanity.
In
1884
the
Koyal
Geographical
Society
decided
to
make
a
516
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
and
with
the
results
of
tliis
inquiry
they
again
approached
the
universities,
tliis time happily with
succeSvS.
Schools of geography
were, established at Oxford and Cambridge, and in time lectureships
in the subject were instituted at the Universities of Edinburgh and
Glasgow,
London,
Li\erpool,
Manchester,
BirminghaiiL
Eeading,
Sheffield, Aberystwyth.
It was just before this that the Manchester
Geogra|>hical Society was formed, and a v i‘ek or two later tlie Royal
Scottish Geograi)hical Society, with branches
in Glasg(»w. Dundee,
and Aberdeen,
followed
at inlervals by similar
societies
in
Liver-
pool, NeAvcastle, Leeds, Southampton,
ddius geogra])hy was raised
to an altogether dilTerent platform
in
this country from the lowly
])osition
she
had
prev iously
occupied,
slu'
was
plac(‘d
on
a
level
with
tlie
subject
in
Germany,
though
that push fid
country had
the stall of us
liy many
years,
as she has had
in other
directions,
and
a
long leeway
has to be
covered.
Ibit we have biam making
headway.
Apart from
tlu' ])urely educational work carried out by
the universities, a lieginiiing lias been made in the work of geogra])Iii-
cal research.
Both at Oxforrl and (Tunbridge, at tlie London School
of EconomicvS, and I believe at Edinburgh and (ilasgoAV work of this
kind
is
encouraged.
On
the
university
[irograms we
have
such
heads as the principles of geography; survey of the natiii’al
la^gions
of the
globe;
land
forms and
the
moi*pliology
of
the
continents;
meteorology, climatology, and
ocennograjiliy
; human geography in
its various [ihases; geographical methods of notations, and so on.
To
the university
tutor, the
sclioolnuntei*,
I he textbook compiler of 30
years ago, most of this would have been an unknown tongue.
Ex-
amples of what may be regarded as geographical research work have
])een forthcoming from tiaincd men
like Mill, Macddnder, Ghisholm,
George Adam Smith, Ilerbertson, Grant Ogilvic, Roxliy, Miss Newbi-
gin, and others on this side, and by Davis, Huntington, Aliss Semple,
Brigham, and others in the States, whieh may be said
to have been
insj)ired from the mother eountry.
Mik'Ii good work has been done
by the various students in the geograpliieal
distrilnition of vegeta-
tion in this country.
As samples of scientific exj)loj-ing work I might
refer to Sir John Murray’s investigations of the Scottish lochs; Mill’s
survey of
a
region
in
Sussex;
Giinther’s researches on
the Italian
coast line; Hogarth, Ramsay, and others in the Near East; Willcocks
in Mesopotamia
; Filippi, Stein, Carruthers, and Huntington in cen-
tral
Asia; Hamilton
Rice
in
South America;
Scott,
Shackleton,
Bruce, and Maw son in the Antarctic.
All this
is a good beginning,
and there is every reason to hope for still further work of this kind
in the future, if those responsible for geography at our universities
will do their duty.
You still find some scientific men in England who deny that geog-
raphy is a science or can ever be a science, because for one thing it
OEOdRAPTlJC PROGRESS—KELTIE.
517
is a grn})hy and not
a. logy.
It is remarkable if geography
is the one
thing in the universe that can not be dealt with on scientific metliods,
producing a body of knowledge as systematically arranged as that
inclnded
under
geology,
meteorology,
astronomy,
or
engineering,
and other sections of the British Association.
Personally
it does not
irk me Avhether geography
is admitted to be a science or not.
It
is
a depai-tment of investigation
vvliich deals with
a
field unlouched by
any other de])artment— the earth
as the home
of liuuiauity.
Like
other <lei)artments of
inquii*y,
it can
collect
its
facts and draw
its
inference.s on
scientific methods, with
results which
in many
cases
could be ciled in the geographical out])ut of (lermany, and happily,
as
I have staled
in
a few instances, in our own country—of the
first
im])ortance toward
the solution
of probhuns
intimately
associated
with human
life and
activity.
To
(|Uote from
(he anniversary ad-
dress, in
bSOg, of
tile late Sir jMountstuart (irant ButT, presiderit of
the Royal
( leogra])hieal
Society:
\V1ie(li('r
it
is
er
nol
fau.c:lif
ia
.schools
nix!
uiiiv(Tsi( ies,
tceo^rap^iy
must,
in
(ho
nadirt' of
(hiiiL^s
rule
(ho toiaitory
in
wliicli
th(‘ scioncos relating
to
ora'nnic
liCo,
(‘roin
liistory
<|o\vn
(o
fix' stnicdiro
<tr (ho
harihlost
aiiiinap'
thine,
moot
llio
scioiice.s
whicli have
(o do
willi
inoreninh"
naliire.
(hill
it
a
enipiiy
or
a
loey
or
a
Kaixlo
(h*
wliat
yon
phrase.
ii
remains
(ho body
of
knowhxl^;’!'
wliicli
lias
(o do wKh
(ho
(heaP'r of
(he
activity
of man and
all
Glints
lhal
have
life.
Wo may
stmd
and
injnro
(ho
activity
of
Ihe
next
paiovalion by
rofnsin.u
to
toaidi
i1. hnl
evtaitnaliy
it mnsi
obtain Iho position
Mhi(‘h
th(‘
j:roan*s(
of
livlni;
syst(Mna(i<’
hotjiinsts,
lIoo1c(a\
daiinod
for
it
in
18S(».
“It: must
]>('rmoatc\*' ho said, “tho wiiole of education to (ho torminatioii
(d‘ (h(' univoi’sUy oaroor, ovory suhjoct (auyht havinp: a
jzoop: rapid cal
aspect:.'’
With snch Jinthorities as these nn our side we have no need to be
ashamed of the work oni* scieiu'e has performed
in the
jiast and
is
capable of ])erforming
in the future.
In
tliis country wo
tire com-
ptiratively new to tho work; only feeling onr way,
.as
it ^vere; only
trying to
find out exactly what arc tho conditions under which our
line of ipsearch
will produce tho best
results, what are the limits
wfithin which we must work.
It is true that geography is the mother
of
all
tlie
sciences, and thougli her numerous
ehildren have
long
ago set up for themselves, still she has more or less intimate relations
with many of them.
All tho same, she must not be too grasping;
slm ought to form a (dear idea of what she has a right to, what are the
limits of her field of operations.
To vary the simile, the geographers
in this country have been moving into a much more si>acioiis man-
sion
; we have hardly had time to put our house in order; we may
find when we do so that we have not room for all the furniture that
some of our friends Avould
like to squeeze
into
it.
Anything like
overcrow^ding is nnneceSvSary and \vould be embarrassing.
Ellsworth
Huntington, one of the most active and most original of our younger
geographers,
*
*
*
the
fullest
belief
in
the
influence of
73839°—WM 1010
34
518
ANNUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTTITTTION,
1010.
geographical
conditions
on
history
and
other
Iniman
activities;
blit he maintains that the claims made in this res])ect are often too
vague to convince the skeptical historian.
What we want, he sa}^s, is
a more precise statement as to the nature and amount, the (juantity
and quality, in each case of this environmental
influence compai'ed
with various other elements.
Probably we can
ne\'er
r{'ach mathe-
matical precision in this respect, as we might do in other depailments
of our subject: but
it would be
a splendid exercise
in geograjdiical
revsearch and
in
mental
training
for
the
(qualified
student
of
the
subject to tackle the jumblem in certain speeifie instances.
A gi’onp
of physical features might be taken—say the Alps, or the Himalayas,
or the deserts of central
Asia, or the Sahara—and
the question of
their control
over human
distribution and human
acti^ity worked
out with as much
pi-ecision as ]M)ssible.
Or
a
parti^ailar country or
region might be selected, and
tlie (‘ontrol which
g('ogi*a])hical condi-
tions have exercised
on
its history and
de^elopmont,
as
compar(‘(l
with othei' factoi’S in
tin'
|)robleni, l)e
indi(‘att‘d.
As to the pi’ogress which has been
inad'*
in g(‘ogra]>hica
1 ('ducation
outside
the
unixersities
din*ing
the
period,
let
anyon(‘
wlio
is
old
enough
recjill
tin*
t('XtlK)oks of oO
y(airs ago, with
their dreaiy
list
of names and
little uku’c --names, of capes, uanuss
<if ]>ays, nauH\s of
mountains, names
of
rivers, names of
lakt^s. names
of
towns,
all
eomplotely isolat^al. as if they liad no sold of n^latloii to each other nor
to the hmnan beings who bad to liv(' and
m(>^’(‘ and lia\ e tbeir l)eing
among tbern.
We
luul
smli tags as Kdinbiugh.
Leitli,
Portofiello,
Mns^se] burgh, aud
Dalkeith,
all on
the Dirth
of
Foiih
: London on
the Thames:
(V)l(liester on
tlie Colne, famous for
its o^cstei's: Peter-
borough on the
i^en, near whieh
is h^)t]je]’ingay
('astl(‘, wht're Mary,
Queen
of
Scots, was
cruelly
beheaded, ami
su<‘h
like
items.
No
wonder that geography was rejected and <les])ised by the universities
if this kind of thing was all
it had to say for iks(df.
Then there were
the featureless atlases aud
wall maps, the ^alue of which was
esti-
mated mainly hy the number of names whicli they contained.
Ihe-
tures, photographs, .stereos, the lantt'rn, were regarded as too ehihlish
to be used
for serious educational
or
s^*ientific
])ur])o.ses,
wliile,
as
for the many other apjilianees now available for go.ographi(*al edu-
cation, no one seems to have thought them
possible.
Out-of-door
work in those days was undreamed
of.
Need I remind you of the change in
all thest^ directions which has
taken place during the last 30 years?
Contrast the conditions tlum
and now.
It might seem invidious
if 1
referred to any particular
textbooks or treatises or maps and other appliances.
I am sure
it
is
nnnecessiiry
before
an
audience
like
this.
The
ever-increasing
series
of
treatis(^s and
textbooks
wdiich
are being
produced,
and
for which, therefore, there must be a demand, are no doubt familiar
({KOrjBAIHfIC rROOl^KSR
KKLTIE.
51
to you
a]].
Some
]])ay
ho opoii to critioisni, but
all, from
tlio most
bulky and
olaboratc down
to the modovst elomontaiT
Irxthook^
arc
on a totally difl'oreiil ])lano from those of 30 years ago.
But textbooks and ma})s are not everytliing in geogrjiphieal
teaeli-
ing, and,
!ia])[)ily.
in some of (he universities and
in
a
eonsideral)le
numboj’ of se<‘ondary and (oen
elementaj'v
selicfols outdoor
w'oi'k
is
earned on.
(leogra])hy,
lik(‘ geology, has to deal
with
a
eoinu'ete
earth, and
not
merely
with
inaps.
It
has
surfaee
ieatmvs
of
all
kinds
to
iinestigale.
and
tlie
life
that
is
liAed
amid
l!)ese
IVatures and
is
to
a
eonsid('rah1e
extent
conditioned by
them.
H
is
the
duty
of
geivgraphy, as
it
is of g^eology.
to iinestigate tliese <‘ondi(ions on the
spot and to work out
the j>robiems sugg(‘sted by them.
Bids depart-
ment of geol(fgieai work
is
still
in
its infancy:
iv mere, collection of
]o(*al facts and statistics is not ('iiongh
: correlat ions ought to l>e inves-
tigated and
deduction,^ as precise as
])ossil)le juade as
to the results
of
tlu‘ interaction of the
\ arioiis
fa<‘toi‘s.
A now epoch
in the
liii-tocy of geographical (slucalion
in
lingland
may
be said
to
ha\(' begun
whefi
the hoard of education
issmal
its
rt‘gula(ions
for
the
((‘aching
of
g(‘ography
in
siwondary
schools.
INuiiaps
l]i(‘ most
important
jM)int
in
tie*
n(‘^^
i-('gu]ati<>ns was
tliat
a
d(‘(iniic
nmnhi'r of hours
a
week - not
less than two
pei’iods
of
school work and one of liome work —wer(‘ to be alh>tted
geogra])hy
in
s('c(jndary
schools.
Bro\'isi<>n
had
to
be
ma.dc
for
a
four-year
coiH'sc of
(}j(‘
n’oriv, and the
('oiirsc had
to
lr)clnd(‘ the g(‘ographv of
the
^^]]ole
woi’ld, so that
the custom
of
loH'ping
tlu‘
pupil
at work
on one or tv;o particular continents, acccualing to (‘xigtaicles of exam-
inations, until he
left selnool was discouutimanced.
Panieular atten-
tion was given,
in
th(‘ board's eireular to the importaiUM' of practical
e\(*rcis(\s,
such
as
"Mvorked-oiit
])rol>l(*nis,
together
with
original
maps and
plans,
in
geogi'aiddca
I
inst ruction.
( 'onseipience
had
to lie c(mnect(‘d
Avitli
caiis(* and
reasons had
to
))e stated
wdtli
facts,
instead
of
presenting
lists of place
nami'S,
ri\crs, commnrd('at ions,
and
so on. as catalogues to he learned widumt being understood.
AAdien
the hoai’d’s ivgulations were
issued, (eaeliers who bad
sp('-
cialized in geogi aphy were
fexv. and the regulations w ould have been a
long time coming into ]n*aetical
etfeet
if suitable manuals had not
been
forthcoming.
The board
detiiied the spirit of the teacliing
it
desired to ostal)bsh, and gave the outlines of a seheme, but
it left the
actual working out
to the teachers
themselves, and
in most cases
they had
to
obtain
their guidance
from
manuals and
text-books.
Much had already ])een done by the university extension lectures to
teachers.
The teaching of the subject throughout the country now
underwent a change on account of the new condition.
From being
classed as memory work, which could be put into the hands of any
520
ANNUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
teacher, geo^ra])by became a reasoning subject requiring individual
work by the studeiitvs and sound knowledge by the teacher as much as
any other subject taught on stuentific principles.
Too much
atten-
tion was perliaps paid at the outset to tlie working of practical prob-
lems and exercises, but this has now righted
itself, and the human
note
is not forgotten while the scientific method of ari'iving at
it is
followed.
What,
is moi'c
imj)ortant than anything else
is that the
staiidai'd of work in geograj)hy is steadily lising.
The subject is be-
ing treated more and more on a regional basis, and the work
is con-
sequently gaining in
intelligence.
The program
for
instruction
for
elementary
schools
has
been
greatly impro\ed
on
the
best
lines, and
where
teachei's have been
adequately trained to deal ivith
it intelligently the I’csultsare a gi'cat
advance on what
]>assed
for geogra|)hy
.‘k) years
ago.
Rut
in
the
case of the younge?- [)upils,
I fear
it
is difficult to get them to do little
more than to read nanatives.
In the upp('r classes of these schools,
however,
more
systematic work
is
nres(*ribe(l
in
the
oflicial
pro-
gram, and
I belie^e the whole tendency
is toward an impmvement
upon the methods and outlook of previous years.
Tlu' inspectors of the
l)oard of education consider that geography
is now on a much bettei'
footing tlian
it was. and
is often intelligently taught.
INIuch depends
upon the training which students in training colleges receive before
they are turned out to cany on the work of education.
Jn
(‘ertain
institutions facilities are provided
for ti'aining college
shidents going tliiuugli
a
(‘ourse of
instjaiction
in geography, with
op])ortunities of actual
])ra(*tice
in
sc-hools.
1 am not sure that this
method
is quite satisfactory:
it would be well
if all ti'aining colleges
were as fully equi]>{)ed
for geographical work
as tliey are
in other
departments.
In no class of school can geogi-a])hy be satisfactorily
taught on modciTi lines unless the teacliers are as seriously trained
in that as they aju
in grammar,
arithjiietic, or any other
essential
parts of their course.
In certain training colleges
tlie subject
is in
charge of geographical
specialists.
This ought to be the case in
all
training colleges, as well as in the universities from which the sup-
ply of
teacliei’s for secondaiw and higher schools are drawn.
But
if the progress is as juarked in the next (juaider of a century as it has
been in the past, there can be little doubt that the existing deficien-
cies will be removed, and geographical education will be on as satis-
factory a footing in Britain as
it is in Germany.
But time forbids me to go further.
I hope I have succeeded
in
showdng that during the
last 30 years
geography
has grown
in
stature and in strength in this country; that, in fact, it has reached
man’s estate, and that both in education and in research it is trying
to do a man’s work.
It has still much to learn that can only come by
GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS
KELTIE.
521
experience, but it is bound to come if we work in the future as in the
past, and that all tl)e moi-e rapidly and successfully in pro])ortion to
the increasing number of workers.
The Koyal Geographical Society
has itself extended, not only in numbers, but in varied activities, dur-
ing these years.
Its staff has been quadrupled, to keep pace with its
work; the scientific side of the subject receives more and more atten-
tion.
Idle
eff'oi'ts of the parent society are effectually supported by
those younger societies wliich have grown up
in
various gi*eat cen-
ters.
It
is often stated
that the work of geograi)hical
societies
is
nearly completed
; that they will soon have had their day and cease to
be, for the world
is being rapidly explored and mapped.
There
is
])lenty of work still to do in ex})loration and mapping, and when that
is complete the
real work of geography and geographical
societies
will only begin.
The explorer and map maker only lay down the
foundations of the subject;
it will remain
foi* generations of geogi’a-
phers to
reai* thereon a stately structiu-e litly representing
'' the king-
doms of this world, and the glory of them.'’
THE JH^LATION OF PUEE SCTEXCE TO iXDUSTETAL
EKSEAECH.^
By
J.
.1. Cmvvv.
It
is not
tliiit
niniiy years
a**;!! Huxley, with
liis reinark-
ahle
{precision
^)j‘ thouf^ht and his adniiralde connnand
of language,
should
ha\e
iiuliratrd
his
dissatis)‘aeti(ui
with
tlui
terms
'' ])iire
science’’ and ''applied scicnccT pointing out at the same time that
what
])eople
call "'apjdied
science”
is nothing but
the application
of
pure
scienee
to
partieidar
classes of
])robiems.
Idle terms are
still em])]o\'e(h
[>ossib!y
hecaiuse, after
all,
tliey may be the best ones
to use, 01* j)(U‘ha[rs our ideas, to which
tliese expi’essions are su])posed
to
c()id\>rm, have not
yO- boeome sufhrivntly
ihdinite
to have called
forth the
I'ight words.
Jt
is not
tlu*
|)urpose of
this address, however,
to suggest
better
words
oi‘ expiessions, but
ralher
to
ilii'cct
attenilon
to
(‘(ufaiii
inn
poi'taiit
1‘elatious
l)etwei‘U
}uii'(*ly
seiimtilic
resenreh
atid
industrial
scieutilie
rt'seai'eli
\Nhieb
are
not
yet
sulliciently
undei'stood.
Because of the stupendous upheaval of the European war with
its
startling agencies of destruction— tlie
])roduet
of
both
science
ajul
the indu.sl ri(‘S-—aJid l)eeause of
the. d('plorable imprej)aredness of our
own eouuti‘y
to defeJid
itself against attack, there has begun a great
awakening of our pe()i>le.
By blunging to tlieir minds the brilliant
adiiea einents of the m(uuhershi[) of (his institute in electric lighting
and power and <*ommiini<‘ations aJul hy calling their attention to the
manifold
achicA emeiits
of
th(‘ members
of
our
sister
societies
in
lueehaiiieal and mining and
civil engineering, and
the accomplish-
ments of oui‘ fellow
woi’kers, the industrial ehemists, they are being
aj‘oiised
to the
vital
impoitaiice
of
the products
of
science
in
the
national defense.
Arising out of this agitation comes a growing a|)preciailon of the
importance of
industrial
seieniific
research, not only
as an
aid
to
military defense hut as an essential
])aii of every industry
in time
of peace.
cut's address
al
the Thirty-Third Annual
C'onvcnlioii
»»f the Amcriain Institute
of
Electrical
Eiif,dneers.
('lovcland. Ohio,
1!7,
1910.
t'opyrlyht,
1910,
hy
Ainericau
lustUuto of Kloctrical
iCiiuiluct rs.
liei>riuted hy pormissiou.
524
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Industriill
research, conducted
in accordance with
tlie
principles
of science,
is no new thing in America.
The department which
is
under my charge, founded nearly 40 years ago to develo]), with the
aid of
scientific men, the telejdione
art, has giown from small be-
ginnings with but a few workers to
a
great
institution employing
hundreds of
scientists and engineers, and
it
is generally acknowl-
edged that
it
is largely owing to the industrial
research thus con-
ducted that tlie telephone achievements and development in America
hai e so greatly exceeded those of other count I'ies.
With the development of electric lighting and
electi'ic power and
electric traction, which came
after the invention
of
tlie telephone,
industrial
scientific research
laboratories were
foniuhal
b\^ some of
the
larger
electrical
manufacturing
concerns,
and
these
have
at-
tained a world-wide reputation.
While vast sums are sjient annually
upon
industrial
research
in
these
laboratoiues, I can say with
au-
thorit}" that they
i'eturn to the industries each year improvements
in the art which, taken all together, have a value many time greater
than the total cost of their production.
Money expended in pro])erly
directed industrial restMirclu conducted on scientilic principles,
is sure
to bring to the industi'ies a most generous ]‘(‘turn.
While many conceiais in America now have well organized indus-
trial research laboratories, particularly those engaged in metallurgy
and dependent n])on
(‘hemical
])i'o(‘esses,
tlie manufacturers of onr
country as a whole have not yet
leai-ned of the
lienellts of industrial
scientific research and how to avail themselves of
it.
I consider tiiat
It
is the high duty of our
institute and of every
member composing
it, and that
a
similar duty
I'csts U[)on
all other
engineeering aiul
scientific bodies
in America, to impress
iijion the
manufacturers of the Ihiited
States the wonderful
jiossibilities of
economies
in
their
processes and
improvements
in
tlieii’
products
wdiich are opened up by tlie discoveries in science.
The way to real-
ize these possibilities
is through the medium of industrial research
conducted
in accordance with
s(*ientific
princi])les.
Once
it
is made
clear
to our manufacturers that industrial
i“eseai'ch
])ays they
will
be sure to call to their aid men of scientific training to investigate
their technical problems and to im])i*ove tlieii* proeesstvs.
Those wlio
are the first to avail themselves of the benefits of indnstrlal research
will
obtain
such
a
lead
over
their
(amijietitors
tliat we may look
forward to the time when the advantages of industrial research will
be recognized by
all.
Industrial
scientific research de])aitinents can reach their highest
development in those concerns doing the largest amount of business.
AVhile instances are not wanting wdiere tlie large growth of the insti-
tution is the direct result of tlie care which is bestowed upon indus-
trial research at a time when it was but a small conceni, nevertheless
SCIENCE AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—CARTY,
525
conditions to-day
are such
that without cooperation among them-
selves the small concerns can not ha\'e the full benelits of industrial
research, for no one among them is suiliciently strong to maintain the
necessary staff and laboratories.
Once the
N’ital im])ortance of this
subject is appreciated by the small manufacturers many solutions of
the probhmi will [)rom])tly api>ear.
One of these is for the manufac-
turer to take his problem to one of the industrial research laboratories
already established
foi* the
j)urj)ose of serving those who can not
afford a laboratory of their own.
Other manufacturers doing the
same*, the financial encoui^agement received would enable the labora-
tories to extend and im])i'ove their faedlities so that each of the* small
manufacturers wluv patronizes them would in course of time have the
benefit of an
institution similar to
thosi* maintained by our largest
industrial concerns.
Thus, in accordance with the law of supply and demand, the small
manufacturer may obtain the benefits of industrial research in the
highest degree, and the burden upon each manufacturer would be only
in accordance willi the use he made of
it, ttud the entire cost of the
laboratories would thus be bcuaie by the industries as a whole, where
the charge properly belongs.
Many other ])rojects are now being
considered
foi* the establishment of
industrial
resear(*h
laboi'atoiaes
for those c(meerns Avhicli can not afford laboratories of their own, and
in some of tliese eases the ])ossible relation of these laboratories to our
te(*hiiieal and engineering s(‘hools is being earnestly studied.
Until the manufacturers themselves are aroused to the necTssity of
action
in
the matter of industrial
resc‘arch there
is uo
])lan
which
can be de\’isc*d that will j’csult in tbe general estabrishment of research
laboratories for the industries.
Ihit (uice theii* need is felt and their
value a])i)reeiated and the demand for research facilities is put forth
by the mamifaeturers themscdves, research laboratories will spring up
in
all our great
(‘enters of industrial
activity.
Their number and
eliaraeter and size and their method of o})ei-ation and their relation
to the technical and
engineei'iiig schools and
tlie method
of their
working with the diirerent industries are
all matters which involve
many interesting ])roblenis--problenis which I am sure
nnuII he solved
as they present themselves and when their nature has been
clearly
apprehended.
In the
pi-esent state of the world's develojmient there
is nothing
which can do more to advance American industries than the
ado])-
tion by our manufacturers g(merally of industrial research conducted
on scientific principles.
1 am sure that if they can be made to appre-
ciate the force of this statement, our manufacturers
Avill
rise to the
occasion with
all
that energy and
enterprise
so
characteristic
of
America.
526
ANNUAL ilEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
So much has already been
said and so
iiuicli reiuaius to be said
urging upon us the im])ortunee of scientific research conducted for
the sake of utility and for inci-easing the convenience and comfort of
mankind that there
is danger of losing sight of ajicTlier form of re-
search which has for its primary object none of (hese things.
I j‘efer
to pure scientilic i*esearch.
In the minds of many there
is confusion ])etween industrial scien-
tilic
reseai-cli and this purely
scientilic
reseai'ch, particularly
as the
industrial
research
involves the
use of advanced
scientilic methods
and calls
foi‘
tiie
liigliest degree of scientilic attainment.
The cou-
fiislojL is worse hecanse the same
sci(‘ntili(“ principh^s and methods of
investigation
ai'e
fi'etjUciitly ein[)loy(‘d
in (aich case and even the sub-
j(a‘t matter under irnestigation may sometimes
{k‘ Icumtical.
'iiie misunderstanding
a''ii,es
fi’oin
consideiing only
the
subject
matter of the two classes of re;-carch.
d'he distinction
is to be found
mE in
tlic subject matter of
tlu^ research,
te.it
in the motive.
The eiectiical engineer,
let ns say, linding a new and unexplained
difliculty
in the
vvoii-dng of electric lamps, siihjeds the plnmomenou
observed to a proiasss uf iicjuirv t'mploving scientilic nudhods,
witli a
view
to
removing:
trom
t!ic
[aijij)S
an
objcctie>nal>!e
chai'a<.*teristic.
d'he pure scieiilist at the saiue time investigates in preeisely the same
manner the saiiie' plKUKjnuMUMi, but
v\ ith
tlu' purpose of obtaining an
e\t)hniati(m of
a
|jhvsieal
oeeiirivnce,
tlie
nature of
vviiich
eaji not
be explained by knovvji
fact:-..
Altlioiigh these two r(‘S(airches are con-
ducted
in exactly
th(‘ same inaunei*, lie* one
iu‘\ ('ifiieh'^s eoincs unde!'
the head of industrial
i‘t'>(‘areli and
(h(‘ otlun* iM^longs io
tlie domain
of
pui'e
scieiU'c.
Jn
tht‘
last
anai;v.si>’
(lu‘
dlsliiietion
l>i‘tvvecn
pure
scieiitiii(t reseais'li and
ijidustrial
scituitilic rcseareh
is one of motive.
Imhistrial research
is always coiidm-ted
with the
pui'jiose of accuin-
])lishiiJg some utilitarian end.
Ihire
scieiititii*
res(‘arch
is conducted
witii
a
]jhiiosoj)liic
pin-j)os(s
for (he discovau-y of truth, and
for the
advancement of
(1 h‘ l)uuntlar'ics of human knowicdgts
The
investigator
in
pU!(‘ scienee may
be
likemed
to the explorer
who discovers
iievv
continents or
islands
oi’
hitlauto unknown
ter-
ritiny.
He
is
continually
sccidiig
to
extend
the
l>oundarit‘S
of
knowledge.
The investigator
in
industrial
l•esearch may
be (‘ompared
to the
pioneers who siu vey the newly discovered
terrltoi’y
in the endeavor
to
locate
its minejad
resources, determine the extent of
its
forests,
and the location of
its arable land, and who in other ways precede
the settlej's and prepare for their
()Cci!})ation of the new country.
The work of the
i)ure
scientists
is conducted without any
utili-
tarian motive,
for, as Huxley says, ^Tliat which stirs their pulses
is
the
love
of knowledge and
the
joy of discovery
of the
causes of
things sung hy
ihc old poet -the supicmc delight of cxlending the
SCIENCli: AND
fNDtfrfTIDAL liKSKARCK— CAETV.
527
realm of law and order ever further toward
tlie luuittainablc
<^oals
of the inlhiitely great and
inliiiitely small, between which our little
race of life is rim.”
While a single discovery in
i)iire science when
considered
with
reference
to
any
jiarticular
branch
of
industry
may not appear
to be of appreciable
btuiefit, yet when
intei-preted
l>y the industrial
scicaitist, with whom 1 class the engineer and the
industrial
chemist, and
when
adapted
to
jiractical
uses
by
them,
tlie contributions of pure
s(‘ience as a whole become of incalculable
value
lo
all the industries.
]
do not say
this
beiauise
a new
incentive
is
necessai-y
for
the
pure
S(‘ientist,
for
in him
there must
be some
of the divine Sjiark
and for him
tJau'e
is no higher motive (han the searcli for
tlie truth
Itself.
r>ut surely this motive must
i>e
inleiisilied by the knovvleiige
that when the seareli
is rewarded there
is
sui‘e
to be
fouiid, sooner
(U' later,
in
(lx/
ti'iilli
wlii(*li has been discovercil,
tlu‘ speeds ol
lutui'e
groat
inventions which
will
increast*
tlm comfoil and
coiivenience
and
alleviate
(he suifeiings of mankind.
By
all who study the subject,
it
will
be toumi
that
wliile the dis-
eo\erit\s of the pure
scientist
aiv of the
gi’eatcst
iiujioi'taiici'- to
tlie
higher interest:; of mankind,
llieir prai'tical liemdlts, though
ctu'tain,
are usually
indirect,
inlaUgable, or jaunote.
Bure srieutihe
I'eseiindi
mdlk(‘
industrial
i.cleuti(i<‘
lavsearch can not suppoit
itself
i)y
direct.
p(*ciiniary
ridnrns from
its
dis>cov(‘*’j(\s.
'rill'
practi(‘iil
benefits
which may
l)e
immediately
:ui<l
dii-eiUiy
t racial
to
indiU'-trlal
rt's.c;ircln when
it
i^;
proptu’ly conduaUrak are so
great that
vvliei! their Importance Is more generally recogni/Aal indus-
trial
i*est‘ai‘cli
will
not
hu'k
th(‘
most
generous encouragement and
su{)p(>r't.
Indeed,
unless
industrial
I’esiaireh
abundantly
sipjports
itself
it
'will have
failed
id’
its |mrpose.
But who
is lo suppoi't the laseai'ehes of tht‘ ])Ure scientist, and wlio
is to
furnish him
Vvith encouragement and
assistance to pursue
his
sel f-sacrilieing: ami arduous
<juest
for
tliat
triitl)
w hich
is ceidain as
time goes on to bring
in
its train
so many
bh'ssings to mankind
:!
Who
is to furnish
(he laboratories, the lunds
for apparatais and
foi*
ti‘aveling and
for foivign study ^
Because
of
the extraordinary
])ractical
results
wlfudi have been
attained
by
scientihi'ally
ti’ained men
vvoi'king
in
the
industrial
laboratories and because of the limited and narrow conditions under
which many
scientific
investigators have sometimes been compelled
to work in univeisities. it has been suggested that perhaps the theater
of scientific reseai’cli might be shifted from the university to the great
industrial laboratoi ies which have alreaily grown up or to the even
greater ones whlcli the future
is bound to bring forth.
But we can
dismiss this suggestion as being unwortliy.
*
628
ANNUAL KEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
Organizations and institutions of many kinds are engaged in pure
scientific research, and they should receive every encoin*agement, but
the natural home of pure science and of pure scientific research is to
be found in the university, from which
it can not pass.
It is a high
function of the universities to make advances in science, to test new
scientific discoveries, and to place their stamp of truth upon those
which are found
to be pure.
In this way only can they determine
what shall be taught as
scientific tiaith to those who, relying upon
their authority, come to tliein
for knowledge and believe what they
teach.
Instead
of
abdicating
in
their
favor, may
not our
universities,
stimulated by the wonderful achievements of these industrial labora-
tories, find a way to advance the conduct of their own
])iire scientific
research, the grand responsibility for which rests upon them'^
This
responsibility
sliould now
be
felt more
heavily
than
ever by our
American universities, not only because the tragedy of the great war
has caused the destruction of European institutions of learning, but
because even
a worse thing has happened.
So great have been the
fatalities of the war that the universities of the Old World htirdly
dare to count their dead.
But what can the Ani(‘rican universities^lo, for they, like the pure
scuentists, are not engaged
in
a
lucrative oc(‘upation?
Universities
are not money making
institutions, and what can be done without
money ?
There
is much
that can be done
witliout mouey.
The most im-
portant and most fundamental
factor
in
scientific
resea I’ch
is the
mind of a man suitably endowed by nature.
Unless tiie seientilic in-
vestigator has the proper genius for Ids woi’k, no amount of financial
assistance, no apparatus or
laboratories,
hovve\ei‘ complete, and no
foreign travel and study, however extensive, will enable such a mind
to discover new truths or to inspire others to do so.
Judgment and
appreciation and insight into character on the part of the responsible
university authorities must be applied to the i)T‘oblem, so that when
the man with the re{|uired mental atti-ibutes does a])pear he may he
appreciated as early in his career as possible.
This is a very difficult
thing to do
indeed.
Anyone can
recognize such
a man
after his
great achievements have become known to all the wor-ld, but I some-
times think that one who can select early a man who has within him
the making of the scientific discoverer must have be^m himself fired
with a little of the divine spark.
Such surely was the case with Sir
Humphrey Davy, himself a great discoverer, who, realizing the fun-
damental importance of the man in
scientific
discovery, once said
that Michael Faraday, whose genius he was prompt to
recognize,
constituted his greatest discovery.
SCIENCE AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—CARTY.
529
I can furnish no formula for the identification of budding genius
and
1 have no ready-made plan to lay before the
universities for
the advancement of pure scientific research.
But as a I'cpresentative
of engincci’ing and industrial research, having testified to the great
value of pure scientilic research,
1 venture to suggest that the uni-
versity authorities themselves might well consider the immense debt
which engineering and the
industries and t]'ans])ortation and com-
munications and commerce owe to pure science, and to express the
hope that the importaiH e of pure scientific research will be more fully
appreciated
both within
the
university and
without,
for then
will
come -and
tluuj only— that sympathetic appreciation and generous
financial
support
so
miui)
ne.ede(l
for
the
advancement
of
pui*e
scientifi(‘ research
in America.
AVhile
thei-e are many
things, and most important things, which
the universities can do to aid pure science without the employment
of large sums of money, there arc nevertheless a great many things
re(juired
in the ('onduct of pui'c scientific research which can be done
only with the aid of money*
The first of these,
1 think,
is this:
When
a master scientist does ap])ear and has made himself known
by
his
discov'eii(‘s, then
h(‘ should
be provided with
all
of the
re-
sources and
facilities and
assistants that he can elTectively employ,
so (hat the range of his genius will
in no wjiy
bc‘ restricted
for the
want of anything which money can ])rovide.
Evei'v reasoiiahle and even generous provision slmuld be made for
all workei'S in pure scieuee, even tlicmgh
tlieir rejmtations have not
yet become great by their dis(X)venes, for
it should be remembered
that tlie road to great disc‘overies is long and discouraging and that
for one
great
acliievemeiit
in
science we must
ex])ect
numberless
failures.
1 wmdd not I’estrict these Avorkers in pure science to our great uni-
versities, for I believe that thev should be located
also at our tech-
nical! schools, even at those Avith
the most
practical aims.
In such
scdiools the influence of
a discoverer in science would serv’e as a bal-
ance to the practical curriculum and familiarize the student with the
liigli
ideals of the
[uire scientist and
with his rigorous methods of
iiiAestigaticAii.
Furthermoi-e, the time has come
vvlieii our technical
schools must sup{)ly, in largely increasing numbers, men thoroughly
grounded
in the
scientific method of investigation for the Avork of
industrial researc^b.
Even the engineering student, Avho has no thoughts of industrial
research,
will
profit by
his association
Avith
the work of the pure
scientist, for if he expects ever to tread the higher walks of the engi-
neering profession he must be qualified to investigate ncAv problems
in engineering and devise methods for their solution and for such
530
ANNUA]. BEPORT SMITHBONIAN INSllTLITION,
1016.
work a knowledge of the logical processes of tlie pure scientist and
his rigorous methods
of
analj^zing and weighing evidence
in
his
scrupulous search for tlio truth will be of the greatest value.
Fiirthennore, the engineering student should be tauglit to appreci-
ate the ultimate
gi’cat practical importance
of the
results of pure
scientific investigation and to realize that pure science furnishes to
engineering the raw matciiah so to speak, which he must woiic into
useful forms.
He should be taught that after graduation
it will
b('
most helpfid to him and even necessary,
if he
is to be a leader, to
watch Avith care the woi'k of the pure scientist and to scrutinize the
reports of new
scientific
disco^'eries
to see what they may contain
that can be a})plied to useful jmrposes and more particularly to pi’ob-
Jems of his oavu wdiich
iiMjuire solution.
Tliere are many unsolved
])roblems in applied s(uence to-day which are insolidole in the present
state of our knowledge., but
I am sure that in
tlic future, as has so
often ha])pened in the
puvst, these problems will find a i-eady solution
in the light of ])ur(^ scientitic discoveries yet to be made.
\Mien thus
regarded the work of the pure scientist should he
follovNed with most
intense intei'est
l)y
all of those engaged
in the appli('ation of s(‘ience
to
industrial
luirposes.
Aepuaintanee,
therefor(%
with
the
pure
scientist,
Avitli his imdhods and results, is of great
iiiij)urlance to the
student of apjdied
science.
I
believe ihni theic
is need
(d‘
a
better
understniidiiig of
(he
relations between
the
pure
sci(‘ulist and
the
a])plied
s<'ioutist
and
that
this
understanding
would
he
greatly
helped
by
a
closer
association
between
the
|Mii‘e
scientist and
the
students in the technical schools.
AVhilc
I
lia\e di’awn
a
vali<l distinction between the
woi*k of the
tAYo, they nevertheless have much
in common.
lh)th
ai’c concerned
with the truth of tilings, one to discover new truths ami the other to
apply these truths to the uses of man.
While the object of tlie engi-
neer
is
to
pi'oduce from
scientitic
discoveries
useful
results,
these
results
ai-e for the benefit of others.
They are dedicated to
tlie use
of mankind and, as is the case Avith the pure
scientist, they should
not be confused with the pecuniary compensation Avhich the engineer
himself may receive
for
Iiis work,
for this comjiensation
is
slight,
often
infinitesimally
so, c.ompai'ed
Avith
the great
benelits received
by
others.
Like the wrirker*
in pure science, the engineer finds in-
spii'ation in tlie desire
foi* acliievement and his real j*eward
is found
in the knoAvIedge of tlie benefits wbieh others receive fi*om his Avork.
There are many other things Avhich might be discussed eoneerning
the conduct of pure scientific research in our universities and tech-
nical
schools, but enough has been
said to make
it
plain
that
I
believe such AVork should be greatly extended in all of our American
universities
and
technical
institutions.
But
where
are
the
uni-
versities to obtain the money necessary
for the carrying out of a
SCIENCE AND INDUSTBTAL RESEARCH—CARTr.
531
grand
sclieiiie
of
scientific
rescarcli'^
It
sliould
c^oine
frojn
those
generous and public spirited men and women wlio
desij'e to dispose
of their Avealth in a manner Avell calculated to advance the Avelfare
of mankind, and
it should
(*oiiie from
the
industries
themselves,
which owe such a heavy debt to science.
While
it can not
l)e sliown
that the conti ibution of any one manufacturer or coi’poration
to
a.
particular purely
scientific
research
will bring any
I’etiU’n
to
the
contril)ulor
or
to
others,
it
is
ceilain
that
contrit)iilions
l)y
tl)e
manufacturers in g-eneral and by tlie induslrial
coi porallons to pure
scientific j*esearch
as a whole
Aviil
in
tlie long run bring manifold
returns through the nKslium of indusfrial research condiicied in the
rich and virgin teiTitory discovei'ed hy the scientdic exploier.
It
Avas Micliael
Faraday, one
of
the
greatest
of
tlie
Avorkers in
])uro science, who
in the last century discovered the
pi'iiKciple of the
dynamo electric
inachine.
Willmut
a knowledge
of
this principle
discovered by Faraday
the whole
art
of
electj'ical
engineering
as
we know
it to-day could not exist and
(‘ivili/at ion
Avoiild liave been
deprived
of
those
inestijiiablc
Ixmetit^
A\liich
have
resulted
from
the work of tlie members of this iiislitute.
Not
only
Faraday
in Fmglamh
but
dosc}>l)
Henry
in
our own
country and
s(‘ores of other
Avoi’kers
in
imre
science Inne
laid
the
foundations
n]>ou
which
the
cle‘*tri(*al engineer has
reared
such
a
magnificent stiaictiirc.
What
is true of the eledricai
art
is also true of
all
of the
othei*
arts and
ai)p]iod
sciences.
Iliey
arc
all
based
upon
fundamental
discoveries made by woi kers in pure science, who were seeking only
to
discover
the hnvs
of
nature
and
extend
the
realm
of human
knowledge.
By every means in onr jmAvor, therefore, let us show our appre<‘ia-
tion
of
pure
scieiu'e,
and
let
us
foi'ward
the
woik
of
the
piii’e
scientists,
for
they
are
tlie
ad^'ance
guard
of
ci^ ilization.
Fhey
2)oint the Avay
Avhicli we must follow.
IaI
us arouse the people of
our
counti’y
to
the
wonderful
possibilities
of
scientific
discovery
and to the responsibility
to support
it Avhich
rests
u})on them, and
I am sure tliat they Avill respond generously and effectively.
Then I
am
confident
that
in
the
future
the
members
of
this
institute,
together
Avitti
their colleagues
in
all
of
the other bi'anches of en-
gineering and
ap})lie(l science, as Avell as the physician and surgeon,
by
utilizing the
discoveries of pure
scieiu'e
yet
to
])e made,
Avill
develop
Avithout number marxelous
iicav
agencies
foi*
the comfort
and conA^enience of man, and for the alleviation of human suffering.
These, gentlemen, are some of tlie considerations Avhich have led me
here in iny presidential address to urge upon you the importance of
a proper understanding of the relations between pure science and
industrial research.
MINE SAFETY DEVICES DEVELOPED BY THE UNITED
STATES BUREAU OF MINES.
By Van. H. Manning, Director,
[With 7 plates.]
The present article outlines the character and the method of use
of some of the more important devices developed by the Bureau of
Mines in its investigations looking to greater safety in mining, and
discusses the bureau’s work in educating and training miners to pro-
tect themselves from harm and
in furthering the use of safer ex-
plosives and equipment in mines.
Although the Bureau of Mines is
investigating conditions, methods, and equipment in the quarrying,
metallui’gical, and other mineral industries as well as in mining, this
article deals particularly with appliances used in coal mining.
MIx\E KKSCUE AND FIRST-AID WORK OF THE BUREAU OF MINES.
In its mine safety and first-aid w'ork tlie Biii’eau of Mines has four
main objectives, as follows:
First. To investigate and report on mine accidents to the end that
their causes may be more thoroughly understood and the mine oper-
ators advised as to the best means of avoiding them.
Second. To teach the use of oxygen mine-rescue apparatus and the
methods of performing first aid to the injured.
Third. To send trained rescue crews to the scenes of explosions,
fires, or other accidents in order to save life and property.
Fourth. To acquaint mining men with safe and unsafe mining prac-
tices through
lectures, conferences, motion pictures, and the wide
but judicious distribution of its publications.
During the fiscal year 1916, 89 accidents were investigated and a
thorough report made on each.
If a given report indicated that
electricity had been a contributory cause of the accident the matter
was referred to the bureau’s electrical engineers for consideration and
recommendations as to ways of preventing similar accidents.
Simi-
larly problems concerning explosives, mine gases, and the coal dust
%nd other hazards are referred to the bureau’s experts.
It is, of course, well understood that mining is a hazardous occu-
p0ipn and that injuries more or less severe are of daily occurrence
in large mines.
From the very nature of the ivork, practically
all
788S9"--sm 1916
36
634
ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
men injured underground have to be transported a considerable dis-
tance before a doctor sees them, and frequently one to two hours may
elapse between the time of injury and the time when the doctor first
sees the patient.
Consequently it is highly desirable that each miner
should understand proper first-aid methods.
Stationed
at ^a^ious mining centers throughout the country the
bureau has first-aid miners, men with wide mining and first-aid ex-
perience, who have been instructed in standardized first-aid methods
by the bureau
mine
sui’geon.
I'hese men
either work from
the
bureau headquarters in their district or are attached to the bureau’s
mine rescue cars or automobile rescue trucks, on which they travel
from town to town, giving without chaige a complete course in first
aid.
The bureau maintains
eight such
cars and
three automobile
rescue trucks.
The miner is taught how to give artificial respiration,
treat shock, (‘ontrol licmorihage, and bandage any part of the body
for
fracture,
dislocation, wound,
or
burn, and
is shown
the
best
method of transporting an injured person.
Mine
rescue
uu^thods have been taught
in
conjunction with the
first-aid
training.
Ihirean
employees, designated foreman miners,
accompany its rescue cars and triu'ks and teach the miners how to use
the
principal
types
of
self-contained
oxygen
rescue
apparatus.
This apparatus consists of
a
steel cylinder containing oxygen
at
a
pressure of approximately 2,000 pounds per square inch, with a reduc-
ing valve which allows the flow of a definite quantity of oxygen per
minute, at a pressure slightly above atmospheric, to pass from
tlic
cylinder to
a
reservoir from which
it
is breathed by
the
wearer.
The
exhaled
air
flows
to
a
couipartment
containiug
regenerat-
ing
material,
usually
sodium
hydroxide,
by
which
the
carbon
dioxide of the exhaled
air
is removed.
The regenerated
air
joins
the stream
of oxygen
from
the
reducing
valve, and
the
cycle
is
repeated.
The foreman miners of the bureau
give
instruction
in
recovery
methods,
laying
especial
emphasis on
the
use
of none
but
fully
manned crews and on the need of the crews having such adjuncts as
safety lamps, canary birds (for detecting poisonous gases), life lines,
and telephones.
It is gratifying to note that but few lives have been
lost in the past year through heroic but misdirected and unorganized
recovery work.
Before the organization of the bureau the loss of
lives from this cause was high.
Experiments looking toward
a more thorough understanding of
rescue
apparatus and
resuscitators have
been
carried
on
at
the
bureau’s Pittsburgh
experiment
station.
Owing to the European
war, apparatus formerly made in Germany and England are now
made in this country, and it has been necessary to thoroughly inspect
and
test this American-made material.
As
a
result of these
tests
MIKE SAFETY DEVICES—MANKING,
535
some serious defects were pointed out and these have been remedied
by the manufacturers. A new and improved type of apparatus, sub-
sequently described, has been developed by the bureau.
In
their training work the bureau’s
field men observe many in-
stances of safe and inisafo practice, and the knowledge thus gained
they utilize through their district in conferences with the miners and
the
operators.
When
it
is
felt that one
or more
of the bureau’s
publications
will be
lielpful
to a particular miner or operator, the
publications
are
foi'warded,
Wien
the
bureau’s
field men
find
gaseous or dusty conditions in mines and these conditions are dan-
gerous or not well understood, they take samples of the air or dust
and forward these to the bui’eairs laboratory for analysis.
The infer
mation obtained is then availnlde for the operator concerned.
The operators of juines in which adetiuate consideration
is given
to safety features are being given reduced rates for workmen's com-
pensation insurance.
Tlie benefits to the miners
ai-e even greater in
that accidental deaths and injuries are being materially reduced.
X:SE OF MOTION PICTURES IX MINE SArETV WORK.
In its general mine sahdy work the Bureau of IMines makes effec-
tive use of motion pictures to
illiistnite
(1)
safe and unsafe methods
and practices and
(2) Bureau of Mines standard methods of mine
re^scue and
first
aid.
Most of these films are taken by bureau photog]‘a])hev< in coopera-
tion with various mining companies; some are purchased, and others
are presented
to the bureau.
They are shown to the mining public;
by bureau representatives on every possible occaision. largely in con-
nection with mine-rescue and lirst-aid training.
A clironolosrical loan
record
is kept of ])ast, ])resent. and
prosjiectii e loans of films.
It
is
estimated that during tlie past fiscal year films were slmwn to 160,000
mining people, not im luding the thousands of visitors to the (Govern-
ment
safety -first
train.
As these films are for a specific vital educational ])urpose—^to in-
struct mine woi-kers, many of wliom know
little of the English lan-
guage or the work in Avhich they
ai'e engaged—the scenarios are, so
far as possible, criticized by exjiert engineers and surgeons.
Stationary photographs, taken with the same cdm;ational
object,
are used to
illustrate bureau
reports and
for lantern
slides.
That
they ma}^ be
intelligible
to non-Englisb-speaking miners, the
titles
to many of these slides are in four languages.
When the interest of the miners in
rescue,
first-aid, and general
safety work can not otherwise be aroused, a lecture by bureau engi-
neers, with motion pictures or lantern slides of safe practices as con-
trasted with dangerous practices, enables the lecturer to organize first-
A-NSrUAL BEPOET SMITHSONUN INSUlTrTION,
1»16.
aid and rescue classes, thus starting a safety propaganda where
it
otherwise would not be received.
NEW FORM OF OXYGEN MINE BESCTTB APPARATUS.
A.fter a long period of experiment the Bureau of Mines has devel-
oped a new form of oxygen breathing apparatus for use in poisonous
or irrespirable atmospheres in mines after fires or explosions.
It
is
called the Gibbs ajiparatns, after
its chief designer, W. E. Gibbs,
engineer of mine-safety investigations, of the bureau.
In such apparatus, as it is impracticable to compress into a portable
tank enough air to supjdy the breathing needs of the wearer for the
hour or two during vhich lie remains in poisonous atmospheres, pure
oxygen is used.
In general, an oxygen rescue apparatus consists of
a small tank of conrpressed oxygen, a reducing valve through which
the oxygen flov s to a mouthpiece connected to the breathing bag by
flexible tubes, and a receptacle containing caustic soda for absorbing
the carbon dioxide from the exhaled air.
Vahes that open and close
at each breath juxm tut exjnied
.iir from returning to the lungs before
it has passed through the purifier.
To construct an apjiaratus of this kind would be relatively simple
if it were not
foi- the conditions nndei which the apparatus is worn.
As rescue crews work
in the unmapped wreckage following mine
accidents,
in
a
presumably
inespirable
atmosjiliere
and
often
in
smoke so dense tliat their electric lamps are of small help, any failure
of an
oxygen
resiue
aiiparatus may mean
deatli
to
the
wearer.
Moreover, the labor of exploration and rescue
is often arduous, and
the apparatus worn must
lie as light as is consistent wdth strength
and yet
.strong enough
to withstand the hard
knocks
it
is sure to
receiv’e.
It must he mechanically so perfect that
it
will not
fail to
function, and
yet
he
so
simple
that
it
can he manipulated
with
safety in the dark and in surroundings that exhaust the wearer both
physically and mentally.
The Gibbs apparatus, dp\ eloped by the Bureau of Mines, differs
from others in the following particulars:
By means of a new form of reducing valve the oxygen is supplied
to the user at a variable rate w'hich constantly adjusts itself to his
immediate demands.
A new fom of carbon dioxide absorber keeps the inspired air pure
and prevents
it from reaching an uncomfortably high temperature
during the two-hour standard period of use.
The pressure gauge, which indicates the available supply of oxy-
gen, is read by touch.
Thirty minutes before the supply is exhausted
it rings an alarm.
MIKE SAFETY DEVICES—MAKKIKG,
537
The apparatus,
a
self-contained
unit,
is carried wholly on
the
back of the wearer, so that his arms are unimpeded by the customary
front breathing bag and its connections.
An aluminum cover incloses the whole apparatus and protects
it
from injury.
A pump within the mouthpiec^e permits the removal of saliva
as
fast as it is formed.
The weight
of
the
apparatus
is
only
30 pounds.
Its
general
appearajice is shown in plate
1.
The apparatus has satisfactorily passed severe
tests.
In use
it
is expected to ])rove more satisfactory than any such device hitherto
available.
Consequently, the United States will be independent of
foreign makers of breathing apparatus for its future supply.
DEVELOPMENT OF PERMISSIBLE COAL-MINE EXPLOSIVES.
CHARACTER AND INCREASED USE OF PERMISSIBLE EXPLOSIVYIS,
The risks arising in the handling, transportation, and use of ex-
plosives have been lessened by the introduction of improved explo-
sives for coal mines.
In the past black powder was generally used
in mines that were gaseous or contained dry
coal
dust, and many
great mine disasters resulted.
The Bureau of Mines seeks to have
safer explosives used in dangerous mines, and to this end is testing
explosives to determine their permissibility for such use.
Those pass-
ing the tests aie termed permissible explosives, and their use is urged
in all mines containing gas and large quantities of bituminous coal
dust.
In the year 1908 only 2,000,000 pounds of these permissible
explosives was used in such mines, whereas
in 1915 the amount of
permissible explosives had grown to nearly 22,000,000 pounds.
On October
1, 1916, 148 explosives had passed the required tests
and had been placed on
the Bureau
of Mines
list of
permissible
explosives.
MIBCELH\NEOUS TESTS OF PERMISSIBLE EXPLOSIVES.
Other tests to which permissible explosives are subjected are as
follows:
Samples of the explosives on the permissible
list are frequently
collected for a chemical examination to detenniiie whether they are
similar in all respects to the samples originally tested by the bureau.
The products of combustion of explosives submitted for permis-
sibility are examined for poisonous gases, and no explosive
is ad-
mitted to the permissible list which gives more than 158 liters
(5.6
cubic feet) of poisonous gases from 1| pounds of explosive.
All explosives are examined
for
liability
of the
ingredients
to
exude from the containers.
538
annual BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, im.
The
relative
strength
of
detonators
is determined by
the sand
test as pei'fected by the bureau.
TESTS or DETONATORS AND ELECTRIC DETONATORS.
The Bureau of Mines not only tests explosives to determine their
permissibility, but also prescribes the conditions under which they
are to be used.
One of these conditions is that permissible explosi\es
shall be fired by a detonator, preferably an electric detonator, hav-
ing a charge equivalent to that of the standard detonator used at the
bureau’s Pittsburgh experiment station.
The grade of electric
de-
tonator
is recommended by the manufacturer
for use with a par-
ticular brand of permissible e\plosi\e; and should the explosive pass
the required
tests with the grade recommended, the same grade
is
prescribed by the bureau, but in no case can
it be of less efficiency
than a No. 0 electric detonator,
A further requirement
is that the
charge of the detonator or electric detonator shall consist by veiglit
of 90 parts of mercury fulminate and 10 parts of potassium chlorate
or their equivalents.
The importance
of these prescribed
conditions may
be
realized
by considering the means whereby permissible explosives are
fiivd
in practice.
Detonators or electric detonators are inquired for firing
all permissible explosi\es now on the bureau’s
list.
Although the
explosives might, in many cases, be partly exploded by
tlie aid of
squibs or fuse or by means of black-povder piimeis, yet
the
ex-
plosion so produced would not be complete; the exploshes would not
be used
to
their
best
advantage, and
the
gases
produced would
usually be dangerous.
Therefore
it
is safer to
fire detonating ex-
plosives with
detonators or
electric
detonators
strong enough
to
cause complete detonation.
The
results of experiments made by
the bureau show
that
the
average percentage of explosives failing to detonate was increased
more than 20 per cent when the lower gi*ades of electric detonators
were used instead of No. 6 electric detonators and was increased more
than 50 per cent when these lower grades were used instead of No. 8
electric detonators.
DEVELOPMENT OF SAFER MINE ELEOTRIOAI. EQUIPMENT
For several years past the bureau has been working to bring about
the retirement from mines of dangerous open-flame lamps and the
Institution of the relatively safe electric lamp operated by a battery
pitied on the miner’s belt.
. line individual electric lamp, if generally adopted, will be a lotig
safety, m it cannot start fires or explosions as open^ame
wy*
Moreover, electric lamps give more light and distribute
Plate
GIBBS
OXYGEN
MINE
RESCUE
APPARATUS.
Rt'pnrt,
1
Plate 2 ,
2, CONCENTHATLD BaF^RICR AFTLR A LIGHT, SLOW- MOVING EXPLOSION.
MmE SAFETY DEVICES~M
630
the light better than flame safety lamps, and thus the miner obtains
the added safety attendant upon good illumination.
The bureau’s method of procedure
is to examine and test lamps
submitted to
it and to issue approval labels to such lamps as meet
the requirements prescribed by the bureau as a minimum standard.
Seven types of electric lamps have thus been approved.
When the work was first undertaken there were few portable elec-
tric lamps in use in mines and these w^ere not entirely satisfactory.
At the present time there are between 75,000 and
100,000 portable
electric lamps in use in the mines of this country, and the lamps
approved by the bureau are beins: adopted at an average rate of about
2,000 per we.ek.
Several years ago the bureau approved the
first explosion-proof
electric motor.
These motors are designed to prevent any explosion
or flash within the motor casing from igniting gas in the mine air sui'-
rounding the motor.
The type of motor brought out by the bureau's
approval w^as not only permissible for use in gaseous mines, but rep-
resented a standard of construction considerably superior to anything
previously in use.
One other motor has recently received the bin*eau’s
approval.
These motors have met wdth considerable favor and
at
the present time are being adopted at the rate of about 1,000 a year.
The bureau has applications for the test of 16 other machines, the
development of which
is being carried on by the manufacturers as
rapidly
as the
]n‘esent congested
condition
of
their
factories
will
permit.
For the past two years engineers of the bureau have been develop-
ing a set of suggested safety
rules for the installation and use of
electrical equipment in bituminous coal mines.
These rules which are
now
ill course of publication,
ivere developed
in cooperation with
outside mining engineers and mine
operators, and
are the
result
of many conferences and
revisions.
No
practical requirement has
been omitted that wdll make safer the installation and use of elec-
tricity in mines, and
it is therefore believed that the adoption of the
rules will greatly further the cause of safety.
The approval system of the bureau
is to be extended to the me-
chanical equipment of mines when the laboratory facilities now beieng
provided are completed.
OASOLINE LOCOMOTIVES FOR MINES.
To
determine
the
conditions under which
gasoline
locomotives
,
might be used in mines without detriment to the health of miners
.investigation was made of the maximum amount of carbon monbxid#;;
may be produced by gasoline engines.
This maximum amPMt
‘determines the desirable size and the manner of use of such locomo-
iiiives in a mine and the amount of ventilation necessary.
ANOTAt BBPoar SMiiiHsoNrAsr lirstmrttow,
1816.
FBEVUNTION OF MINE EXPLOSIONS.
For the past six years experimental explosion tests have been con-
ducted at the experimental mine of the Bureau of Mines near Bruce-
ton, Pa., in connection with the investigation of coal-mine explosions
and their prevention.
As a result of these tests two recommenda-
tions are now being strongly made by the Bureau of Miiltes in con-
nection with the prevention of mine explosions—first, that under con-
ditions prevailing in the majority of the mines of the United States
rock dust be used for rendering mine road dust noninflammable and,
second, that rock-dust barriers be used at various points in the mine
for limiting any explosions that may occur.
USE OF ROCK DUST TO PREVENT COAL-MINE EXPLOSIONS.
Another method of rendering coal ilust inert is by watering, but
unless the water is frequently applied it often happens that for con-
.siderable periods the road dust of mines using this method is not in
satisfactory
condition,
because
the water
rapidly
evaporates and
leaves the dust dry; consequently the rock-dust method is strongly
advocated, inasmuch as rock dust will give protection for much longer
periods of time than will the application of water.
In the use of the rock-dust method the coal dust is removed from
the mine roads as completely as possible and all the surfaces through-
out the mine are then coated with dry pulverized rock dust.
As the
road dust will be gradually coated with an accumulation of coal
dust it is desirable when the percentage of combustible dust reaches
a certain figure that more rock dust be distributed.
This is usually
done by a so-called “ rock-dusting machine.”
In the event of an explosion the pressure wave that travels ahead
of the explosion raises the road du^ in a cloud and if this cloud is
largely composed of incombustible material
it tends to blanket the
fiAtne of the explosion and limit its travel.
The rock-dust method ha«
been tried in one mine in Colorado for a period of about five years
and in three mines in Pennsylvania for periods of one to two years.
It is believed that the method will be extensively used in the future.
ROCK-DUST BARRIERS.
n A Fock-dust barrier consists of a number of boxes or shelves filled
rock dust, which in the event of an explosion is automatically
resulting in the formation of a thick cloud of rock d>U8t
*^0 |l»|aQketing of the flame.
The plan of using the bAniere is
ihitti at the entrances of panels or sections of the mine, m
An eatploslon occurs in a panel or section so protected, it can
‘
|i|i.^irel btyond, or if the explosion occurs in another part of tliA
Plate
Trough
Barrier
1.
Cloud of Dust Caused by the Discharge of One: ct
ihi. Titjuuhs of a
Trough Barrier
in a Mine Entry,
2. Same Cloud from a Different
F-*oint of View.
MINE SATBtY 0ByiOE&—manning.
g41
mine it can not travel into a protected panel or section.
The use of
the barriers should be supplementary to rock dusting or to the water-
ing method of rendering the coal dust inert.
If the watering or
rock-dusting method fails and an explosion is propagated beyond its
origin, then the barriers should be effective in limiting the explosion
to the particular section of the mine in which it originates.
The
original
barrier,
invented by
J.
Taffanel,
of
France,
con-
sisted of 10 to 15 shelves placed across the entry just beneath the
roof, spaced about 10 feet apart, and loaded with rock dust.
This
barrier had two disadvantages:
(1) If the explosion was light and
slow moving
it might pass under the barrier without discharging
enough dust to quench the flame; and (2) the dust was exposed to the
mine atmosphere, and under some conditions would become wet and
packed, so that it was no longer in condition to be efficient in case of
an explosion.
Accordingly, a number of different types of rock-dust
barriers were invented by George S. Eice, chief mining engineer of
the Bureau of Mines, which did not have these disadvantages.
All
of these barriers
are operated by the explosion
itself through
a
leverage system sensitive to low pressures; the dust compartments
are totally inclosed so that the dust is not exposed to the air current.
The bureau has tested and found satisfactoiy four different types
of rock-dust baniers, namely, the trough barrier, the concentrated
barrier, the door barrier, and the rock-dust stopping.
Thetrough bar-
rier and the concentrated barrier can be placed at any point in a mine
entry high enough to peimit their erection.
Each type has a swing-
ing board vane 100 feet beyond the barrier in each direction, these
vanes being connected by a wire to the operating mechanism.
When
the explosion swings the vane it causes the barrier to dump the dust
into the air current.
Each type retains a certain amount of dust
near the roof so that in case there is an interval of some seconds
between the operation of the barrier and the passage of the flame,
there will still be dust in the barrier to be dislodged by the pressure
accompanying the flame and to quench the flame.
Plate 2, figure 1, shows a trough barrier in place in a mine entry.'
The wires connecting the barrier troughs with the vane can be seen
on either side of the entry near the roof. When the barrier operates,
the bottom boards drop as shown in plate 3, and a thick shower of
dust falls into the entry.
Plate 4, figure
1, shows a cloud of dust caused by the discharge
of the dust from one of the troughs.
Plate 4, figure 2, shows the same cloud from a different point of
view.
Plate
2,
figure
2, shows
a
concentrated
barrier
after
a
light,
•idow-moving
explosion.
Before an
explosion
the
shelves of this
642
AlNTlirUAL REPOE^ EMITHSONIAJS*
IJfl^gtlincrTION, im.
barrier are all held in position near the roof.
When the explosdon
operates the barrier, however, the shelves fall to the positions shown,
and much of the dust is discharged into the entry.
The door barrier consists of rock-dust compartments on both sides
and above a mine door, the barrier being held
in place by the frame
of the door.
If an explosion blows the frame out of position the
entire barrier collapses and
a
large amount of dust
is discharged
into the air.
The rock-dust stopping consists of two \ertical rows of shelves,
one on each side of a stopping or wmU, loaded with rock dust,
In
the event of an explosion the overturning of
tliese sets of shelves,
or the force of the explosion through the slielxes (‘anses the forma-
tion of a dense dust cloud tliat cools the flame.
ROCK-DUST BLOWER.
Plate 5, figure
1, shows a rather crude type of rock-dust blower,
with a chamber into wliich the dust can l)e fed from a hopper.
Plate 5, figure 2, shows the dust being discharged through a hose.
This blower is used to blow a tliick cloud of dust into the air current,
by which it is carried for considei*abIe distances, when
it settles down
as a mantle over whatever coal dust there may be in the mine road or
entry, and renders the coal dust much less likely to assist
tlie propa-
gation of an explosion.
The machine is particularly useful in carry-
ing the dust into entries that are accessible only with difficulty.
IMPU()VEI> MINE-GAS DETECTOR.
Although the electric safety lamp, as compared with flame safety
lamps, is much safer in gaseous mines, not alone because
it will not
under any conditions ignite the gas
present, but because
it
gives
a better illumination than the flame safety lamps, it does not take the
place of the flame safety lamp in one of the latter’s most important
functions, namely,
that
of
testing
fur
the
presence
of dangerous
gases.
There has long been
a demand for some sort of an indicator or
detector with which the presence of inflammable gas could be deter-
BliEed more a(X3urate]y than with a safety lamp.
Such an indicator,
called the Burrell gas
detector, has been developed by one of the
chemists of the bureau.
For determining the presence of inflammable
g|Se$ it has an advantage over a flame safety lamp because its use
eliminates any
error
due
to
defects
of
vision,
and
anyone
can
fliily determine the exact amount of gas present.
Thus the detector
duly makes unnecessary the use of the flame safety lamp but
the proportion of gas present to be determined to within O.l
cent.
The flame safety lamp enables the miner to estimate only
the amount of gas present.
2. Dust Being Discharged Through a Hose.
Burrlll Gas Detector.
MIOT a^FETY DEVTOEa—MAKKIISrG.
818
Moreover, the use of the detector
is not limited, to mines or to
detecting fire clamp, but
it can be used for proving the presence of
any combustible gas, such as gasoline vapor, hydrogen, natural gas,
or coal gas.
Essentially, the detector consists of a U-tube, one branch of which
is inclosed in a metal case, as show ii in the accompanying photograph
(pL 6).
To make the device leady for use the top a
is unscrewed
and water is poured in until
it
fills the two branches and rises to the
zero point
h on the
scale.
To make a determination of combustible gas, say methane, in mine
air, the valve r
is opened, and by blowing gently into the reservoir
the operator depresses the w^ater column along the scale and forces it
up to the top on the other side.
A slight click when the water strikes
the valve e tells the operator that it has risen to the required height.
Then the operator pinches the rubber tube d and takes the instru-
ment to the place
wdiere the sample
is to be
collected.
When the
pressure on the rubber tube d is released, (he w^ater immediately comes
back to its original position, and on falling sucks through the valve a
a fwmiph^ of the air to he tested.
This sample
rests in the combustion chamber e in contact wdth a
platinum
spiral.
The \a1ve
Is closed and the
spiral
is electrically
heated by use of the binding posts
/.
Any combustible gas in the
sample immediately begins to burn and at the end of a minute and a
half is (‘ompletcly consumed.
The electric current is then turned off
and the instrument
is shaken, thus forcing the w^ater into the com-
bustion space e and cooling the gases.
Immediately the water column
on the open-tube side falls to some point on the graduated scale as
a?,
the exact point depending on the percentage
of methane
present.
The scale reading opposite the water level shows the percentage.
The platinum wdi-e can be heated by means of the storage battery
of a miner’s electric cap lamp, the battery being carried oii a nian’s
belt, and the current being switched from the lamp to the detector, as
the tests are made.
The device is 10 to 120 times as accurate as the safety lamp, weighs
less, and has fewer and more durable parts.
PORTABLE APPARATUS FOR RAPID DETERMINATION OF INCOMBUS-
TIBLE MATTER IN ROAD AND RIB DUSTS FROM COAL MINES.
In applying rock dust in mines it is necessary to determine qiiie^y
and
on
the
spot
the
approximate
percentage
of
noncoijilmsfcihle
matter in the road and rib dust in order to determine how mu<fh ad'*
ditional limestone or shale dust is required to prevent the
tion of dust explosions.
;
/
S^or this purpose the Taffanel volumeter has
lieen modified
with a convenient portable field equipment.
The compWl.
£44
AJsrmxAt s®h>bt smithsobtuk iKsttitmoiir, iwe.
putfit
is shown in
plate
t.
It weighs approximately 20 pounds.
The carrying case is made of f-inch poplar, dovetailed at the comers
and brass bound, and
is provided with a cover and a handle.
The
outside dimensions are 7 by 13 by 14 inches high, which
is large
enough to furnish ample room for all the required apparatus, cans
of alcohol, extra supply containers, etc.
The outfit consists of the
volumeter a, the pipette
b, the balance
c, the funnel d, the alcohol
can e, the sampling scoop /, the sampling cloth g, etc.
A determination of the percentage of combustible matter in a given
sample of dust is made as follows
Twenty-five
cubic
centimeters
of
alcohol
is measured
into
the
volumeter flask with the pipette; 20 gi-ams of the dust to be tested
is then poured
in.
The graduated tube is inserted in the flask, and
the dust and alcohol are thoroughly mixed by shaking, after which
26
cc. more of alcohol
is added from the pipette through the stem
of the
volumeter,
all
adhering
particles
of
dust
being
carefully
washed down.
After one minute the' scale reading of the meniscus is taken, and
by reference to tables the percentage of noncombustible is obtained.
The placing of this ap])aratus at the disposal of the employees of
the bureau will enable them to determine whether the dust hazard
in any mine in their district is such as to v arrant treatment to prevent
a dust explosion.
It is further expected that when tliis apparatus becomes available
for general use it may result in calling the attention of mine oper-
ators to dangerous dust conditions that might otherwise eventually
cause disastrous explosions.
E
Apparatus
for
Rapid
DETER^RN^TiON
of
Incombustible
Matter
in
Road
and
Rib
Dusts
from
Coal
Mines.
NATURAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES.^
Eeview of Recent Progress and Present Tendencies.
By Lt CoL Wm. W. Harts,
Corps of Engineers, U. E. Arm/y.
[With 9 plates.]
mOBLEMS PRESENTED.
In all countries where interior waterways are used for navigation
to any marked extent, there arise many complex problems, of which
the most important are: First, the physical, based on the character-
istics of the river, such as its discharge, slope, the permanency of its
bed and banks, and the
feasibility of treatment so as to make
it
suitable for navigation; second, the economic, based on the charac-
ter and expense of the work necessary for such a purpose, together
with the return on the investment that can be obtained.
These two classes of problems appeal in a more or
less forcible
way to different interests; the first more properly to the river engi-
neer, and the second to those responsible for supplying funds—in
the case of Government work, to Congress.
Within comparatively
recent years, the ^vork of building channels lias been more and more
carefully studied in order to combine the best practicable solutions
of all these problems, so that now no plan for a proposed river work
is complete until the subject has been practically exhausted, on both
the physical and economic sides, by the engineers proposing the plan.
STAGES OP INLAND-WATERWAY DEVELOPMENT.
Interior navigation
in
all
countries has passed through
several
well-defined stages.
The first stage antedates the use of steam as a
propelling power, commencing with the time when the only means
of transportation was by animals or animal-drawm
vehicles,
e^ither
Wagons and carnages, canal boats, or pack animals.
This limited
source
of power
restricted
transportation
lines to highways and
canals.
It was not until the use of steam was successfully applied to
^ Paper presented at a meeting
of the International
Engineering Congress*
1915,
at
Sail
Francisco, September
20-25,
1915.
Reprinted by
permission
of the
from
the Trtosactlons of that Congress.
liNi.
^
m
546
ANIiTUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
the shallow-draft river steamboat that the development of interior-
river channels really began.
This occurred early
in the nineteenth
century, and a (Forded an enormous stimulus to the constnu4ion of
new and larger canals and the improvement of natural river channels.
The second period in the histor}^ of interior navigation l)egan with
the development of the steam
railways,
w"hi(‘h expanded
at
a
sur-
prising
rate immediately
after they
^vere
found
prjictieable,
par-
ticularly in those ]^artR of the United States
wdiere ordinary roads
and
other means of communication ivere
still
largely undeveloped
and unreliable.
These raihvays soon entered
into a
Aigorous com-
petition AAith the rivers, canals, and higliAvay^, and before long took
o\er a large part of their commerce.
The third period in the history of interior A\a(erwavs began dur-
ing the
latter part of the nineteenth
century, Avhen the industrial
development
of
the areas adjacent
to streams and
the
increase
in
population had provided more than sufficient commerce
for the ex-
isting raihvays, and had
left a large Aolume of freight Avhich could
be more
cheaply handled by
Avater than
liy
rail.
In
the
United
Stales
during
the
first
peiiod
abo\e
mentioned,
the
well-knoAvn
canals, such as the Erie, Morris, Chesapeake and Oliio, and Delawaire
Canals AAere
built, and Avith the adAent of the steamboat
a
feverish
eagerness
to
develop
the
river
channels
Avas
felt
throughout
the
large part of the
Ignited
States extending from the
Atlantic
(‘oast
over the interior of the country as far AAest as the Missis^i]i])i River.
In
the
succeeding
yeais
this moAcment
in(‘reased
until
but
foAv
streams of any importance Avere AAithout some imjiroA ement of their
facilities.
Notwithstanding the enormous increase
in railway mile-
age of this country, this impulse lu riAer de\elopmenl has also gone
on
increasing*,
but
in many
cases
Avithont
much
relation
to
the
amount of commerce carried.
It
is only recently that this river work
has begun
to
feel the cheeking
effiect of
the
railway
eompetition,
Avhich has
little by
little taken from some of our streams the bulk
of their conuneree.
Improvements in
rail
facilities and reduction
of cost of ton-mileage lune of late given the railroads an enormous
advantage.
For this reason, the third stage in this country in Avhich the river
resumes
its former value can not be said
to ha\c begun except in
certain localities Avhere population is much congevsted, such as on tidal
rivers like those in the vicinity of Philadelphia, Providence, or New
York City, and perhaps in a few other similar regions accessible from
the ocean for comparatively deep-draft ships.
DISTRIBUTION OP WATERWAYS.
In describing the piTsent status and recent tendencies in river engi-
neering in this country, and in giving a general view of progress in
NATUIIAL WATERWAYS IK THE UKITED STATES— HARTS.
547
this important branch of the Nation’s activities, only the more con-
spicuous instances can be referred
to
in
a paper
of this kind and
only a brief general analysis given.
The work
of
deepening
and
regulating
river
channels
in
the
United States has been much more extensive than
is generally sup-
posed.
The amount spent on riAors, up to
exclusive of harbors
and
canals, has amounted
to
$102,792,000, and
there
is
at
present
river v ork under construction amounting to $187,064,000.
New work
recommended
by
the engineers but
not
\(‘t
adopted
by
Congress
amounts
to
8i;U),:ur).000r
The interior natural waterways of the United States may bf‘ divided
into four general dixisions, corn'sponding to the main geographical
divisions (^f the country.
Foremost of these
is the lake system along
our northern border.
The other divisions are tlie portions separated
by
the t^o main mountain ranges—the
Appalachians on the
east
and
the Eocky
iMountains on
the
west.
These
divide
the United
States into three main portions, the Atlantic Slope, the Pacific Slope,
and the Great Mississippi Eixer Basin.
With the exception of the Hudson and the Delaware, there are but
few large
rivers on the
xVtlanti(‘ slope, and
these are largely
tidal.
On the Pacific
slojie,
tlie Sacramento and
tlie San
Joaijuin Eivers
form a system of naxigation reaching
bv)th north and south
in the
State of California: and
tlie Columbia Eiver, farther north,
offers
a transportation line into the wonderfully rich and fertile Northwest.
It is in the central portion of the country, how^ever, that the great-
est opportunities for channel construction
exist, for the great Mis-
sissipjii
Valiev
is
trax^ersed by one
<d'
the
longest
streams
in
the
world, which,
xvith
its tributaries, offers many thousands
of
miles
of
navigable
waterways.
The distribution of streams in thi^ country and
their lota]
navi-
gable lengths are shovn in the folloxxing table:
Strenujs
Tributary to the Atlantic Ocean
Tributary to the C ulf of Mexico, exclusive of the Mi'jhissippl River and tnbutaucs-
.
Mississippi Itiver and tributanos
Flowing into Canada
Tributary to the Pacific Ocean
Total....
Navi-
StrOcinis.
gable.
length.
Miles,
US
5/365
53
6,212
54
13,912
2
315
38
1,606
295
26,410
(P. 28, “ Tranbportation by Water," Report of Com. of Corporations,
1909, Part
I.)
These navigable lengths must be
considered
as approximate,
as
definite lengths of navigable streams are seldom exactly determinable,
Nearly
all these streams are of comparatively shallow depths, and
are,
in
the
main,
available
for
light-draft
boats
only.
“Forty
548
ANNUAL BEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
streams have a total of about 2,600 miles of 10-foot navigation, and
70 streams give about 3,200 additional miles of navigation of from
6 to 10 feet during the greater part of the year, making a total of
about 5,800 miles of B-foot and over river navigation.
The greater
number of these streams flow into the Atlantic, but few of these have
mox’e than 100 miles of such navigation.
The longest connected river
system
is the Mississippi and
its principal
tributaries, with about
2,500
miles
of
G-foot
navigation.''
(P.
29,
“Transportation
by
Water,” Report of Commission of Corporations, 1909, Part I.)
METHODS USED.
With the exception of the protection
of the ports on the Great
Lakes and the deepening of their approaches and connecting links,
the main work on these waterways has been in the nature of channel
development in the interior streams.
It should be borne in mind that
in this work greater difficulties of an engineering nature have been
encountered than
is usual in the streams of the older European coun-
tries, on account of the greater magnitude of the work here and the
variety of the engineering j^roblejns presented, but
it will be noticed
that most of the successful woi*ks liei’e have their prototypes in some
of the continental
rivei’s, where longer experience than is available
here has eliminated many of the weaknessc^s, and enabled the later
w orks to embrace tlie best of the Old World practice.
It has thus re-
sulted that there
is scarcely
a
rixei' or harbor project anywhere in
the world
in successful
operation, the methods of which have not
been improved
uj)on and
used somewhei'e in
this country.
Within
recent years many new and oj iginal metliods have also been adopted.
F'oremost among these new* means
is
the indention
of the
suction
dredge,
the grapple, drag, and
self-closing dredge
buckets, which
have reduced so markedly the cost of channel excavation of recent
years; the invention of new methods of shore protection for rivers
with unstable banks; the extensive use of reinforced concrete in lock
and dam
construction:
the
adoy)tion
of
movable dams;
and
the
enormous improvements in unloading machinery at terminals for ore
and bulky freight.
The facilities for navigation presented by the natural w^aterways
of the United States place
it in the first rank of the nations of the
world in this respect, and within the last decade much new work has
been done toward making these
facilities more easily available for
use.
LAKE SYSTEM OP INTERIOR WATERWAYS.
It is on our northern border, where the chain of Great Lakes pre-
ifents the most iipportant system of interior natural watei'ways of
thii country, that the most conspicuous example of national benefit
NATURAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES—HARTS.
549
is to be found.
These inland seas are of enormous commercial ad-
vantage, and nowhere
in this country can we point to an instance
where the water routes have increased in usefulness to a greater ex-
tent than here.
The depth of these lakes, the extent, and strategic
location with regard to a special class of traffic make them superior
in point of tonnage to any other system of interior w^aterways any-
where.
The iron ore deposits at the western end of Lake Superior
are the most important in the w-orld; and tlie coal deposits in west-
ern Pennsylvania are of a magnitude and quality that make them
a wordiy complement to the ore
fields, and well able to make the
United States what
it has become in the
last 20 years—one of the
foremost producers of iron in the world.
Over one-half of the traffic
of this lake system
is iron ore shipped from about four ports on the
western shore of I^ake Superior to about a half dozen ports on the
southern or southwestern shore of Lake Erie.
The Lakes in them-
selves present excellent channels for navigation, but obstructions at
the falls in St. Marys Kiver, lying between Lake Superior and Lake
JTuron,
w^cre
a
complete bar
to the navigation
of
these
lakes, up
to 1855.
At this time the portage railroad
[)j*eviously
built around
St. Marys Falls, in order to make possible shipments of ore by water
over tlic remaitidcr of the distance, w'as superseded by the first lock
canal around
St. Marys Rapids,
This canal
wnis of comparatively
small dimensions, but demonstrated the
possibility
of
tliis method
of handling
freight.
It was built by the
State of Michigan, and
admitted vessels drawing np to 11.5
feet, and cost about $1,000,000.
This money wnus raised by selling 750,000 acres of public land donated
by
the United
States (lovernment for this purpose.
In 1870 the
TTnited States undertook to widen the canal and increase the capacity
of the locks, the entire existing work having been turned over to the
United States by the State of Michigan and freed from tolls some
years before.
This mnv lock, known as the M'eitztd Lock, was opened
to
traffic
in 1881 at a cost of about twm and twm-thirds millions of
dollars.
Commerce responded at once to these nexv facilities, and in
1886 a third lock was commenced.
This was built on the site of one
of the old State locks and wuis opened to navigation in 1896.
It cost
about four and three-quarter jnillions of dollars and
is known as the
Poe Lock.
It
is 800 feet long by 100 feet wude, and admits vessels
drawing up to 17.7 feet.
This lock wuis soon inadequate, as the conl-
merce developed more rapidly than the Government provided facili-
ties, and in 1907 a project for an additional lock Avith its own sepa-
rate canal was adopted at an extimated
cost of $6,200,000.
It will
have a length of 1,300 feet in the chamber, 80 feet wudth, and have a
depth of 24.5 feet on the sills.
(See
]il.
1, fig.
1.)
This lock is noAV
under construction, nearly
all of lock masonry being now finished.
In 1912 a project for a fourth United States lock was adopted to have
78839”—SM 1916
36
650
ANKUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAK INSTITUTION,
1916.
the same dimensions
as the third lock, and was estimated
to cost
$3,275,000.
It will connect with the canal of the third lock. Work on
this fourth lock
is also under way, the excavation for the lock pit
being about one-third done.
The
increased
depth piwided
at
the
St.
Marys Canal by
the
new locks made
it possible to
use deeper>draft
vessels.
This con-
tinued until obstructions in the river cliannels in Lake Huron and
Detroit Livers began to be
felt.
In 1902 a project was adopted to
provide for removing shoals in the entrance to the Hay Lake Chan-
nel, a part of Lake Huron, and for securing a new
outlet channel
from Hay Lake by way of the old line tlirough the West Neebish
Channel.
This project is now completed, aflbrding a double channel
from the Sault Locks to Lake Huron, having a clear depth of 21
feet.
The expense
of
all
this
A\ork
has
been
$8,400,000.
It
is
worthy of note that the increase of depth and width in the old West
Neebish Channel was obtained
by
diverting
the
water from
this
channel by cofferdams and then exca\ating the rock of the old river
bed
in the dry.’'
Tliis was the more economical method
(pi. 1, fig.
2).
The work took about 5 years for completion and involved the
removal of 1,585,158 cubic yards of rock, at a cost of $1.36 per cubic
yard, and
5,461.120 cubic yards of earth,
at
a
cost of $0.12| per
cubic yard, and 3,324,275 cubic yards of earth, at $0,129 per cubic
yard.
These amounts are exclusive of
o\ erdepths," for which half
these prices were paid.
In the Detroit Liver,
also, there were
obstructions
at Limekiln
Crossing, which originally limited the draft of vessels to about 12|
feet.
As this river is on the route from the Lake Superior mines to
the ore ports on Lake Erie, the deepening of this obstruction was
needed as soon as the locks at
St. Marys Liver admitted
deeper-
draft vessels than could pass these obstructions.
In 1874, a project
was adopted to provide for a channel from Detroit
to Lake Erie
having a width of 300 feet and a depth of 20 feet.
This project was
modified
in 1888 to
])rovide
for a width
of 440
feet.
In 1902
a
greater depth was provided for, viz, 21 feet, and a greater width, 600
feet; and in 1910 a
still greater depth of 22 feet was provided
for.
This channel, known as the Ainherstburg Channel, is now complete,
and
cost $4,630,000.
In 1907 a second channel was provided
for,
known as the Livingston Channel, and was opened to navigation in
October, 1912, at a total cost of $6,734,000.
This provides a separate
channel for up-and-down traffic in the Detroit Liver.
It will thus be seen that within a decade two new locks of great
capacity are being added to the others already constructed, making
four in all
; and the channels at the upper and lower ends of I^ake
Huron have been deepened and double lines for traffic provided, so
that up traffic may use a different line from that going down.
NATURAL WATERWAYS IK THE UNITED STATES—HARTS,
551
These improvements have had a marked influence on freight and
freight rates.
In 1885 the tonnage through the St. Marys locks was
3,266,028 tons, valued at $53,413,472.
In 1912 the traffic was 72,472,-
676
tons,
valued
at
$701,357,837.
The
average
of
the
five
years
1881-1885 was 2,399,310 tons, and for the five years 1908-1912 was
57,519,763 tons, an increase of nearly twenty>four fold.
The average
distance that this commerce was carried was over 800
miles.
The
improvement in the channels since 1900 lias enabled vessels to be in-
creased in size from 8,000 tons to 13,000 tons, and the cost of trans-
portation has been reduced from 1.18 mills per ton mile, in 1900, to
0.67 mill per ton mile, in
1912.
It was estimated that the
traffic
passing the
St. Marys River locks in 1912 amounted to upward of
sixty billions (60,000,000,000)
of ton miles, and
it was asserted that
the saving in freight of 0.51
mill
pei' ton-mile was directly attribu-
table to the channel improvements.
It
is wortliy of note that the
eastbound
traffic greatly exceeds that bound westward, and that
it
is mainly bulk freight and mainly through
traffic.
Over one-half
of
it
is iron ore and one-fourth coal, the remainder being made up
of flour, grain, lumber, and miscellaneous freight.
MISSISSIPPI HIYEH SYSTEM.
Aftei’ the (treat Lakes, the next most important system of interior
natural waterways
is tlu‘ Mississippi River system.
This river with
its tributaries alTords a navigable mileage of 13,912 miles and drains
an area of about 1,300.000 square
inileKS.
In their original condition
the rivers of this system were streams of shallow depth, obsti’ucted
at intern als by shoals and snags, and at certain seasons have always
been subject to floods of greater or less magnitude.
As
a means of
communication thc}^ were extensively used from the time that steam
propulsion was
first apjdied
to the shallow-draft
river steamboat.
Before the
construction of railways they were the
sole means of
reacliing many
localities, but
as
rail
construction
increased
their
commerce has been largely taken over by the rail lines in many cases.
The most marked moMunent of the country's commerce
is from the
west to the east and reverse.
North and south business is much less
in volume.
It thus happens that the Mississi])pi River and many of
its tributaries do not lie along the direction of the greatest volume
of traffic.
The early use of the streams depended on a successful application
of steam power to a light-draft boat.
The flat-bottomed shallow^ hull
was thus a necessity.
In order to get directive control in the swift
currents, enormous rudders were necessary, and
so the well-known
gangs of three or four rudders set side by side were finally adopted;
each very long, to act positively, and placed so that the preponder-
662
AKKXJAL REPOBT SMITHSOKIAK INSTinJTlON, Mi
ance of the length aft of the rudder post was
slight, in order to
reduce the power necessary to move them.
The propelling power
had to be applied
in. such a way as to give quick strong action in
flood currents and enable the rudders to act while backing.
This
required a powerful stern wheel.
The type of boat evolved under
these
conditions has
not changed much
in
recent
years and
its
efficiency has not been increased equally with rail power.
The Gov-
ernment, however, has endeavored to examine into this question and an
appropriation of $500,000 w as made in 1910 to make experiments with
a view to reducing the expense of river towing on the Mississippi and
its tributaries.
Several experimental boats ha\e been tried and are
now being tested.
Such favorable results have been met with in the
twin screv^ ‘‘tunnel
’’ type of steamboat that two are now being built
for
the lower
Mississippi.
Twin
sci^ws working
in
longitudinal
tubes, or
“ tunnels,’' under and within the hull
are the propelling
power.
The Mississippi Ki\er
is separated into three distinct parts—that
above the mouth of the Ohio River, that between the Ohio and Mis-
souri
Rivers, and that below the mouth of the Missouri.
In these
parts the differences in the character of the ri\er and in the methods
of channel construction are conspicuous. From St. Paul to St. Louis,
658 miles, the river was originally obstructed in many places by rock
rapids and sand shoals.
The first plan for its deepening was adopted
in 1879 and provided for a channel depth of
IJ feet oxer the whole
distance.
This was to be obtained by ofien rixer regulation.
Here
is to be found the most perfect instance of this class of river xvork
in this country and
is excelled in effectixeness nowhere.
For many
years
the
projected
depth
has been maintained
throughout.
The
work has cost a little over $12,000,000.
In 1907
it was proposed to
increase the chaimel depth to 6 feet throughout the length of this
part of the river, at an estimated cost of $20,000,000, with a view to
its completion within 12 years.
This project xvas adopted and work
has been under way since then.
The work is now about one-fourth
done.
The available water power of the rix er attracted capital a few years
ago, and the large market near at hand for electric power and the
amount of water power going to waste induced engineers to propose
a commercial
enterprise
xvhich would
save
this waste and
assist,
incidentally, in the navigation of the river.
Accordingly, at Keokuk,
IJowa, a power dam has recently been built by private funds, w^hich
raises the water surface 40 feet.
This has cover^ed the former Go^"-
ermnent canal around the rapids at Des Moines.
It has backed the
Up about 60 miles, affording 6-foot navigation for this distance*
^ It ie prqvided with locks for passing vessels.
This work
is a fine
of an industry that is increasing rapidly in importance in
FATCJBAL waterways in the UJflTEB BTATES—liARTS*
653
this country, and although primarily for producing electric power,
it has, incidentally, helped the navigation of the river materially.
The commerce on this part of the Mississippi has not kept pace
with
the
industrial development
of the
region through
which
it
passes.
The main reason for this
is said to be that the commerce
consisted
principally of
forest products, and
as these diminish
in
supply theie
is nothing that fully takes their place.
The commerce
of this part of the river in 1012 was as follows:
I )osignation
Pons
Ton miles
\ aluation
Lom
Rafted lumber, shingU s
etc
Miscellaneous freight
United States material
82,476
10 918
1
26) 589
4^1
111
37,214,904
1,718,613
13,^69 619
3, )06,680
3403,216
155,452
25,631,493
425,490
Total
1
KIO 294
57,909,906
2(), 677, 651
(1
23H5, lUpl
ofChiefof Fnj,iiicirb
1013
)
This tonnage
is 12 per cent less than that of the year before, and
its value is 31 per cent less.
Although the freight rates by water are
only about two-thiids of those by
lail, the disadvantages of inade-
quate teiminals,
the
difficult'y
of tiansfei
of
freight, and
iisk are
togethei
apparently
gi eater than the advantage of the lower rates
afforded by
the
river.
Theie has been
a
deciease
in commerce on
this poition of the iivei since about 1800, as is shown by the following
table
‘
Commnce of
fht
Rmt
( innual lUptn
Chuf of IJnatnee'ta).
1890
1200 000 tons (apinoxunate), inalnlj
logs and liiinber
1895
2 075 0(X) Ions
ISKX)
2,900 000 tons (approximate)
1905
4,534 .539 tons
1910
1,916,904 tons.
1912
1,830,294 tons.
A comparison of the shipments by rail and river at St. Tjoiiis has
been made by
St.
Louis Mei chants’
Exchange, and by
five-year
periods is as follows (p. 295, ^‘Transportation by water,” Commission
of Corporations, Pt. II)
im
1895
}«00
1905.
Bj rlvei
By rail
Tons
Tons,
601,562
6,270,880
303,866
6,349,327
246,680
9,180 309
80,576
16*226,973
From the foregoing it will be seen at a glance that the river com-
merce at this point is not encouraging for the future of river improve-
ments.
The signs all point to the fact that the facilities offered fat
554
Al^irtTAL
SMITHSONIAN
INfcinTdtTION, tm.
traffic by the river channels are now iar in advance of the nse made
of them.
In the section between the Missouri Eiver and the Ohio, a length
of 200 miles, the character of the river changes very noticeably, and
we encounter a new
class of problems presented by caving banks
and shifting shoals
(pi. 2).
These shoals are largely made of sand
and gravel brought down by the Missouri in flood, and largely by
the caving banks carried into the channel by scour.
In this section
the present project contemplates the maintenance of an 8-foot chan-
nel 200 feet wide throughout its entire length.
This depth has been
kept for many years, but only with constant work.
In 1872 the first
effort was made to deepen the shoals, which had then only 3| to 4
feet of water on them, using solid dams and dikes of stone and brush
to concentrate the low water flow into a single channel.
These were
only partially successful, and in 1881 the uniform depth of 8
feet
was adopted for the entire section, and the use of permeable dikes
and hurdles was
actively begun.
These were foimd successful in
holding and consolidating the moving sediment of the river, and thus
providing new banks where needed.
In 1907 the project was radi-
cally changed as to methods, and since then dredging has been largely
relied on for maintenance of the channel.
Four hydraulic dredges
of
large
capacity
are now
used
in
this work.
Bank
protection,
permeable
dikes, and hurdles
are
still
extensively
used, however,
to produce permanent
results.
The last estimate of
cost, made
in
1903, was $21,000,000, in addition to the expenditures of about two
and a half millions spent up to that time.
In all about fourteen and
one-half millions of dollars have now been spent, leaving over seven-
teen millions to complete the plan, which
is now about one-third
done.
The use of the river for commerce has fallen off to a fraction
of its former figures, notwithstanding these large expenditures.
This
will be shown by the following table of traffic at five-year intervals
Freight traffiic by five-year intervals, 1H90-1912
{Repts, of Chief of Engineers),
Tons
ToDB.
1$90
1 , 299,670
1905
470,093
1895
838,900
1910
191,915
1900
810,230
1912- .
-
205,720
In the lower portion of the river, from the Ohio to New Orleans
Harbor near the Head of the Passes into the Gulf of Mexico, a length
of nearly a thousand miles has been under the charge of the Missis-
£a|>pi Eiver Commission since 1879,
During all this time many ex-
jperiinents have been tried, and much has been leajued with regard
to .this great river.
Among the most noteworthy of these lessons is
^ ii^portance of protecting the banks from caving and the gret^ter
that can be placed on the operation of the hydraulic dredge.
KATtJBAL WAMEWAYS IK THE XJKITEP STATES—HAETS.
556
In this section, the project for a minimum channel depth of 0 feet
with a 250-foot width
havS been maintained
for many years with
much success.
The means employed have been the narrowing of the
high-water width of levees and the maintenance of the width at and
near low-water stages by bank protection and by supplementing these
methods by dredging on bars as they re-form.
A
few years ago
much reliance was pJaced on dredging as a sole means of improve-
ment, and nine large-capacity
suction dredges were
built and are
still being used; but the temporary nature of the uork and the high
cost of maintenance of cliannels by this method
led to the more de-
tailed study
ot* bank protection.
Between Cairo and New" Orleans
there are said
to be over 750 miles of caving banks, corresponding
fairly well to tlie length of one side of the ri\er, and
it is now believed
that the greater ])art of the sediment of the new shoals is from this
source.
If the banks could be held from crumbling the river Avould
soon scour for itself a channel ample for navigation, and, further-
more, the protection from floods by levees wmuld then be oonsiderably
simplified. A more siuious effort is being made of late years to cut
down this supply of sand by an annual extension of the bank protec-
tion
(pi.
3, fig. 1), and by 1912 a total of C8.71 miles had been com-
pleted.
This work at Albermarle Bend alone is estimated to diminish
the amount of material brought into the river annually by 11,000,000
cubic yards.
The commerce on this river has dwindled to such a
small part of its former volume that protection against floods is now
the most serious problem of the engineers.
Experience has shown
that this is best accoiiiplished by
levees, and
sintie 1890 about half
of the appropriations for the lower Mississippi have been devoted to
that
purpose.
A new
grade
for
levee
height
has
recently been
adopted
(1914)
for
all United States work; but many levees have
been built by State and local authorities, so but few are up to the
commission’s
level.
When breaks occur
it
is almost invariably in
one of these low levees, and is usually caused by overtopping.
656
ANNUAL BE#8feT BMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, M6.
The money appropriated for this section of the river since
1879
and expended under the Mississippi Kiver (Commission amounts to
over $77,000,000.
Owing to the method of keeping
statistics,
it
is
difficult to determine the total commerce, as the river is divided into
districts, in each of which the commerce is recorded separately.
The
sum of these would contain many duplications.
IVfemphis to Vicks-
burg
is
a
representative section, however, and would serve to show
the tendency of commerce.
1902
„
Tous.
-
1, 850, 330
1908.
Tons.
_
1,661,406
1903_-__
1,940,026
1909_
1 252 222
1904_
2, 018, 222
1910-_
1,071,037
1905
2, 040, 508
1911 __
_
980,380
1906
1, 855, 830
1912_
1,910, 851
1907
___ 2,355,001
1913
1, 304, 789
The insignificant use now being made of this magnificent stream
when compared with its capacity for transmission of freight is thus
apparent.
On this river soon after the Ci^il AVar there were to be
found the most elaborate river vsteamboats ev('r seen in
tliis country.
Passengers, package freight, grain, and cotton were hauh^d in great
quantity, and with much profit.
Tn the ensuing years railroads were
completed along both banks of the river, practically
tlie entire
dis-
tance to the Gulf, and
first passengers, then
package
freight, then
cotton, and
finally grain lune almost
disa])peared
from
the
river.
Now the main items of commerce are logs, sand, and
(‘oal.
If this
fine river could only have flowed from the neighborhood of Kansas
City to some point on the Atlantic coast
a\(‘ might have a different
condition to descinbe now^, for the general
direction of the greatest
traffic movement
is east and
Avest.
At the mouth of the Mississippi there
is a very excellent example
of the successful deepening of river mouths
in
tideless
seas.
The
necessity for this project was felt very early, and in 1854 a plan for
an open river mouth was proposed by a board of three Army engi-
neers,
of whom
Gens.
Barnard and
Beauregard
were
members.
This plan contemplated using parallel jetties of riprap rock on mat-
tress foundations, so spaced as to control and use for deepening the
confined river currents.
The mouth of the Khonc and
its unfavor-
ilbte experience with similar works were in part responsible for the
in taking up this plan; but in 1875 Oapt. J. B. Eads Avas given
a contract to furnish a 26-foot channel with a 30-foot central depth
thfomgh the South Pass, at a cost of $8,000,000.
This sum was to
ittfiihtenance for 20 years, or until 1901.
It is now^ proposed to
a
channel through the Southwest Pass, 35 feet deep and
wide, at an estimated cost of $6,000,000.
This is the present
project, adopted
in
1902.
Already the
jetties of
this new
project
have been completed by conti-act, at a cost of $2,627,000, being begun
NATOKAL WATEKWAYS IH THE UKITEO STATES-^HABTS.
557
in 1903 and completed in 1908.
The Avork of dredging the channel
has been about fourTifths cotnpletcd.
Of 18,000,000 cubic yards of
dredged material which luul to be removed in
1905,
le^ss than three
and one-half million yards now j-emain.
The original depth of 9 feet
has noAv been increased to 31
feet.
THE OHIO RIVER SYSTEM.
The Ohio River is the most impoidant tributary of the Mississippi,
and, indeed,
it
is the most ini])ortaut river of the country as a com-
merce
carrier.
In
point
of
tonnage
Pittsburgh
has
the
largest
commerce ot any inland river port.
This liver, like
all those of the
Mississippi
Basin, was
originally
shallow,
crooked,
obstructed by
sand
bai\s, and has always been subject
to wide
variation
of
dis-
charge.
Work was done on this stream, originally, as early as 1827.
Snagging, rock removal, and bar scraping were first tried, and later
the
channels were deepened by
jilacing wing dams
at important
places to afford a G-foot channel depth.
Notwithstanding consider-
able success in this direction, this did not meet
all the requirements
of navigation of late years, for neAv shoals would be formed in high
water, and the uncertainties of open river regulation made the navi-
gation precarious at low stages.
But as woi*k progressed the river
channels became more reliable, and an enoi’mous commerce, princi-
pally in coal and lumber products, grew up, owing to the favorable
location of the stream, running as
it did between the coal centers in
western
Pennsylvania
and
the
large
cities
along
the
Ohio and
Mississippi
Rivers.
A
terminal
harbor
at
Pittsburgh
was
soon
needed.
In order to more easily reach the important coal mines and
to provide a quiet port in which loaded coal barges could be stored
during low Avater in large numbers ready for flood stages on A\diich
they coidd moAT downstream, a dam in the upper part of the river
was necessary.
In 1877 one was
built, and the success Avhich
this
had led to the construction of several others lower doAvn in 1890,
until in 1910 a project Avas adopted for the canalization of the entire
Ohio River, with locks and movable dams throughout its length of
about 1,000 miles (pi. 3, fig. 2).
This project is to provide a depth of
9 feet and is noAv being constructed, 14 locks and dams having been
completed, 4 will be finished during 1915, and 13 are now under con^
struction.
The estimated cost of the new project is over $64,000,000
and
is one of the most comprehensive plans of river improvement
ever undertaken in this country.
The plan provides for 54 locks,
with single-leaf sliding gates instead of sAvinging gates (pi. 4, %. 1)^
and includes dams haATiig bear trap sections
(pi. 4.
fig. 2) and
able Avicket sections (pi. 5, fig. 1) so arranged as to furnish pools haV^-
ing 9-foot channels at low stages, with all dams up.
As the water
§68,^,,
AmvML mmuT bmixhsohian immvnov, imo,
stages rise, sections of the dam are dropped until at high water no
special obstruction to the flow of the river is offered, and navigation
can
proceed
over
the dam without
difficultj^
This
project was
planned to be finished in 12 years.
No records of the total commerce
of this stream have been compiled during recent years, but at the
various locks statistics of traffic are kept.
The records at the Louis-
ville lock of the commerce passing this point have be^n maintained
for many years.
It is shown in the following table for fi\ e-year in-
tervals, to indicate present tendencies
Tons
Tons.
1895
- 1,129,641
1910
-
-
_
_
1,041,323
1900
1, 574, 104
1913
1, 140, 787
1905
___
_
l,i>42,2r)0
The tributaries of the Ohio comprise an extended system of navi-
gation Avhich reaches a large part of the Mississippi River basin.
Along these tributaries, most of which enter the Ohio
from
the
south, are over 4,000 miles of navigable channels.
Many of these
tributary rivets are under improvement of a most modern and
effi-
cient type, and new projects of great
intei*est have been begun on
several within the
last decade.
The Kanawha River was the
first
to be equipped with navigable dams.
The project for this work was
adopted in 1875, but
it was not until 1897 that the work was com-
pleted.
The total cost was $1,158,000.
This covered the construction
of eight movable dams and two
fixed dams,
a system which has
given a G-foot depth throughout the length of the canalized portion
of the river, of about 90 miles.
Until the completion of railroads
along the banks of this stream, the commerce consisting principally
of coal, was of considerable size, with every indication of a marked
increase in the future.
This stream, like so many others in. the Mis-
sissippi basin, is not maintaining its importance as a freight carrier
since the completion of the principal railroads, as will be shown by
the following table.
Nothwithstandmg a great increase in the pro-
duction of coal in the region of this
river, the commerce of
this
stream has not expanded:
Tons.
Tom.
1885...
--
-
-
- 1,231,382
1905—
-
1,613.880
1800
1, 127, 232
1910-
1, 122, 102
1896
1,082,342
1912_
1,276,540
1900
1,475,930
The co$t of maintenance during 1912 was $97,002.78.
The movable
dams on this river are of the Chanoine wicket type and have proven
eminently successful in providing pools for 6-foot navigation.
As
an engineering problem alone, the solution has been very satisfactory^
most important tributary of the Ohio, in point of traffic, ii
lifonongahela.
On this stream are located many coal mines, par^
Smithsonian Report, 1916 .— Harts.
Plate
5,
1. The
Wickets of a Movable Dam on the Ohio
River, Showing Signs and
Method of Tripping.
2. A New Concrete Lock on the Lower Cumberland River.
The Gates are
not yet
in Place.
1. Rock Excavation on the Tennessee River.
Specially Designed Drill Raft
Boring Pi^EPARAToRy to Blasting.
2. Crane Boat on
Big Bend Shoal, Tennessee
River.
The Grapple Bucket
Handles the Loosened
Rock, Previously
Blasted,
in One Movement from
Channel to Training Wall.
KATtTEAL WATBBWAYS IN THE UNITED STATESr—HABTS.
659
ticularly in the lowest six pools; and many of the steel mills of the
Pittsburgh district are also on its banks in the lower part.
Most of
the
traffic of this river
is coal carried to the mills of Pittsburgh,
or carried to the harbor of Pittsburgh in small tows of three or four
barges, there to be made up into larger tows for shipment, at high-
water stages, down the Ohio to other river points below.
This river
is canalized, by fixed dams, throughout its entire length of 131 miles.
Traffic
on
this stream
has
increased enormously
in
recent
years.
The commerce from 1890 to 1912 was as follows:
Tonsi.
Tour.
1890
.
4, 652, 104
i9or»
-
9, 211, 752
1895
-
4, 183, 596
1910
_
^
11, 486, 2T8
1900
-
5,233,110
1912
___
_
11,575,239
This ^’stem of lock and dams on the Monongahela was acquired
by purchase by the United States in 1897, at a cost of $3,761,651.46,
and
since that time three locks have been
rebuilt and their dams
equipped with movable tops, at a
cost of about two and a quarter
million dollars.
In 1913, Congress ordered the rebuilding of Lock
No.
6, at an estimated cost of
$3r)(bi^0().
This river has had a very
marked
effect on the enormoiu-> steel industry of
its region, by
re-
ducing the cost of (‘oal.
Its location is very favorable, and it has had a
very important share in
tlie (Jevelopment o£ the great steel mills of
the Pittsburgh district.
It should be mentioned, however, that the statistics of 1914 show
that the commerce on the 55 miles of river above Lock No. 6
is in-
significant as compared with the rest of the river.
Although coal is
rained along this part of the stream, comparatively little
is shipped
by water.
The economic value of Locks Nos. 7 to 15 inclusive is thus
seen to be slight.
The reason for this is not apparent.
The Allegheny River, which joins with the Monongahela to form the
Ohio,
is mostly used in the lower 25 miles, where up-stream navi-
gation is the main movement of traffic consisting mostly of Monon-
gahela River coal for the steel mills along the lower 6 miles of the
stream.
Practi(*ally no
coal comes down
the
Allegheny,
for the
reason that the coal
fields, which are said to be as extensive as in
the Monongahela Valley, are of thin veins and so can not yet compete
with the Monongahela mines.
In this lower 25 miles the locks and
dams were completed, No. 1 in 1903, No. 2 in 1906, and No, 3 in 1904,
all at a cost of $1,690,000.
In 1912,
a new project was adopted by
Congress providing for extending slack-water navigation about 36
miles farther up-stream by constructing five new locks and dams, at an
estimated cost of $2,788,000.
No work has been done on this new
project because of a provision of law which requires that before work
can be begun satisfactory assurance must be given that the chaimol
spans of bridges which obstruct the river at Pittsburgh will be modL
660
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
lied SO as not to be in the way of vessels navigating the river.
The
commerce of this river for five-year periods is shown as follows:
Tons.
11)00
2, 570, 900
1905
1,230,352
Tons.
1910
1, 181, 963
1912
1,667,126
Nearly all of the tributaries of the Ohio of any considerable size
have been canalized, many within the last two decades.
The Mus-
kingum Kiver had been provided with locks and dams for G-foot
navigation by the State of Ohio and a private corporation between
1837 and 1841.
This system was in a dilapidated
state when taken
over by the United
States, in 1888, for rehabilitation, and
at that
time 10 new locks were authorized, in addition to the repairs, and,
later, another lock, known as No. 11, was provided for.
This })roject
has been completed for several years.
The total cost for repairs and
maintenance since 1888 has been $2,050,000.
The commerce has been
slight, as is shown below
:
Tons.
I
Tons.
1910
58, 956
1 1912
64, 214
The Little Kanawha,
too, was equipped with locks and dams
at
an early date by a i)rivate corporation.
It was not until 1905 that the
United States purcliased the four locks in the lower river, at a cost of
$163,000.
Befoi‘e this, a fifth lock had been built by the Govermnent,
in 1891, above the lower locks.
The total money expended on this
river was $281,000, by which the 4-foot navigation of the ilver has
been restored and extended ui)-strcam
for 48 miles.
Commerce has
not been important, and consists principally of logs and
r ailroad ties,
materials best transported in rafts at high stages without the aid of
locks and dams.
During the last 24 years, the commerce has been
as shown below, during 5-year intervals:
Tons.
1890
140, 115
1895
179,240
1900
119, 439
Tons,
1905
106, 510
1910
84, 475
1912
89,202
During the year 1912, $14,500 vnis expended in maintenance alone.
The Big Sandy River is another tributary where locks and dams
have been built within comparatively
recent years, but where the
commerce has always been unimportant.
Three locks and dams of
the movable needle type have already been built in the main river,
27 miles long, and the present project provides for the continuance
of the work up-stream by building eight locks and dams on the Tug
Fork and on the Levisa Fork, the two branches forming the river.
These forks are also to be provided with 6-foot depths of channel,
Wilder the project.
One lock and dam has been built on each fork,
but it is now very unlikely that the others will ever be built—cer*
taibly not for many years—as a reexamination into the worthiness of
NATURAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES—HARTS.
561
these streams
for
further expenditures has been
recently reported
upon adversely.
The cost, of the five completed locks and dams has
been $1,558,000.
The commerce consists principally of logs and rail-
road
ties.
It was originally hoped to reach the undeveloped coal
fields at the headwaters of the forks by the river navigation, but the
construction of railroads has made the extension of the slack water
nnnecossary and unprofitable.
Commerce in recent years has been as
follows:
Tons.
Tons.
1890
268,582
1005
152, 07T
1895
545,910
1910
147,725
1900
800,000
1912
188,743
A conspicuous instance of the extension up-stream
of the
slack-
water system of one of
tlu\se streams, long after the commerce has
declined to an unimportant ligure, is the Kentucky Kiver.
The lower
fi\e locks of this system were constructed by the State of Kentucky
in the years immediately following 1835, but they had grown useless
and dilapidated, due to neglect, long before the year 1879, when they
were turned o^'er to the United States for restoration,
'lliese locks
were restored
at considerable expense, and
a new
project adopted
soon after, involving the construction of
I
t new locks and dams, to
extend
the O-foot navigation up
to Beatty ville,
at the headwaters,
where
it was hojied the coal veins would su])})ly
a volume of traffic
that would justify the high cost of the work.
If any hope of such a
traffic was ever warranted, the railroads have since made
it improb-
able of fnlfillment.
The estimated cost of the proposed work was
$4,805,550.
Of this amount $3,870,000 has now been spent, and all the
system com])leted except the two uppermost locks and dams.
The
principal
present commerce of the river
is
logs and
raili’oad
ties,
which are best floated down stream, at high water, in rafts.
In 1912
the commerce amounted to 180,300 tons.
Previous years show a fall-
ing off of business in spite of the greatly increased length of channel
available.
The commerce was as follows:
Tons.
Tons.
1890
310, 354
1905
124, 871
1895
296,318
1910
263,785
1900
162,891
1912
186,300
We see here an expensive system, costly to build and costly to main-
tain, without enough commerce to warrant the outlay.
This result
was
predicted
20
years
ago by
the
local
engineers,
but
without
effect.
The Beattyville coal can never compete with Pittsburgh coal,
even along the lower Kentucky River.
Several other small streams which empty into the Ohio have canal-
ized sections.
The Wabash River, flowing south from Indiana, has
one lock and dam, having a 5-foot d^apth over the sills and about a
562
AlfirtTAL
Slrfl'THSONIAIir INSttW'ttOlf,
5-foot
lift.
It furnishes a pool about 12
miles long, but
at low
water vessels have difficulty in reaching the pool ftom the Ohio as, in
fact, is true of many of the tributary streams.
This lock was built in
189.5 and cost over $260,000.
The maintenance charges during 1912
were $7,651, and tonnage handled that year was 1,187 tons.
Since
1897 the maintenance has cost $86,398.97.
The Green and Barren
Rivers likewise have canalized portions, providing 5-foot navigation
from the mouth in the Ohio to Bowling Green, Ky., and Mam-
moth Cave, a total distance of about 219 miles.
The four old State
locks in Green River and the one in Barren River were purchased by
the United
States in 1889 and restored to a condition for use, and
two new locks were built in Green River a few years later.
No.
6,
the last of the series, was opened in 1906.
The total cost has been
about $2,086,000, exclusive of the cost of the two new locks, and the
cost of maintenance in 1913 has been about $89,000.
The freight has
been lai'gely exchanged with Evansville, Ind., which is a market for
the logs and ties which form the bulk of the traffic.
Coal on Green
River forms the third important item of commerce.
The commerce
at the lowest lock of this stream will not include some local busine.ss
which
is carried on
in the river above, but
will include through
freight and will serve to indicate the change in commerce in
this
stream from year to year.
Commerce, Lock No. 1
Tons.
Torn,
J890
_
_ 907,146
1905
466,015
1895
844, 838
1910
258, 199
1900
378,684
1913
302,610
Farther west the Cumberland and Tennes.see Rivers empty
into
the Ohio.
The Tennessee is over 650 miles long and the Cumberland
618 miles.
On both of these streams considerable new work has been
commraiced within the last few years.
The Cumberland has a series
of seven locks, extending from Lock A, 41 miles below Nashville,
upstream 166 miles, the last of which was finished in 1912, at a total
cost of $2,418,952
for
all
seven.
Lock A, below
Nashville,
cost
$890,600, and Lock 21, near Burnside, Ky., which was built to pro-
tide a harbor at the headwaters of the river, cost $374,076.
From
Nai^ville to the mouth of the river, 193 miles, no locks were built,
Biid the stream was in a very unsatisfactory state on account of shoals
•'dhliUig low-water season.
It was not
until
1910 that the lower
stetstiOhj connecting with the slack-water part already finished, was
plo*rided for, at a cost of $3,165,000.
This covered the cost of five
new concrete locks and dams.
One lock, just below Nashville, known
Uock A, bad been finished in 1904, at a cost of $805,000.
The
on the five new locks is now under construction
(pi. 6, fig 2)
a^e tb be of concrete, with steel gates and fixed concrete
.
CO
MALE’S Bar Dam, Tennessee
River, under Construction.
This Dam
has a
1-Foot
Lift, and
is Being
Built with
Private
Funds under Government
LIPERVISION FOR THE CREATION OF ELECTRIC POWER.
2. The Upper End of the Dalles-Celilo Canal, Columbia
River, Oreo.
Side
Walls of Concrete Carry the Canal Trunk Around Celilo
Falls,
NATUBAL WAtEEWAYS IN THE trNirBl> STATES—HAET8.
668
dams, and will provide for 6 -foot navigation from the Ohio to Nash-
ville and there connect with the upper river to a point above Car-
thage, about 160 miles farther.
The nine locks now in operation cost
$129,662 for maintenance in
1913.
Commerce on
the Cumberland
has l)een as follows, consisting largely of logs and lumber
Tone.
1890
971,56?^
1895
321, 137
1900
558,371
Tons.
1905
036, 237
1909
418, 192
1912
484, 744
Of all the tributai'ies of the Ohio the Tennessee alfords the greatest
variety of regimen.
The lower section, of about 23(5 miles,
is some-
what like the Mississippi—a slowly flowing, croolced stream of small
slope and comparatively large discharge, with low banks and soft,
easily eroded
bed.
Dredging
is the form of improvement mainly
relied on
for channel
deepening.
The next 238 miles
is what
is
known as the
mountain section,” where swift currents, rocky beds,
high and rocky banks, rapids, and whirlpools are met with, requiring
rock removal,
canalization, and
lateral canals
for their treatment.
In the upper section, of about 188 miles above Chattanooga, the bed
and banks are
fairly permanent, but the shoals and
rapids make
navigation
difficult
at low
water.
Here
regulation by
dikes and
excavation tunnels
is
used.
The
river
is 652 miles long and has
tributaries which increase
its channel length
to
1,300
milCvS,
all of
which can be used by steamboats, and 1,000 miles more can be used
by I'afts and flatboats.
Its drainage area is 44,000 square miles.
The
work on this stream, which began as early as 1835, was done in a
rather disconnected way until 1909, when
a
single project for the
entire stream was proposed, providing for
6-foot navigation from
the mouth up
to
Chattanooga
and
3-foot from
Chattanooga
to
Knoxville and
the
upstream
end.
The
total
estimated
cost was
$13,000,000 and 12 yeais the estimate of time
in which
the work
should be completed for most economical results.
Work is now under
way on this project.
In the lowest section the most formidable ob-
struction
is a rock shoal known as Big Bend.
This work
is note-
worthy, as specially designed
drill rafts are used
for
drilling and
bl'eaking up the bottom (pi. 6, fig. 1 ), and a crane boat, with a 90-foot
boom and a grapple bucket, are used to remove the blasted material
(pi, 6, fig. 2), the purpose being to place it in training walls on each
side of the cut to act as guides for low-water navigation, and thus
avoid handling a large part of the materia] by barge
(pi.
7, fig. 1).
This work is now under way.
The dredging and rock removal under
the new project was estimated to cost $600,000 in addition to previous
Already $534,000 has been expended on this section to secure a
5**foot depth of channel, and the additional amount is required to get
the 6-foot depth liecessary and complete the deepening of the remain-
564
ANNUAL BEPOEt SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, M6.
ing shoals.
In the middle section are to be found the well-loiown
Muscle Shoals, around which two canals, aggregating about ISO miles
length, with 11 locks, were opened to navigation in 1890, at a cost of
$3,191,726.
The maintenance of this canal has cost over a million
dollars since then.
The use made of the canal has never reached its
full capacity, but its value has been considerable to Chattanooga and
Bridgepoit.
The
completion
in
1911
of
the
8-mile
lateral
canal
around Colbert Shoals, with its 26-foot lift lock, and the construc-
tion of the dam at Hales Bar for power pur})oses, are the most note-
worthy new features of this section.
The Colbert Shoals Canal was
commenced in 1890 and has just recently been completed
at a total
cost of $2,320,000.
It
is 8 miles long and provides for a draft of
7 feet.
The huge dam at Hales Bar was built by pri\'ate persons for
power purposes, and has a lift of over 41 feet.
The problem of foun-
dations presented many
difficulties, but the work
is now practically
complete.
The foundations are novel in river work in this country,
and were made of concrete caissons sunk side by side in the river bed.
From these the soft and imperfect rock of the river bottom was re-
moved under air pressure and the caisson then
‘‘ absorbed ” in the
foundation by filling with concrete.
This dam and its appurtenances
are said to have cost over $5,000,000, and
are planned
to provide
55,000 horsepower when fully developed (pi. 7, fig. 2)
.
It is a notable
example of the cooperation of private and governmental agencies to
secure the
fullest development of the river’s resources, both
in the
creation of electric power and the deepening of the river for naviga-
tion.
Other interesting instances of recent construction
are in the
Mississippi at Keolmk, Iowa, already referred to, and in the Coosa
and Black Warrior Eivers in northern Alabama.
In
all there has
been spent on the Tennessee River a total of $7,393,496, made up as
follows
: $328,255 in the upper section, above Chattanooga
; $6,531,210
in the middle section, where the most obstructions exist; and in the
lowest section $534,051.
Tlie commerce, in five-year periods, in tons,
is as follows
Section of river.
1890
1895
1900
1905
1910
1913
Above Chattanooga
Between Chattanooga and Riverton
Below Riverton
77,850
6,474
128,470
26.'), 256
117,3.57
1
848,263
380,607
i
229,160
!
737,009
’
480,406
175,800
663,606
370,430
288,750
376,670
474,963
315,218
272,625
The Missouri River
is the longest tributary of the Mississippi,
being 2,551 miles long.
Its width is from 300 feet to 1 mile, and its
depth over shoals is only about 3 feet.
Its banks and bed are easily
eroded, and the channels frequently shift in position.
At various
titties between 1838 and the present shoals have been deepened and
mags have been removed from the channel at the worst places, but
KATOBAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES—HARTS.
565
no systematiq improvement was ever adopted until the project of
1884 was commenced, providing for revetting the banks, regulating
the widths to fix the channels in location, and removing snags.
In
all, $14,175,378 has been expended on this river up
to* 1913.
The
work has not served to stimulate commerce, as was hoped, for the
tonnage of the river remains noticeably disproportionate to the length
and size of the stream.
It has merely shown that a navigable chan-
nel can be obtained, although at a very great cost.
The main efforts
of the engineers have been directed toward the contraction of the
river where necessary, rectification in other places, and securely hold-
ing the channel in place by using revetment on the banks and per-
meable dikes in the stream to collect and impound sediment at previ-
ously selected places.
This disproportion between the high cost of
an adequate channel and the small use being made of it during late
years has reduced the interest in this river, and until recently the
work has consisted principally in maintenance of existing conditions
by protecting caving banks and removing snags.
For eight years,
1884 to 1892, the river was under the direction of a commission simi-
lar to the Mississippi Elver Commission, but this method of adminis-
tration has not been altogether successful, and
it was abandoned on
the Missouri
in
1892.
Notwithstanding
these
discouraging
tend-
encies, in 1912 a project was adopted to provide a 6-foot channel,
within 10 years’ time, from the mouth in the Mississippi up to Kan-
sas
City,
nearly 400
miles,
at a
cost
of
$20,000,000.
This work
is now under way, the principal reliance being put on dikes and bank
revetment assisted by dredging.
The commerce of this river below Sioux City, Iowa, has been as
follows
Tons.
Tons.
1895
154, 334
1910
876, 130
1900
263, 114
1912
249, 599
1905
343,345
The foregoing analysis of the largest and most important rivers
in the Mississippi Elver system will illustrate the tendency, so much
more noticeable of late years than a decade or two ago, of the dimin-
ishing part the rivers in
this great basin are playing in the up-
building of this important region.
Many other smaller rivers would
accentuate this important fact still more strongly.
Nowhere in this
country are the products of the farms more abundant ; nowhere are
the mines more productive ; nowhere is the industry of the popula-
tion accomplishing more than in this vast area.
Commerce is in-
creasing by enormous strides, and
rail
lines have multiplied their
branches.
The total commerce at St. Louis, receipts and shipments
combined, was
1,265,592 tons by
river,
in
1890, and
15,240,141 by
rail.
In 1906 it was 416,855 by river and 44,964,623 by rail.
During
73839"—SM 1916
37
566
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1W6.
these 16 years rail business nearly trebled in volume, and river com-
merce fell to one-third of its 1890 figures
(St, Louis Merchants’ Ex-
change Eeport).
Grain has almost disappeared from
the
rivers.
Cotton
is no longer carried in quantity.
The main items of river
commerce are coal, sand, and forest products.
Notwithstanding large
sums
for new improvements, nothing seems to have checked
this
decline in river commerce, wherever it has shown a positive tendency.
With the exception of the Monongahela, and perhaps one or two
other streams, the best that can be said for the busiest streams in this
entire valley is that they are holding their own in tonnage from year
to year, an admission in itself that the rivers are not sharing in the
development of the region through which they pass.
The rivers entering the Gulf are, in general, comparatively unim-
portant as commerce carriers, with the exception of the Mississippi,
which
as a Gulf port has a
river commerce which amounted
to
4,278,947 tons in 1912 at New Orleans, and for the 10 years preced-
ing it showed a substantial increase.
The main Gulf rivers are those
of Alabama and those of Texas.
Of the former, the Alabama River
with its tributaries is the most important, owing to its length of 825
miles of continuous waterway.
This importance
also
arises from
the location and direction as it proceds from the interior of the State
and flows to Mobile and the Gulf.
The most recent project, that of
1910, provides for a channel 4 feet deep, at low water, and 200 feet
wide, from the Mobile River, where depths are sufficient for river
boats, up to Weturnpka, just above Montgomery on the Coosa River.
The channels of the Coosa are partly through regulated and partly
through
canalized
portions.
Work
on
the Alabama
River
has
already cost about $852,000, and on the Coosa, $2,045,000.
The pro-
ject for the Coosa provides for 23 locks and dams.
The commerce
of the Alabama in 1912 was 139,846 tons, valued at about $7,000,000
;
and on the Coosa, 52,342 tons, valued at a little over a million dol-
lars.
On the Coosa there
is a notable example of a dam which is
being built for power purposes under Government permission.
It
has a lift of over 63 feet and is to be provided, later, with locks for
passing vessels.
It is now completed and in operation.
It will pond
the water back for over 15 miles and will furnish a navigable channel
4 feet deep or more for that distance.
The Warrior and Tombigbee Rivers form
a continuous
line of
water communication from the mouth in Mobile Bay up to the forks
of the Warrior River and to the Warrior coal fields, about 407 miles.
The Tombigbee portion, 185 miles from the Gulf up to the Warrior
River, has been made navigable for 6-foot navigation by the con-
struction of three locks and dams and by regulating work, at a cost
of $1,848,000.
This work is now completed.
The Warrior River is
to baye 16 locks and dams, of which 12 have been completed and 2
NATUBAL WATEEWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES—HARTS.
567
provided for by recent appropriation and
1
still to be
built.
The
total estimated
cost
is $9,247,000, of which $8,743,000 has already
been made available by Congress.
At Lock 17 a dam 63
feet high
is being
built by
private
funds
for power
purposes.
It
will
be
equipped with two locks in flight to pass vessels.
This dam
is now
under construction and is practically finished
(pi. 8, fig. 1 ).
The com-
bined commerce of these rivers is comparatively small, amounting to
464,754 tons in 1913.
The cost of maintenance of 13 locks in opera-
tion in
1913 was $122,000.
The high
first cost and large amount
needed for maintenance will require a large increase in commerce if
the work
is
to ^justify the judgment of those
responsible
for the
undertaking.
Commerce since 1890 has been as follows:
Tons.
Tons.
1890
57,868
1905
250,000
1895
37,291
1910 ,
-
337,194
1900
360,950
1913
464,754
Of the Texas rivers the Trinity River is one of the longest in the
State and has been navigated at favorable seasons for a distance of
120 miles upstream from its mouth in Galveston Bay.
It is a narrow,
shallow, winding river, with low banks.
It was proposed in 1902 to
provide a channel, by open river work and locks and dams, to give
a 6-foot depth up to Dallas, Tex., 511 miles from Galveston, at a
total cost of over $5,000,000.
This project was adopted after con-
siderable
discussion
in Congress, and already $1,534,000 has been
expended and three locks are now completed.
The water
is so low
in this river at certain seasons that at one time it was seriously sug-
gested that artesian wells be used for supplying enough water to
overcome the waste due to lockages and evaporation.
The commerce
has never been important and is now completely interrupted by the
unusable condition of the river below the lowest lock.
This river is
another noteworthy example of the policy of providing facilities for
river navigation long in advance of the necessities of commerce.
One
of the hoped-for results of river improvement in this instance was
the regulation of rail rates from Dallas to Galveston, but legislation
in Texas has already accomplished much in this direction, and the
necessity for the very expensive work required is accordingly much
less evident now.
PACIFIC COAST RIVERS.
On the Pacific coast the most important river in point of com-
merce is the Columbia River in Oregon and Washington.
From its
mouth in the Pacific Ocean up to the mouth of Willamette River,
98 miles, and thence up the Willamette River, 12 miles, to Portland,
this waterway forms a very important arteiy of trade.
Portland,
by virtue of these rivers and their channels to the sea, becomes in
568
A»NTrAt RBPOKT SMITHSOlfUN INSMTtJTIOir, 1916.
reality a seaport, a fact that has been of inestimable value in the
development
of the enormous trade
in grain and
flour that has
sprung up largely with the Orient and made Portland one of the
first grain-exporting
cities of the country.
The upper Columbia,
together
-with the Snake River, for many years formed the only
means of connection between the interior and Portland.
In 1888 a
line of railroad was opened along the south bank of the river and
later, about
1910,
a
second
line down
the north bank connecting
Spokane with Portland and
Seattle was put in operation.
These
rail lines have reduced the importance of the river as a grain car-
rier; but the rule of bringing seagoing ships as far inland as possible
will always maintain Portland as the main seaport of the Columbia
and insure, if not increase, the value of a deep channel from Port-
land to the sea.
The first project for this channel was to provide a
20-foot depth from Portland to Astoria
at the mouth.
This was
adopted in 1877 and was easily secured, with dikes and training walls,
assisted by dredging.
In 1891 the proposed depth was inci eased
to 25 feet, and about $1,300,000 in all was spent in completing this
project.
In 1902 a systematic program of dredging on a
still larger
scale was adopted and $2,039,000 was spent, in
all, on this channel
up to 1918.
In 1912 the project was again extended to provide for
a depth of 30 feet at low water and a width of 300 feet from Port-
land to the head of the estuary at the ocean, and thence 26 feet over
the bar in the sea.
The estimated cost was $3,770,000.
The extensive
jetty work at the sea entrance has now resulted in a depth of 27
feet at low water on the bar, and, with a 7.5-foot tide, a draft of 27
feet can be taken to sea by observing the tides.
The river channel
near Portland will be provided with three dredges, a new 30-inch
suction dredge having just been completed by the city of Portland.
Two large suction dredges
(24:-inch)
are now being built for the
Government, and on
completion
there
will be
six
large
suction
dredges at work on the river channels between Portland and the
sea.
This method
is mainly relied on to secure and maintain the
proposed depth of 80 feet, but contracting dikes are used at localities
wherever they are foimd useful.
Already 22 per cent of the work has
been
done.
Commerce on
this
part of the Columbia
River has
increased steadily of recent years and in 1912 amounted to 6,840,659
tons, valued at $85,961,745.
The main items are grain, lumber, coal,
and dairy products.
The commerce within recent years is as follows,
by five-year periods:
Tom.
Toni.
mf^
1,416,311
1905
8,269,868
1, 34T, 155
1910
7, 884, 273
1,489,708
! 1912
6, 840, 6(59
2. Excavation for a Lock
in the Basaltic Rock for the Dalles-Celilo Canal,
Columbia River, Oreg.
KATtJRAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES—HARTS.
560
In the Columbia Kiver above the mouth of the Willamette Kiver
there are
still many
difficult obstructions, for the character of the
river changes abruptly at the Cascade Bapids, about 100 miles above
Portland.
Here the river has cut
its way down several thousand
feet through the Cascade Mountains
in
a narrow and precipitous
rocky gorge.
To overcome these rapids a canal one-half mile long
was built over 20 years ago and opened to navigation in 1896. A
double lock, each part of which
is 462 feet long, 92 feet wide, with
a depth of 8
feet on the
sills and with a total
lift of 24
feet, was
built and has been maintained in operation since then.
It has cost
$3,825,000.
Eiver commerce has not developed in this upper part of
the ri^er as was originally expected, as will be seen from the statistics
of recent five-year intervals.
Until the channels in the upper river
are made safer, a great increase could hardly be expected; and in the
meantime the railroads have been completed and have taken over
nearly
all the
increase in commerce of this prosperous region.
In
1900 the commerce was 17,710 tons;
in 1905, 35,166 tons;
1910, 32,794
tons; and 1913, 33,219 tons.
About 90 miles above the Cascades are the Celilo Bapids, a com-
plete bar at present to the use of the river at all stages.
Here a canal
about 9 miles long is now being built, with four locks, each 300 feet
long, 15 feet wide, and 7-foot depth over the sills, to overcome a total
lift of 81 feet
(pi. 8, fig. 2; pi. 9, fig. 1).
This canal is being cut for
pari of
its length through the basaltic rock of the locality
(pi.
9,
fig. 2), and the design of locks is somewhat unusual in the details of
the walls and gates.
The estimated cost of the work is $4,845,000, of
wdiich over $3,000,000 has already been spent and the work is now
more than two-thirds completed.
The
original
project, now
dis-
carded, provided
for a boat railway on which
vessels were to be
raised alK>ut 10 feet above the water at the upper end and dropped 90
feet at the lower end, after being transported about 9 miles overland.
The light construction of the vessels of the Columbia Eiver and the
difficulty in building a car that would be suitable for safely carrying
vessels over the
vertical and
horizontal curves which were
indis-
pensable to the plan were some of the strong reasons which caused the
abandonment of this project.
Whether the commerce
of the upper Columbia
Eiver,
together
with
that of the Snake,
will ever warrant the high
cost cf
this
canal and that at the Cascades is a problem that will require many
years in the future for solution.
It was recommended that a portage
road be built around the Celilo Bapids before commencing on tne
canal, in order to determine the volume and character of the
merce which might develop.
This portage road could be built f#
about one-tenth of the cost of the canal, and could be used
a con^^
struction road if the canal were ever built.
The pressure for a ca<iA||
570
Ai^KtJAL BEPOET SMITHSOKIAK INSTITUTION,
1916,
however, was so urgent that funds were finally provided without con-
sidering the portage road favorably, and the canal work is now well
under way.
The increase in the productive capacity of the rich ag-
ricultural lands
of
eastern Washington and Oregon and western
Idaho is fully meeting the early expectations, but
it remains to be
seen how much the river will be used in the future as a line of com-
merce in competition with two parallel lines of railroad in the same
valley.
At the mouth of the Columbia is a notable instance of river work,
which, for the boldness of its undertaking and the success attending
the work, has been widely studied and frequently commented on by
river engineers.
The training of the river currents over the bar in
the ocean, including not only the tidal currents, but also those arising
from the natural discdiarge of the river, are so directed as to scour
greater depths, and the restriction of all useless side currents and the
shelter for the channel thus created are all accomplished by double
jetties of riprap so placed as to direct the dynamic effect of these
currents
at
a particidar place on the
bar.
Originally bar depths
were from 10 to 21 feet, but already the controlling depth is 27 feet.
The south jetty
is to be 7 miles long, extended into the open sea,
where storms are of great violence and often of long duration.
The
north jetty is to be 2^ miles long.
The total sum expended has been
nearly $9,000,000, including the
cost for maintenance.
The south
jetty has been completed, and the north jetty has been started.
A
depth of 40 feet over the bar
is expected when the work
is nearer
completion.
The Sacramento
is the principal river in
California.
The San
Joaquin
River, which
joins with
the Sacramento
at
the head
of
Suisun Bay, is used for navigation in the tidal portion up as far as
the Stockton Channel, about 45 miles, but above this point
is not
extensively used.
The Sacramento is about 350 miles long, but the
uppermost 90 miles of the river
is torrential in character and not
used for navigation.
It is subject to numerous floods, which inundate
several hundred thousand acres in the center of the State nearly
every spring.
Its low-water discharge is about 8,000 cubic feet per
second, and at high water it has reached 640,000 cubic feet per second.
Formerly the plan of channel development provided
for securing
7-foot depth
at low water up to Sacramento City, about 61 miles
from Suisun Bay.
In this bay the depths up to the mouth of the
Sacramento are 14
feet and over.
The project also provides for a
4-foot depth from Sacramento to Colusa, 90 miles, and 2
feet to
Red Bluff, about 110 miles farther.
On this project over $740,000
has been
spent, and the projected depths have been
secured and
ihaintained for many years.
The Sacramento River and the Feather,
a tributary, were very much subject, a few years ago, to deposits
KATOBAL WATBBWAYS IN TSE UNITED STATES—HARTS.
571
washed down from the extensive placer-mining regions of the upper
Feather, Yuba, and Bear Eivers, and
a commission of Army en-
gineers was organized in 1891 to protect the stream.
Debris con-
ditions are now materially improved in the placer-mining regions,
owing to the
restrictions imposed.
This commission,
in the
per-
formance of
its functions, has recently proposed a plan for com-
bining the control of floods, the impounding of mining debris, and
the betterment of the navigation channels in a single project, which
has been adopted recently by Congress and by the State of
Cali-
fornia, both sharing the expenses equally.
This
is a very imusual
example of an excellent coordination of the various features of river
work, and may be held up as an example to be followed on other
streams.
The estimated cost of the project is about $11,000,000, of
which the State of California
is to pay one-half and furnish the
land necessary for levees and other works.
The management of the
construction work
is to be under the
direction
of the Army
en-
gineers of the Government, and on completion the whole
is to be
turned over to the State for maintenance.
Flood control, on the one
hand, involving the reclamation of thousands of acres of valuable
agricultural land from spring inundations, and channel development,
on the other, are so related, and the additional need of restricting
mining debris are
all
so intimately connected, that
it made
it
es-
sential to put one organization in charge of
all the related
activi-
ties in order to secure economy in operation.
This new project, ap-
pi’oved in 1910, includes the excavation of river channels by dredging,
the construction of levees, using the excavated material in order to
control high-water stages, and, further, involves the proper gauging
of the river widths to prevent choking in the lower reaches.
The
river mouth is also to be widened and straightened.
Mining debris is
to be impounded, as far as possible, at the site of the mines.
Already
two large 20-inch suction dredges are at work on this project, which
promises unusual results and widespread benefit.
Commerce on the
Sacramento amounted to 249,105 tons in 1890, 419,647 tons in 1895,
484,806 tons in 1000, 353,164 tons in 1905, 425,000 tons in 1910, and
477,292 tons in 1913.
ATLANTIC COAST RIVERS.
None of the rivers on the east coast of New England present any
specially interesting or novel features in point of channel develop-
ment or amount of commerce carried, except that there are a number
of rivers entering bays, like the Mystic in Boston Harbor, which for
a few miles partake of the character of tidal estuaries or harbors for
important cities, and are the means of handling large quantities of
freight, mainly
coal.
In general, this commerce
is increasing, but
this kind of stream is in a separate class; in fact, it is the only class
5Y2
ANNITAL REPOBT SMITHSOKIAK IKSTITtJTIOK^
1916.
which the records show
to be materially
increasing
in commerce.
Most of these streams have depths of 20 feet or over and furnish ship
channels of considerable importance.
In general, the tendencies on
the other rivers in this vicinity is to a decrease in commerce.
The Mystic River was originally 14 feet deep in its lower portion,
of about two miles, but was increased in depth to 25 feet by the pro-
visions of the project of 1899, at a cost of $136,000.
The latest proj-
ect, that of 1910, provides for an increase to 30
feet depth, at an
additional cost of $172,000.
The commerce of the river was originally
incorporated
in that of Boston Harbor, but in 1905 was 2,841,007
tons;
1910,
3,245,630
tons; and
in
1912,
3,671,242
tons, valued
at
$16,000,000, 90 per cent of which was
coal.
This harbor
is fairly
representative of those of
its kind in this region and shows present
tendencies.
Providence River
is only about 8 miles long, but
is an estuary
of much importance.
Its original channel depth of less than 9 feet
is now deepened to 25
feet, and the area of deep anchorage enor-
mously increased.
The latest i)rojects, those of 1910 to 1913, provide
for a 30-foot depth of channel and a deepening of the anchorages, at
a total estimated cost of about $1,500,000. A new
restriction, how-
ever,
is now included
; that before wmrk can be begun the State of
Rhode Island and city of Providence shall complete their proposed
public terminals and other harbor works,
at
a
cost of
$2,000,000.
Already the Government has spent
$1,324,000 on
previous work.
The commerce in 1895 was 1,643,700 tons; 1900, 2,823,308 tons; 1905,
2,259,173 tons; 1910, 3,814,982 tons; and 1913, 4,585,364 tons.
Com-
merce by water is chiefly coal.
The requirements of the United States
Government that local interests shall share in the expense of harbor
work is a new and increasing feature of great interest.
The Hudson was one of the
earliest rivers of the country to be
improved by the Government.
Work began even before 1822 by the
State of New York, at which time the Erie Canal was opened, and
in 1823 the Erie and Champlain both emptied into the pool created by
the State dam at Troy, finished about that year.
In the beginning
the river was shallow in places and not over 4-foot depth existed
over some shoals.
Work by the United States began in
1834.
At
present a channel exists that affords a 39-foot draft from the sea up
through the harbor of New York to the city wharves in the lower
portion of the river and from there 3b-foot depth can be found up-
stream for 93 miles and 24-foot for 24 miles farther.
The upper
Stretch of 39 miles is limited to 9-foot draft except between Albany
and New Baltimore, where 11 feet is available.
This work has been
completed many years and has cost about $5,500,000.
The newest
project, that of
1910, provides for 12-foot depth
in the upper 39
tidiles, necessitating a new lock and dam near the old State dam and
NATURAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES—HARTS.
573
considerable open channel work.
This dam, with the deepening in
the old channel
as
far down
as Waterford,
is estimated
to
cost
$5,186,064.
About one-fifth of this work is now done.
Commerce in
the
last two years has declined, but this is ascribed to the uncer-
tainty of the effect of the new Erie Canal and the abandonment of
the
river
ice
houses.
The commerce
in
1900 was
5,070,800
tons;
1905, 3,513,545 tons;
1910, 5,033,360 tons; and
1912, 3,045,136 tons,
valued at $172,107,996.
Harlem River and Spiiyten Duyvil Creek together form a water-
way
miles long, connecting Long Island Sound with Hudson River
along a line north of New York City.
The deepening of this water-
way has resulted in a new channel which enables freight to be brought
by water to a very large manufacturing region in upper New York
City.
Its commerce has increased very markedly of late years.
Origi-
nally the channel was narrow and crooked and only 4 to 6 feet deep.
The project of 1878 provided for a channel 15 feet deep and 350 feet
wide, at an estimated cost of $2,100,000.
The proposed width has
now been increased to 400 feet and the project has been further am-
plified from
time
to
time and
the
estimate
finally
increased
to
$3,500,000.
Up to 1913 $1,683,000 had been spent and about 44 per
cent of the work done.
F ull depths are not yet available at Macomb’s
Dam and near East Two Hundred and Tenth Street, but elsewhere
the project is practicall}^ done.
Commeroo
in
1893
3,384,466 tons.
189r)-_
7,533,594 tons, valued at .$203,707,370.
1900
4,474,687 tons.
1905—
9,998,021 tons, valued at $270,210,309.
1910__
12,822,885 tons.
1912
15,376,742
tons, valued at $742,503,048.
This river may be said to have reached the third stage of develop-
ment, before mentioned, where the congested condition of traffic has
provided so much commerce that a large share necessarily
falls to
the water lines.
Arthur Kill is another stream emptying into New
York Harbor of similar nature.
Its coimnerce in 1912 amounted to
30,525,094 tons, valued at $515,437,656.
Delaware River
is 315 miles long, but the portion from Phila-
delphia to Delaware Bay, 101 miles, is the part most used for navi-
gation.
In
this lower portion the original depth of
17
feet has
been
increa.sed
materially, and
the
width
of
the
channel
nearly
doubled.
The first formal project, adopted in 1888, provided for a
depth of 26 feet from Philadelphia to Delaware Bay, and a width
of 600
feet.
This project was completed in 1898.
In 1899,
it was
planned to secure a depth of 30 feet.
In
all, $10,176,000 has been
expended on this part of the river since 1834—on these two projects
674
AKNUAL BEPOET BMIT-HSONIAK INSTITUTION, M6.
and on former work.
In
1910, the project was further amplified
to provide a depth of 35
feet, and a channel 800 feet wide in the
straight parts and 1,000 feet wide at the bends,
all at an estimated
cost of $10,920,000.
This work involves the removal of 53,000 cubic
yards of rock and over
73,000,000
cubic yards
of
soft
dredging.
Two suction dredges are now constantly at work on the new project.
About $2,000,000 has been spent thus far, and the new work about
one-eighth completed.
In recent years the commerce has shown a
healthy increase.
In 1890
it was 11,356,270 tons.
1895
it was 18,626,853 tons.
1900
It was 21,910,232 tons.
1905
it was 24,383,571
tons, valued at $1,612,847,499.
1910
it was 24,677,671
tons, valual at $1,327,869,862.
1912
it was 26,267,335 tons, valued at $1,235,106,621.
By far the largest item of this commerce is coal.
It will be seen
from these figures how important a part in the development of this
enormous traffic the channel development has played.
The St. Johns Elver, in Florida, is another example of increasing
traffic,
fostered and encouraged by
well-chosen
river work.
This
stream was originally closed
at
its mouth by a bar on the ocean,
over which there was only 5 to 7 feet depth at low water.
By means
of two
jetties, supplemented by dredging,
these depths have now
been permanently
increased
to 25
feet
at low
water.
The upper
river,
also^ was originally interrupted by
shoals
of about
11
feet
depth.
In 1879, a project was adopted for a channel having a depth
of 15 feet from Jacksonville to the sea, 27.5 miles.
In 189S,
it was
found that the channel over the bar liad been fixed in position by
jetties, and the depth
increased, by
that
time,
to
13
feet
at low
water, and a new project for 18 feet depth of channel was thereupon
adopted before the earlier work had been completed.
This latter
project was completed in 1894.
In 1896 the proposed depth of 24
feet at low water and width of 300
feet was approved, and work
was undertaken.
This project was practically completed in
1910,
when the present project of a 30-foot depth of channel was adopted.
The newly proposed width
is 300 feet in straight reaches and 600
feet at bends.
On the eiirlier projects $4,000,000 has been expended,
and on the present plan $1,266,912, and work
is about half com-
pleted.
This new
channel has been
very
effective
in
affording
cheaper lines for freight destined for northern ports and
affects a
large and prosperous area.
Commerce has increased
at a healthy
rate and has justified the original estimates of growth, and appar-
ently warranted the expenditures necessary.
NATTTRAL WATEEWAY8 IN THE tJNITED STATES—HABTB.
676
The commerce in
1890
746,895 tons.
1895
241.907 tons.
1900
649,221 tons.
1905
1,000,316 tons.
1910
2,105,820 tons.
1912
2,204,794
tons, valued at $07,877,603.
The success attending the opjening of the mouth of this river in
the Atlantic Ocean has been very marked.
This river, together with
the Columbia River and several others on the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts, furnishes examples of a distinctly courageous treatment of
river mouths in the open sea.
This method of applying twin jetties
of riprap to bar harbors has now been well
tried, and
is accepted
as an approved method of overcoming the
obstruction
caused by
streams and tides at the mouths of rivers emptying into tidal seas.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
In conclusion, it might be well to summarize some of the more notice-
able tendencies in our interior natural waterways.
First, one is struck
at once with the enormous increase in the commerce of the Great
Lakes between the western end of Lake Superior and the harbors of
northern Ohio,
In spite of all efforts,
it seems almost impossible to
maintain facilities much in advance of the needs of navigation.
New
and larger locks
at the
Soo,” new and deeper channels in Lake
Huron are scarcely complete before deeper boats and more perfect
terminal facilities make these waterways inadequate to the new de-
mands.
Notwithstanding the several months of idleness in the win-
tertime, when ice stops
all navigation, the tonnage carried has in-
creased year by year
until
it has been necessary to have separate
channels for upbound from those used for downbouild
vessels, and
very much more than double the lock capacity at St. Marys Rapids.
The new and extensive projects for the accommodation of this traffic
seem well justified.
Second,
it seems deeply disappointing
to
see
nearly
all
of the
rivers of the Mississippi
Valley
cither conspicuously
declining in
traffic or, in a few cases, holding their own with much difficulty.
Not-
withstanding the adoption
of the best type of locks and movable
dams, the most modern and effectiv^e open river work, and the aid
afforded by the Government in improving the shallow-draft river
steamboats, notwithstanding huge appropriations and extensive work
of the highest engineering
skill, notwithstanding the enormous in-
crease within recent years in every branch of industry in this wide
area, these rivers have declined in usefulness and importance; their
freight has been
extensively taken over by
the
railroads of
this
region; boating has dwindled
as
a business until
the Mississippi
River
itself—a stream unequalled in
possibilities—^now
flows idly
576
£M^VAh lEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916.
to the Gulf with only a small fraction of its former traflSic. A marked
diminution in appropriations for
all
rivers in this valley may be
expected in the next few
years*
Already signs are pointing to
a
more careful scrutiny of
all work proposed in
this region and
to
a closer study into th6 probable benefit to the country as a whole
of the large expenditures now being made annually.
Third, it is gratifying to note the healthy growth in the commerce
of many of those coastal rivers which flow into seaports and enable
deep-draft vessels to reach interior cities from the sea.
Coal
is an
important item of their cargoes, and the lowering of the
cost of
this commodity is widespread in benefit.
This character of channel
development may be expected to continue to increase in capacity as
long as an increase in traffic and saving in cost of transportation can
be shown.
Here, too, it seems probable that new work will more than
ever need to have conclusive reasons given for its adoption by the
Government before it can be imdertaken.
Fourth, the success in the application of the lessons learned by
experience in the jetty system of deepening the entrances to rivers
from the sea has been very satisfactory.
The Columbia River, the
Mississippi River, and the St. Johns River are all examples of diffi-
cult kinds of engineering in which Americans have been pioneers,
and the results are exceptionally satisfactory.
Nowhere in the world
have such daring attempts been made, and nowhere have results been
more effective.
The great perfection of the suction dredge has so
reduced the cost of channel excavation that now new channels are
being deep^ed that before were too expensive and hazardous for
even a conclusive trial, as in the case of the Ambrose Channel en-
trance to New York Harbor.
This method of deepening, so useful
in interior channels, has also been widely adopted as an auxiliary
to jetty work, and is now generally recognized as a necessary aid in
bar improvement.
Although dredging in some harbors, as
at the
mouth of the Columbia, has not demonstrated its value in this place,
still the results at Galveston, Mississippi River, St Johns River, and
New York, and nearly all ports on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, have
been conclusive.
Fifth, the recent, but nevertheless desirable, combination of sev
eml governmental
activities in river work under a single head has
b^en again recognized in the Sacramento River.
For some years
the control of floods on the Mississippi by levees has been carried
m by a cooperation of the State and Federal
forces, under a tacit
agreement never specifically stated in the law.
On the Sacramento
“tire now find reclamation of flooded areas, control of floods, deepen-
ing o| eJlannels for navigation, and the exclusion of mining debris
ifll in^nded nnder the Federal management by law.
In this work
aeaists by paying one*balf of the expense, by donating the
KATURAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES—HARTS.
577
land needed for levees, and by taking over the work and maintain-
ing
it
after
completion.
The share
that the
locality should pay
toward
a
project
of
this
character must depend
mainly
on
the
distribution of the benefit, and is debatable; but that the execution of
such work should be handled as a single unit by the Government
seems beyond argument.
It
is gratifying to note the acceptance of
this principle.
Sixth,
there
is
a
recent and growing tendency
to conserve the
energy of our navigable rivers by private enterprise in order to de-
velop the electric power now being Avasted.
This requires a cooper-
ation between the Government on the one hand and the private inter-
ests Avhich build the necessary plant on the other.
It is seldom that
a dam for the creation of electric poAver
is just Avhat the needs of
navigation
require,
so
there must be some adjustment
or balance
between the private and public requirements.
Usually the company
builds
the dam
at
its
0A\n
expense,
and
sometimes
the
lock
in
addition, and is often restricted as to the height of dam and location.
The present power darn in the Mississippi River* at Keokuk
is com-
pleted
; that at Hales Bar in the Tennessee is nearly finished
; and two
are under construction, one on the Warrior and one on the Coosa
River in northern Alabama.
It is too soon to say whether these ven-
tures will prove to be commercial successes.
It is encouraging to find
that some reasonable basis can be found on which the power of a
navigable stream can be conserved whenever
it has a commercial
value.
Seventh, the deepening of the channel of the Providence River,
A\diich has recently been made contingent on the construction by the
city of Providence and the State of Rhode Island of public port and
terminal
facilities at their own expense, illustrates a comparatively
iieAv and very important tendency.
It is more than ever expected of
late that the localities benefited by GoA^emment projects will share in
the expense of the work as well as in the benefits.
Portland, Oreg.,
has undertaken to maintain at its own expense the upper part of the
channel from Portland to the
sea.
The
jetties
at Siuslaw River
mouth, in Oregon, will be paid for largely by the locality.
The Sac-
ramento River improvement is to be one-half paid for by the State
of California, and other assistance is to be rendered. A public wharf
was required to be donated by the town of Burnside on the upper
Cumberland River before Lock 21 would be completed.
Many other
instances might be stated, so that this principle of the localities shar-
ing in the expense of river work is now well established.
In
this
way the earnestness of the communities urging Government work
can be easily tested, and the public oftentimes assured that the chan-
nels when completed are not to be the sources of undtie
profit to
the private owners of the only easily accessible landings.
678
ANNUAL HEPOBT 8MITH80NUN INSTITUTION,
1016.
BIBLIOGEAPHT.
Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers.
Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 64, Part D.
American Acaderpy of Political and Social Science, New York, American Water-
ways, 1908.
Twelfth International Congress of Navigation, Philadelphia, 1912.
“ Ocean and Inland Water Transportation,” 1906, Emory R. Johnson.
“ Waterways versus Railways,” 1912, Harold G. Moulton.
“The Lakes-to-the-Gulf Deep Waterway,” 1912, Wm. Arthur Shelton.
“American Inland Waterways,” 1909, Herbert Quick.
United
States National Waterways Commission
(62d
Cong., 2d
sess.,
S. Doc.
325).
United States National Waterways Commission
(62d
Cong., 2d
sess.,
S.
Doc,
469).
United States Bureau of Corporations, 1909, Parts
I and II.
“Water Transportation; Its Economic Importance,” F. H. Dixon, 3905
(Official
Proceedings,
St.
lx)uls Railway Club).
THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL.^
By William Healey Ball.
[With
1
plate.]
Dr. Theodore Nicholas Gill was born on Broadway, New York
City, below the city hall, March 21, 1837, and died at Washington,
D.
C., September 25, 1914.
He was the son of James Darrell and
Elizabeth Vosburgh
Gill.
The father was the son of a merchant
of
St.
Johns,
New^foundland, descended from an
old
Devonshire
family.
The mother came of old New York Dutch stock.
A few years later the family moved to 164 Grand Street, on the
border of the
city, wdiich was then almost the country, with open
fields, trees, and groves in plain view.
The city of New York had
at that time only some 300,000 population.
The boy received the rudiments of education from his mother, and
at the age
of
8 was sent
to the Mechanics’ Grammar School on
Crosby Street, then a highly esteemed educational establishment.
A year later his mother died, the father gave up housekeeping, and
his son was placed in charge of a private tutor at Greenville, N. Y.
Here he received a very thorough training in Latin and Greek, the
father having ambitions that the son should eventually become a
clergyman.
Later
his
father married again and
resumed
housekeeping on
West Twenty-sixth Street near Sixth Avenue, and
still later moved
to
Bi’ooklyn.
Young Gill was then recalled from Greenville and
sent to a private classical school in the city.
His love of nature and instinct for collecting developed early, and
it
is perhaps not merely a coincidence that, in coming by the ferry
from Brooklyn and daily passing the great Fulton fish market, his
attention should have been
especially drawn to the study of the
fishes of New York.
As young
Gill arrived
at the age when
it seemed necessary to
decide on a profession, it became evident to him that he had no taste
for theological studies.
After due deliberation he decided to stndy
^Beprintea by
permission from
Biographical
Memoirs,
Vol.
8,
National
Aea^epiy
of
SclenceSi
July,
1918.
The
original
article contains a
bibliography
of
all
of Dr.
Giirs
most Important contributions to systematic zoology and ecology.
ere
680
iJSrKtJAL BEPOBT SMITHSOKIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
law and entered the office of S. W. and R. A, Gaines, a well-known
law firm of that period.
The latter partner had married a sister of
James Darrel
Gill, and was therefore
a
connection
interested
in
Theodore’s success in life.
His extraordinary gift of memory doubtless enabled him to absorb
the essentials of legal learning, but an overpowering tendency toward
the study of nature
gi'eatly abridged his law studies and he never
applied for admission to the bar.
His visits to the
fish market be-
came more constant, while the adjacent water front sheltered sailing
vessels from all quarters of the world, where sailors with shells and
curios were daily to be encountered.
His grandfather’s family being
residents of Newfoundland, where the fisheries were of the first im-
portance, he kept himself informed through everything he could
reach of matters relating to the subject.
The pursuit of scientific studies at that period and for a long time
afterwards offered no prospect of a self-supporting career.
Though
there are no data on record it is reasonably certain that Gill’s family
must have looked wdth doubt, if not absolute disapproval, on his de-
votion to studies which did not promise even a bare living.
At all
events wdth a young family from his second marriage to bring up
and educate Gill’s father was not in a position to support him in an
unproductive profession.
He was therefore soon left dependent on his own resources, which
for years were barely sufficient to maintain his existence.
According to Dr. Gill himself we find him about this time seeking
and obtaining from the Wagner Free Institute of kScience in Phila-
delphia a scholarship which yielded him the meager means of pur-
suing his studies in natural history and thus coming in contact with
a group of men who helped to lay the foundations of American
science.
This grant, he stated to a friend some time before his death,
was the deciding factor in his resolve to devote himself to scientific
studies.
He became acquainted with most of those who at that time
in
New York were interested in natural history, especially
J. Carson
Brevoort, whose zoological library w^as then reputed to be the best
in the United States, and D. Jackson Stewart, a wealthy amateur,
whose great collection of shells has finally found a resting place in
the American Museum of Natural History.
About this time Dr. William Stimpson, the distinguished student
of invertebrate zoology, while in New York heard amusing refer-
ences to a young student of law who kept a hoi*se’s skull under his
desk at the
office where he was studying.
Investigating this phe-
ndPi^Bon further, he made Gill’s acquaintance.
Partly as a result of
Stimpson’s report to Prof. Spencer F. Baird of the Smithsonian In-
^itntion, the latter, always interested in young students of nature,
THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL—DALL.
581
entered into correspondence with Gill and promoted his studies.
A
report on the fishes of New York which Gill had in preparation was
accepted for publication in the annual repoi^t of the Smithsonian In-
stitution when its author was only 19 years old.
Mr. D. Jackson Stewart in the interest of his collection financed
an expedition to the West Indies and in December, 1857, Gill made
his
first visit to Washington and to the Smithsonian better to pre-
pare himself for the undertaking.
Here he made the personal ac-
quaintance of Profs. Henry, Baird, and others whom he had known
previously only by correspondence.
Gill sailed in January, 1858, on a large schooner, with a pleasant
group of passengers.
He visited several of the Antilles, and
especially Barbados and
Trinidad, where he spent some weeks, being
cordially
assisted by
many of the residents.
Finding the marine fishes much the same at
all the
islands
visited, he confined
his attention
especially to the
peculiar fresh-water fishes of Trinidad with very satisfactory results.
After his return he devoted himself to working up this collection.
He went to Washington in August, 1858, for this purpose, and stayed
for several luoiiths with Stimpson.
He also spent much time in Pliila-
delphia, and his report with several subsequent papers was published
in the Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural
History, the
predecessor of the present New York Academy of Sciences.
In 1859 the death of his grandfather in Newfoundland made neces-
sary a
visit to that country in connection with the settlement of the
estate.
Gill improved the opportunity by studying the fauna
of
that remote region.
On his return, through Prof. Baird’s intervention, he obtained an
appointment with a group of workers to whom was assigned the task
of I’eporting on the collections made during the Northwest Boundary
Survey under Archibald Campbell.
Among these were George Gibbs,
the ethnologist, Prof. AVilliam Turner, Dr. Stimpson, and Dr. Geoi’ge
Suckiey.
Dr. Caleb Kennerly, the zoologist of the expedition, had
died at sea on his way home from the Pacific coast.
During this period Gill lived at the Rugby House (now the Ham-
ilton House), where he did a large part of his work.
Unfortimately,
owing to the breaking out of the Civil War, the reports on the work
of the commission were left mostly unpublished. Gill’s among them,
though some of his preliminary data appeared in the Proceedings of
the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia.
Among those who were working at the Smithsonian in 1861 were
F. B, Meek, the paleontologist; Thomas Egleston, afterwards pro-
fessor of mineralogy in Columbia University; Dr. F. V. Flayden, the
geblbgist;
Robert
Kennicott,
the
explorer;
Prof.
Matile,
one
of
Agassiz’s Swiss coadjutors in physics and at that time an assistant
73839*—SM 1916
38
682
ANNUAL BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
of Prof, Henry; Dr. William Stimpson, who was working on the
invertebrata of the North Pacific Exploring Expedition under Ring-
gold and Rodgers; and August Schonborn,
artist, who made most
exquisite
silver-point drawings of Stimpson’s North Pacific
crus-
taceans.
The^e formed an informal association known as the Megatherium
Club, whose members took meals together and
foregathered with
Stimpson and Kennicott for joyous evenings.
The constant fluctua-
tion in attendance, due to the coming and going between Washington
and the fields of exploration in the West, tended toward disintegra-
tion, and the club virtually dissolved in a few years.
At the invitation of Prof. Henry, Gill came to the Institution in
1861, and during the following winter was appointed to the charge
of its great scientific library, which had been collected and organized
by that eminently capable librarian. Prof. C. C. Jewett.
This post
he held until 1866, when, at the instance of Prof. Henry, the Smith-
sonian books were deposited as a special
collection in the Library
of Congress.
Gill w^ent with the books to the Capitol as Assistant
Librarian of Congress, and finally became senior assistant, retaining
that post until 1874.
All this time he had retained his quarters in
the Smithsonian building, to which he hastened as soon as the usual
office hours in the library were over.
There most of his
scientific
work was done in the midst of an accumulation of books, pamphlets,
unfinished manuscript, and debris of various kinds, piled on shelves,
desk, and floor in a manner to strike terror to any housewife.
How-
ever, old James Gant, the colored dignitary who ‘looked after the
young gentlemen ” and prided himself on having been body servant
to a former President of the United
States, was very
willing to
obey the injunction that nothing should be touched, and the accumu-
lations continued for many years.
Finally, when the biological collections were transferred with their
curators to the new National Museum building in 1909, and the room
occupied by
Gill formed one of those assigned to the
staff of the
Bureau of Ethnology, the professor was obliged to move to other
quarters.
He regarded the ancient heaps wdth dismay, and relieved
himself of responsibility by presenting them, with all their contents,
to the library of the Smithsonian Institution.
The earlier publications of Gill appeared in the annals of the New
York Lyceum of Natural History, of which he became a member in
1858,
In November, 1860, he was elected
a correspondent of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and for several years
his papers, appearing in rapid succession, formed a large part of the
academy’s volumes of proceedings.
With the establishment of the
American Journal
of Conchology
in
1866, and
of
the American
Naturalist two years later, an opportunity was utilized for printing
THEODOBE NICHOLAS GILL—DALL.
583
various
communications
on
mollusks
and
miscellaneous
subjects.
After the
starting by
Prof.
Baird,
in
1878, of the
series Imown
as the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, most of
dill’s papei’s were printed
there,
iiv the Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections, or in the annual repoii: of the institution.
When the United States Fish Ojmmissioii began
its work under
the direction of Prof. Baird he gathered about him a number of
specialists who worked up the collections, and to Prof. Gill naturally
fell a large part of the taxonomic work on the
fishes.
Hence the
annual reports of the commissioner contain numerous contributions
from
his
pen.
He was
also
associated with
Prof.
Baird
in
the
preparation of the latter’s “Annual Record of Science and Industry,”
published by the Harpers and
its subsequent equivalent which for
some years appeared in the annual reports of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, beginning
after the appointment
of Prof. Baird
as
secre-
tary, in 1878.
Most
of
the
zoological
data
of
Johnson's
Cyclopedia
and
the
zoological definitions of the Century and Standard dictionaries were
furnished by
Gill, though
Dr.
Elliott Cones
acted
as supervising
editor.
In 1808 Gill acquired a small ornithological magazine called the
Osprey and for a time associated Cones with him
jis editor, but the
arrangement did not work well and Cones was obliged to withdraw.
In 1899
Gill took entire control and with
a
brilliant coterie of
as-
sistant
editors carried
the
periodical on for several
years, during
which he freijuently contributed to its columns.
His contrilmtions to the labors of the committee on nomenclature
of the American Ornithological Union were cordially acknowledged
by them, and his influence in standardizing zoological nomenclature
in general has been very great, though in the main indirectly exer-
cised.
Any
classification
of a large group of animals becomes obsolete
with the
increase
of
authentic data and
the
general
progress of
science; but that grasp of the subject whicli includes the best ideas
of the current period and
is joined with the capacity to weld them
into a well-balanced scheme of
classification
is
rare.
It was pos-
sessed by Dr. Gill in an eminent degree.
In fact, we shall hardly
exceed the bounds of certitude if Tve call Dr. Gill the most eminent
American taxonomist.
His papers were rarely long. He seemed to prefer to take up small
groups, such
as families and genera, and work out their relations.
No
great monograph
exists among
his
publications.
Their
total
mass, however,
is very great, and their influence, especially on the
classification of fishes, has been profound.
584
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION^ 1916.
His revisions naturally met with criticism from those long familiar
with the existing order.
In a majority of cases he lived to see his
views accepted by authorities on fishes.
His ideas on Avian classifi-
cation are quite different from those generally accepted, especially
in regard to the relative taxonomic value of characters, but it is by
no means certain that the views of future ornithologists
will not
much more closely approxiinate to those of Gill.
His work on
mollusca, excepting the general
classification em-
bodied in tile “Arrangement of the families of molliisks,” was chiefly
of the nature
of revisions of
particular
families or genera.
The
“ Arrangement
of
families ” brought
together
the
most
complete
knowledge existing at the time of the relations of the different groups
of mollusks; but the subsequent advance of science in that respect
has been
relatively much greater than
in mammals or
fishes, and
Gill’s arrangement has at present chiefly an historical value.
Of the arrangement of the families of fishes and mammals others
can speak
with an authority denied to the present writer, but the
impression
left
after conversation with -experts
is confirmatory of
their exceptional value.
Tlie present Commissioner of Fisheries has had the kindness to
furnish for this memoir the following estimate of Dr. Gill’s work on
fishes
Dr.
Gill’s chief contributions to ichthyology were his taxonomic pnpers.
In
his taxonomy, which was largely suijported by
liis osteological
rescar<ii, he had
no equal among his contemporaries In America or abroad.
His papers represent
a very large amount of painstaking investigation of
a
character for wlileh he
wjis especially well fitted and for which few active workers have the time, the
fitness,
or the
inclinatloD.
His conclnsions have been very generally accepted
and form
the basis for our present
classification
of
fishes.
While
for years
Dnropean
ichthyologists disagreed with
his views,
his system has
finally been
accepted
liy
practically
all
the active men
at the present
time.
Next
to
his
taxonomic contributions rank bis papers on the structure and habits of fishes.
His papers on tiie life histories of fishes also are noteworthy,
theii* chief value
being in the assembling and weighing of scattered observations and their pres-
entation in form that is exceedingly helpful to
all workers in this field.
His knowledge of the biological literature of ail countries and
all times was
amazing and profound.
In estimating his influence on
S(!ience,
full cognizance
should be gdven to the readiness with which he placed this knowledge, together
with his time and
talents, at the disposal of everyone, and to the permanent
value of the encouragement he was ever most anxious to give to all those who
Were fortunate enough to be brought In contact with him.
In noticing the death of Prof. Gill in the Annual Report of the
U.
S.
National Museum
for the year ending June
30,
1915, Mr.
Richard Rathbun, Assistant Secretary in charge of the Museum, thus
expresses himself in regard to his colleague and collaborator
Barely does one find, as in the present instance, the more or less accidental
early phases in the groping for a career converge in such a manner as to at
THEODOBE NICHOLAS GILL—DALL.
585
once become useful and necessary.
Dr. Gill’s early training was
a most fortu-
nate one, for the splendid classical schooling of his youth gave him a complete
familiarity with Greek and Latin, and his legal knowledge, combined with the
former, rendered him a judge where questions of nomenclature were involved.
His subsequent library training brought him in contact with the world’s litera-
ture, and
this, yoked with
great
industry and
a phenomenal memory, made
him the acknowledged master in his chosen
field.
It
also produced a breadth
of knowledge that rendered him a fountain of information, and,
as some one
has stated, “With the simplicity of the truly great and the truly able he gave
freely
of
his
stores
of knowledge,
so that
to
all
the
invi^stigators
wlio came
in contact with him he proved an ever-ready source of exact and reiiable infor-
mation and a sound adviser.”
It Is certain there are few workers in systematic
biology in Washington and many other places who have not received assistance
from
Dr,
Gill,
Very soon after his arrival in Washington, Gill became associated
with Columbian College, afterwards Columbian University, and
still
later reineorporated under the name of George Washington Univer-
sity.
In 18()0 he was made adjunct professor of physics and natural
history; from 18G4 to 1866 and
1873 to
1884,
lecturer on natural
history; from 1884
to
1910, professor of zoology, and
for the
re-
mainder of his life professor emeritus.
The university, in apprecia-
tion of his merits, conferred upon him in 1865 the degree of master
of arts; in 1866 an honorary doctorate of medicine; in 1870 the doc-
torate of philosophy
; and in 1895 that of laws.
Ur.
Gill was naturally elected to membership of many
scientific
societies, both
at home and abroad.
He became
a member of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1868, and
a fellow in 1874.
In 1896 he was elected vice president of Section F,
zoology, and upon the death of Prof. E. D. Cope, the president elect,
he succeeded to the presidency of the association at the meeting held
in 1897 at Detroit.
He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences
in 1873, and represented the academy at the Boston meeting of the
International
Zoological
Congress in 1898 and
at
the
celebration
of
the 450th
anniversary of the foundation
of the University
of
Glasgow,
Scotland,
in
1901.
He was a member of the American
Philosophical Society, of the Philosophical Society of Washington,
the Biological Society, a founder of the Cosmos Club of that city,
a foreign member of the Zoological Society of London, and of some
70 other societies and scientific bodies.
As a young man, Gill was slender and rather delicate in appear-
ance, with
black
hair, dark
eyes, and
a somewhat brunette com-
plexion.
His relatives by his father’s second marriage seem to have
partaken
of
a
constitutional
delicacy,
as death removed many
of
them at a comparatively early age.
I have referred to the fact that
in his early manhood Gill was compelled to extreme frugality by an
insufficient income.
It was only in middle age that by inheritance
586
ANNUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITTJTION^
1916.
and
some
fortunate
investments
he
reached
what
are
generally
termed “easy circumstances.”
The hardships of these early years
left their impression on his habits, to some of which he clung with
amusing pertinacity long after they seemed to his friends and rela-
tives uncalled
for.
He was fond of social intercourse with
intelli-
gent people and seemed to enjoy ladies’ society, but never married.
After his youthful expedition to the West Indies he traveled little,
and his only visit abroad was to the anniversary celebration of the
foundation of (llasgow University,
in
1901.
He found his recrea-
tion chiefly in books, conversation with kindred
spirits, and at the
meetings of the Literary Society.
An
occurrence which
gave
gi’eat pleasure both
to him and
his
friends was a subscription banquet tendered him at the Cosmos Club,
December 13, 1912, on the completion of the seventy-fifth year of his
age and the
fifty-sixth year of publication
of his contributions to
knowledge.
On this occasion his many friends improved the opportunity of
expressing their estimation of his merits as a man and a scholar and
their gratitude for his many kindnesses in granting to any inquirer
the benefit of his encyclopedic knowledge and phenomenal memory.
A paralytic stroke three or four years before
his death perma-
nently enfeebled him and
his remaining days were
(]uiet and un-
eventful.
In September, 1914, he visited his brother, Herbert A. Gill, in the
lovely suburbs of Wasliington and a few days later was confined to
his bed.
On the morning of the 25th
lie was apparently mentally
clear as usual and inquired about the news, but before noon he passed
away suddenly.
The interment took place at Oak Hill Cemetery.
I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. H. M. Smith, Mr.
Herbert A. Gill, Mr. Eichard Eathbun, Dr. Marcus Benjamin, Prof.
C. H. Eigenmann, and Dr. T. S. Palmer for daia furnished by them,
either in print or otherwise, and of which
I have
freely
availed
myself in the preparation of this memoir.
THE LIFE AND WORK OF
J. H. FABRE.^
By E.
L. Bouvier,
Member of the Institute^ Professor at the Museum of Natural History, Paris,
Fabre, the hermit of Serignan, called ‘‘the inimitable observer by
Darwin, and by Victor Hugo “the Homer of
insects,” reached the
age of 92 years in the radiance of an unsought fame that rose spon-
taneously from his work. He died where he had dwelt for a full half
century, and his last gaze has fallen on the foliage of that henceforth
celebrated spot, the rustic home of his quiet happiness, the peaceful
theater of his wonderful researches.
Like his life, the dying vege-
tation of the
field bursts forth into glorious colors before entering
into rest; like his work, it will not cease to be vigorous and to produce
the richest bloom.
The origin of Fabre, however, was very humble and his youth beset
with obstacles.
Sprung from poor parents who had kept a modest
market at Saint-Leons in the Eouergue Mountain, he at once was the
toy of paternal vicissitudes that led him almost everywhere in the
Midi and finally to the Vaiiclusien country, which became his adopted
home.
This wandering life was not at all suited to study.
It pre-
vented his remaining at the College of Khodez, where he paid for tui-
tion by rendering certain services and was thus compelled to educate
himself.
He first entered the Normal School of Avignon.
This was
merely the starting point, not the goal where he found his special
calling.
As a primary instructor at the College of Carpentras, as
professor at the Lycfe of Ajaccio, and finally at the Lycee of Avignon
he explored with an insatiable ardor every branch of human thought.
He soon became familiar with the ancient languages, and mathe-
matical and physical sciences divulged their secrets to him.
He re-
ceived diploma
after diploma, and became the doctor of
sciences,
laureate of the
institute.
He was a wonderful teacher.
Students
were spellbound by his words, and he attained unparalleled success in
the free courses of secondary instruction established by him for the
young girls at Avignon.
But he was considered a peculiar person,
wrapped up
in
his own
researches,
and,
despite
his
succeas,
his
Tfanslated by permission from Revue gfindrale des Sciences.
Paris, Nov.
30, 1015.
567
588
ANKXTAL EEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
1916.
diplomas, and his early achievements, and despite the favor of Minis-
ter Duriiy, who decorated him and sought to make him a preceptor
of the Imperial Prince, he abandoned his alma mater and retired to
Orange, then to Serignan.
lie must be independent, for official reg-
ulations were displeasing to his unrestrained nature
; he needed the
open air of the country, for his first researches had inflamed him and
kindled
a
desire to catch the mysteries of
life in their
actual un-
folding.
He was now
free, but without means, and the expenses
of
his
family were hea\y.
How
then, could he supply the needs of
his
nestlings^
This he did by ceaseless toil and an inimitable talent;
the day was given to researches, tlie twilight and the night to works
of instruction.
Though he broke the chains that belonged
to the
professorship he
still remained an
apt
teacher,
delightfully enter-
taining, and
so he continued to the end of his days, teaching only
through his writings.
In this way there appeared one after another
many popular and instructive works which lune been the charm of
scholars since about 1870; such Avorks as
Kavageurs des Cultures,”
“ Auxiliaires,”
‘‘ Cosinographie,” ‘‘Physique,” “ Chimie,” and many
other publications where the aufhor made
it
a
pleasure to render
the most
abstract
scientific
questions plain and
attractive.
Under
the impetus given by Duruy, these books wan*e introduced through-
out the
schools, and such were
their charms that they
instructed
parents as well as pupils.
But, apart from some didactic treatises,
these smaller w^orks
Avere intended moie to arouse
interest and
to
attract toward science, than to lead to a diploma.
They were aban-
doned by the schools for the undigested manuals that are laid aside
with pleasure after one examination, and to the gi\'at detriment of
true
culture
our
students no
longer
use
them.
Thanks
to
our
teachers they have been in some measure reintroduced, so that they at
least find a place in the agricultural and school libraries.
That talent of explaining, that wonderful
clearness, that power
of arousing enthusiasm, were qualities which belonged to himself,
and were part of his very nature.
They are shown in the scientific
works to which he owes the best of his reputation, but here combined
with other qualities more
stinking
still,
a
rich
vocabulary and
a
special gift of imparting
life to the subjects concerning which he
wrote.
He devoted his whole soul to his task, and with a passion
that very quickly became communicative.
His favorites were insects,
those strange animals with peculiar habits.
He loved them from his
earliest boyhood, and had always burned with the desire to scrutinize
the mysteries of their existence.
Once engrossed in the fascinating
subject, he was not contented
to
scientifically
describe his heroes,
but he made them
alive to our gaze, in their native environment.
Maurice Maeterlink said of him, “He
is one of the most learned
LIFE AND WOEK OF FABBE—BOUVIEE.
589
naturalists, and the most marvelous of
poets
in
the modern and
really legitimate sense of the word.”
A poet he was in his ^‘Souvenirs entomologiques,” as also in the
ode on ^‘Nombre” which resembles Victor Hugo, and in his volume
of provincial chants
(Oubreto prouvengalo)
which brings Mistral
to mind.
But we must leave a domain where Maeterlink has the
right to be judge, and study the ‘‘Souvenirs entomologiques” the
better
to know
the
scicntilic work of Fabre.
This
work
begins
with
a
research
on
the
reproductive organs of
the Myriapods,
a
doctoral thesis not devoid of good points, but which does not indi-
cate the direction in which the author should turn to find
success
and
fame.
F'abre was no more an anatomist
than
a
systematist.
He
studied
actual
life and
the
dissecting
scalpel
as
well
as
the
entomological pin aroused deep horror for tliose
all ended in death.
The merel.y chance reading of
a memoir by Leon Dufour sliowed
him
some liorizons not yet suspected ” and he started in the fur-
row “which proved to bo his calling.”
This memoir treats of a preda-
tory wasp
of
the genus
Cerceris, which
captures
exclusivel}^
the
Buprestis Licetles and piles tlmm up for its larvae in a cell dug in the
ground.
The beetles
first are inert and Dufour considered them as
dead, but
for many weeks they
retain
all
their freshness and
to
explain this astonishing mystery the aged entomologist of Landes
supposed that in killing them, the Cerceris inoculated them with its
venom as an antiseptic to prevent decay.
This hypothesis is not at
all incredible; but Fabre always had a longing for the exact truth
and he wanted to know all the details of the drama.
As this species,
Cerceris
hiifresticida^
is rare in Provence he studied
a hunter of
weevils, Cerceris tuherculata^ abounding in the vicinity of his home.
Multiplying
observations and
originating some
ingenious
experi-
ments, he came to a conclusion Avhich disproved Dufour’s hypothesis.
The prey of the Cerceris are not dead
; the wasp has struck them in
the nerve centers with
its sting and made them motionless by
its
venomous prick;
rendered
almost
lifeless they
will be
defenseless
and always fresh
vicitims for the gluttonous larva3 of the Cerceris.
This work inaugurated the series of entomological researches by the
author.
Its inherent value
is very great, but
its superior merit
is
that of introducing the experimental method into the study of the
habits of
insects, a method almost entirely neglected by Keaumur
and by the Hubers.
This method became particularly advantageous
in the ingenious hands of the eager investigator who was the leader
in
it.
It characterized
all his entomological works and constituted
one of his principal
titles to the gratitude of learned men.
It
is
recognized today in
its full value throughout France and America
where
it is practiced by numerous biologists.
The institute recog-
690
annual EEPORT SMITHSONIAN institution,
1916.
nized this new publication by awarding to the memoir on the Cerceris
a prize in experimental physiology.
One of the best examples of the application of the experimental
method to the biology of insects is presented by Fabre’s researches on
the laying of eggs by the species Osmia.
The greater part of these
solitary bees build their cells in cavities where most convenient, in a
Helix shell, old gallery of an Anthophora, hollow stem of reeds or
brambles, etc.
When they lay their eggs in hollow twigs the cells
are arranged in series, the largest at the bottom with the eggs
first
laid, the last at the top, newer and smaller in size.
Now those born
at the top are males, wdiich emerge first, and the large earlier cells in
turn yield females.
Can the bee have the instinct for placing in each
cell an egg of a desired sex ?
Or, rather, will the sex of the egg be
determined by the focxl of honey and of pollen, which
is less in the
male than in the female
cells?
By some simple experiments and
conclusions reached in his meager laboratory, Fabre proved without
contradiction the tnith of the second hypothesis.
He plac^ed the eggs
of Osmia in a reed, and at the hatching time he inti odiiced the foods,
putting a large supply in the small cells and a small supply in the
large
cells.
The result was always the same, except that the large
cells yielded small females and the small cells, now well provisioned,
gave large males.
In a larger reed the Osmia built with more irregu-
larity, but always placed a male egg in the small cells, a female egg
in the large cells; and if it was compelled to divide its layings among
narrow shells where it was impossible to arrange large
cells, it laid
only male eggs.
From such a divided laying of 20 eggs Fabre ob-
tained 25 males and only 1 female.
Therefoi’e the egg which comes
from the ovaries does not determine the sex
; but
it acquires its sex
in traversing the genital paths, and the female possesses the instinct
of placing in each cell an egg of the sex desired.
It may be said that
the Osmia has knowledge of the sex of the egg that
it lays and that
it can produce this sex at will.
This is one of the most beautiful dis-
coveries of Fabre and is due entirely to the application of the experi-
mental
method.
Without
doubt
the
reason
for
the
phenomenon
remains unknown, and one is lost in hypotheses to establish
it; but
it
is demanded that important works penetrate the domain of the
unknown until mystery totally disappears.
To scrutinize and to follow in their enchantment the mysterious
habits of insects, it does not suffice to be an ingenious experimenter;
there must be a keen observation, a patience that can not be discour-
aged and an extraordinary intuitive power.
Fabre had these quali-
ties up to the point of genius and gave brilliant proof of it in his
stiidies on the blister beetles of the genera Sitaris and Meloe.
All
tlkkt was known about the development of these insects, the so-called
lic« of the solitary bees, for which the genus Triungulinus had been
LIFE AND WOEK OF FABEE—BOUVIER,
691
established, was that it is the young larva of a blister beetle, but its
origin and destination were unknown.
Fabre threw full light on this
problem to the great surprise of biologists.
The Sitaris are developed
as parasites in the cells of Anthophora.
They come forth in summer,
are paired and lay a great number of eggs which a month later yield
very active larvae, to which has been given the name of triiingulins.
These larvae pass the winter without food.
In the spring they are
attached to the hairs of the male Anthophora, then to the females,
when the pairing is accomplished, and with these last enter into the
cell of their host.
Once established in this home,
it devours the egg
deposited by the bee on the cake of honey and pollen, moults, and
comes forth in the form of a scarcely moveable fat worm with very
short
feet.
Instead
of being carnivei-ous
like
the triungulin,
this
second form of larva
is nourished by the honey cake, prepared by
the
bee,
devours
the
cake
entirely, moults,
takes the form
of an
almost footless pseudo-chrysalis, and passes the winter buried in its
exuvia.
In the spring, moulting again, and in a new form of larva
the
insect remains motionless, covered with two
exuviae instead of
one.
At the opening of summer this third form of larva transforms
into an entirely characteristic chrysalis and this one yields the adult
which throws off the two exuvial envelopes in order to leave the nest
of the Anthophora.
These extraordinary phenomena were consid-
ered by Fabre as a hypermetamorphosis, that
is, a complication of
normal development.
It was not at all possible to characterize them
otherwise at the time they were brought to light.
Since then it has
been possible to follow them among numerous blister beetles and to
establish their identity.
The triungulin is evidently adapted to the
hunt for the host.
As for the pseudo-chrysalis
it
is considered by
Edmond Perrier as a larva which is encysted at the time of high or
low temperature
to
await
a more propitious
season.
The
Meloe,
studied
likewise by
Fabre,
is
less abnormal than
the
Sitaris.
After
all, larval polymorphism
is only one of numerous chapters
that Fabre has added to entomological history, and in doing this he
has helped
to
establish
the extreme
pliability
of
insects on
their
coming from the egg, which serves to explain tlie singular predomi-
nance of these beings in the animal kingdom.
The Leu€os^pu gigas is
a chalcidoid Hymenoptera whose larvae devour those of the nesting
bees of the genus Chalicodoma.
Several females of Leucospis are
likely to oviposit in the same cell of mortar which protects the future
victim and this can suffice only for the nourishment of a single para-
site.
If all the iTCUcospis hatched, there would be famine.
But poly-
morphism averts this danger.
The
first form of larva that issues
from the egg, is very alert and provided with long hairs that measure
the
cell
in every
sense.
The
first hatched hastily destroys
all the
692
AKNUAL BEPORT SMIl'HSOKIAN IKSTITUllON,
1916.
other eggs, and as soon as this is accomplished there emerges a vermi-
form larva which
“sits
at the table” and sucks
in
its victim by
mouthfuls.
In
another
parasite
of
the
Chalicodoma, Monodon-
tomerus, this polymorphism
is useless, for the larvse are very small
and a great number can bo tabled around the nymph that serves for
their nourishment.
On the other hand, polymorphism
is necessary
among the Diptera of the genus Anthrax, which is likewise parasitic
of the nesting bees.
But here the primary larvae are not extermina-
tors: hatched outside of the
cell where the Anthrax eggs are laid,
their role is to soften the walls of mortar, so as to slip through the
fissures, which
readily
yield
to
their tenuous bodies and
the long
terminal hairs.
The researclies of Fabre on the Coleoptera of cow-dung show us
habits still moi'e diverse and perhaps more interesting.
Each species
has
its special habitat and Fabre studied them in great numbers:
the
sacred
beetle
(xVteuchus),
Ontliophagus,
Copris,
Onitis,
etc.
Observation
is here particularly
difficult for these insects lay their
t5ggs underground and
it
is at the bottom of obscure galleries that
their larvae are found; but the ingenious biologist knew well how to
overcome other obstacles.
In this extensive series of works there may be chosen as an ex-
ample the history
of the
sacred
beetle, AteucKm
mce't\
of which
Fabre wrote the first chapter in the middle of the last century and
the
final chapter 50 years
later.
Since
ancient
times
it has been
known that this singular insect made little balls of dung and rolled
them into a burrow where
it buried
itself with them; and
it was
acknowledged that this ball served to nourish the adult as well as its
offspring.
But that
is nothing; though the
pill
is suitable for the
parents,
it is too coarse for the delicate intestine of the larvae.
For
these last there must be a special dung, fine and well sorted, which
the mother kneads into a fine pear-.shaped core that will serve for a
home and a covering for the future larva.
Its wall is hard and the
center
soft, and the egg, resembling a great pearl of amber, is at-
tached to the tip of the pear, lodged in a porous cell where the air
can easily enter.
Here the young larva is hatched.
It gets its nour-
ishment from the unctuous matter, and in the hard shell it will trans-
form into the chrysalis, then into the adult.
The wonderful chapters
given to this history must be read to understand the difficulties that
the biologist had to overcome and the rooted errors that he made
to disappear.
Among these last errors I will single out that which
described
these
insects
as helpful beings always ready
to
offer
a
strong hand to an embarrassed confrere.
When a sacred beetle with
great effort rolls its round pill, another one very often comes to its
rescue ; this was done, however, not in the least to render aid, but
LIFE AND WORK OF FABRE—BOITVIER.
593
rather to profit by an absence that might permit the stealing of the
precious burden.
It would take many pages to review the results of a work lasting
without respite for three-quarters of a century.
I have dwelt upon
certain problems solved by Fabre to bring into
relief the range of
his researches.
To indicate the extent and the unusual character of
this work I limit myself to certain of its many chapters, such as the
chapter on the Lampyrids or glowworms, where we are shown the
labor of these insects whose larva) are nourished on live snails; the
study of the Necrophorus that carry on the unheard-of task of bury-
ing dead bodies in which they find their subsistence; and the chapters
devoted to diverse occupations of the weevils, the prickers of fruits,
the cutters of young sprouts, the cigarmakers or
rollers of
leaves.
Fabre revealed to us the
ciaiel
affections of the Mantids and the
fascination that these voracious carnivores practice on their victims;
the egg laying of the crickets and the peculiar maneuvers employed
by their young
to make their exit from the hole of the egg; the
covering made by the Phryganids and the Psych ids; the long evolu-
tion of the cicada in the ground; and the mechanical wanderings of
the marching caterpillars.
Better than McCook, he has followed the
marvelous work of the orb-weaving spiders and likewise, with Mog-
gridge, the tricks of Mygale and the burrowing Lycosids.
He has
given us an unparalleled description of the habits of the scorpions.
What errors has he made
to disappear!
The resemblance of the
Volucella to the wasps or the bumblebees
is now known not to be
attributed to a defensive mimicry, for these Diptera do not feed on
parasites in the nests of their hosts, but are their destroyers.
The
simulation of death
is a myth among the spiders as well as among
the
insects.
Although
these
creatures
seem
to
be
lifeless when
touched they do not adopt a defensive maneuver but pj’esent all the
characteristics of a cataleptic condition
: this is a new chapter added
to the history of hypnosis.
Fabre always showed a predilection for the Hymenoptcra which
hunt and paralyze insects intended
for food for their young;
it
is
through these that he leads into the field where he became famous,
and
it is to them that he frequently refers in the following studies.
He has reviewed nearly all of them and each one revived the ecsta-
cies he had experienced in studying the Cerceris; the Philanthus,
hunters of bees
; the Ammophila that store up caterpillars
; the mud-
daubers and the Pompilids that attack spiders; the hunters of plant
lice, of grasshoppers, of Mantids, of crickets, of
flies, of beetles; all
have successively been his favorites,
all have brought him
like
as-
tonishment.
This is perhaps the most captivating part of his work ; it
is certainly the most extensive and the most original.
Before his work
696
AN^NtJAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITtmON,
1916.
A step further and we come to pure Lamarckism, to the inheri-
tance of habits acquired by experience.
Like many other predators,
the yellow-winged Sphex hollows out its burrow before stalling on
the chase, then returning with the prey, places it on the edge of the
hole to make a last visit to his domicile.
If the prey be moved a
little distance, the wasp on coming out of the hole, hunts it up, brings
it back to the edge of the hole and again begins a
visit.
This
is
the mechanism of instinct.
One after another, as many as forty
times, I have repeated the same experiment on the same individual,”
reports Fabre, ‘^and
its persistence was greater than my own,
its
tactics never varied.”
But in a group studied the following year the
Sphex were less stupid; after two or three experiments they
frus-
trated the deceit and entered their home with the game.
What
would you say to this?” he demanded.
‘‘The tribe that I examine
to-day, the issue of another stock, for the offspring return to the home
selected by the previous generation,
is more
skillful than the tribe
of
last
year.
The knowledge of
craftiness
is
transmitted
;
some
tribes are more skillful and some more stupid, apparently following
the faculties of their fathers.”
Here we are well on the threshold
of Lamarckism,
for
these
better
gifted
individuals
have
learned
from experience
to be on
their guard
against an
accident which
would not be rare under natural conditions.
It seems now to be well established that the psyt'hic evolution has
been and is still effected in two ways: By short jumps or mutations,
and slowty, by experience;
heredity,
in both
cases,
lixing the new
habits which then take the automatic form of instincts.
In spite of
his ideas on unchangeable instinct Fabre has contributed more than
any other man to making known the mechanism of the phenomena
of evolution.
Through the charm that he knew how to give to his
observations he has raised up in all countries a host of eager investi-
gators who admire him without adopting his belief.
Through his
exhaustive criticisms sustained by minutely controlled facts he kept
evolutionists busy and has prevented them from resting on the laurels
of the great masters who established the theory; finally by his works
themselves he was one of the artisans who contributed the most to
prove
this
last.
More profound than Keaiimur and with a charm whidi Reaumur
lacked Fabre has exerted and will long exert an influence equally
great.
He was a professor in the highest meaning of the term, and,
moreover, a teacher of an entirely special kind, who dwelt alone and
raised up followers by the magic of his style, the powerful interest
of his works.
In that as in
all things is seen a perfect originality
and of the highest standard.
His sympathetic biographer, Dr. Legros
has
justly
written
of him, “Ho owed
little to otWs, savants or
LIFE AND WORK OP FABRE—BOUVIEE.
597
authors, and the formula of his style as well as the secret of his art
are uniquely his own since he acquired them.”
Fabre has proved more than anyone
else the
difficulties of
life,
but he knew how to dominate them by his own talent and by his
courage in conserving intact tlie independence wliicli kept him open
minded and which he always considere<l as
liis mcst valuable
asset.
ModCvSt and sim[)le in his tastes, eager
in
his
resea relies, deeply in
love with the quiet country, he would
taste the most i)r()found joys
in the open
field
where he dwelt alone among his favorite insects
and the perfumed plants which there shot
fortli without fetters as
in
full
nature.
In
this
terrestrial
pai'adise
of
the
biologist now
given to science by his devoted friends his step has traced unusual
and numei‘ous
])atlis where henceforth
continuers of his work
will
come for inspiration.
It was there that the homage of the institute,
which made him one of
its correspondents, and
later, the plaudits
of a renown of which he Jiever dreanual, came to
fijid, I was about
to say, to disturb him.
It
is ther*e that he forever rests, leaving to
new generations the example of a
life made
fertile, by constant
toil,
by noble indejicndence, and by the brilliancy of a talent that borders
upon genius.
73839°—SM 191G
39
INDEX.
A.
Pagp.
Abbot, C. G
xii, 21, 22, 101, 102, 103, 113, 114, 1.30
(News from the stars)
157
Abbott, Dr. W. L
10, 27, 37, 39, 132
Adams, W. I
xi
Administration and activities of the Smithsonian Institution ((dark)
137
Advisory committee on printing and publication, Smithsonian
118
A<u-odynainical Laboratory, the Langley
18, 127
Aeronautics, National Advisory Committee for
127
Agriculture, Secretary of (member of the Institution)
xi
Aldrich, L. L
'
xii, 101, 102, 114, 130
Alexander, Lenno
8,132
AUotiiieuts for j^riiiting
20
American lliHt()ri('al Association, report of
20, 117
Americanists, ninot(‘enili international congress of
23
Aniory, Co])l(‘y, jr
10, 40, 132
Ancient Americans, narcotic plants and stimulants of the (Safford)
387
A udrew s, M iss 11. A
63
Angell,
.1 aiiK's ihirrill
33
Angstrom, Prof. Anders
14,113
Animal and ])ird nd’iiges
128
Archeological lights, new, on the origins of civilization in Europe (Evans).
.
.
.
425
Argentina, l>razil and, cactus investigations in
11
Arnold, Kalph (The petroleum resources of the United States)
273
Art, National Gallery of
44, 129
Art of the great earthwork builders of Ohio, the (Willoughby)
489
Asia, eastern, i)r()posed expedition to
133, 134
Assistant Secretary of the Institution
xi, xii, 48
Astrophysical Observatory
31, 130
report on
99
Attorney General (member of the Institution)
xi
Avery, Robert Stanton (bequest)
2, 119
B.
Baden-Powell, Major
22, 105
Baker, A. B
xii
Baker, Frank
xii, 21, 98
Baker, Newton Diehl, Secretary of Wiir (member of the Institution)
xi
BiU-tsch, Paul
xii, 117
(Pirates of the deep—^stories of the squid and octopus)
347
Bassler, R. S
xii, 117
Bates, Mrs. Caroline E
37
Behne, K. A
71
Bell, Alexander Graham (Regent)
xi, 2, 22, 38, 105, 123, 124
Benedict, James E
xii
699
600
INDEX.
Page.
Benjamin, Marcus
xii, 117
Berwerth, Friedrich (On the origin of meteorites)
311
Bird and animal refuges
128
Birds, some considerations on sight in (Lewis)
337
Boas, Franz
xii, 29, 63
Borneo and Celebes, expedition to
10, 132
Bouvier, F. L. (The life and work of J. H. Fabre)
587
Bnmd, 0. L
113
Brazil and Argentina, cactus investigations in
11
Brockett, Paul, assistant librtvrian of the Institution
xi, 108
Brown, S. 0
xii
Buckingham, E
113
Bureau of American Etlinology
28, 129
library
70
publications
20, 69, 117
r<'port
49
Bureau of Mines, United States, mine safety devices developed by the
(Man-
ning)
533
Burleson, Albert Sidney, Postmaster Gem^ral (^member of the Institution)
xi
Busck, August
37
Bushncll, D. I., jr
65
C.
Cactus investigations in Brazil and Argentina
11
Garty, J. J. (The relation of pure* science to industrial resean'li)
523
Caullery
, M. (The present state of the problem of evolution)
321
Celebes, expedition to Borneo and
10
Census of the sky, a (Sampson)
181
Chamberlain, Frances Lea (be(piest)
3, 125
Chamberlin, T, C. (Interior of the earth from the viewi)oint of geology)
225
Chamberlin,
T.
C.; Reid, Harry Fielding;
Hayford, John
F.;
Schlesinger,
Frank (The earth
: its figure, dimensions, and the constitution of its interior) .
.
225
Chapman, Robert II
71
Chemical investigation, ideals of (Richards)
213
Chief Justice of the United States (member of the Institution)
xi
•
China and Manclniria, explorations in
10, 133
Choate, Charles F., jr. (Regent)
xi, 2
Chow, H. K
113
Civilization in Europe, new archeological lights on the origins of (Evans)
425
Clark, A. Howard, editor of the Institution
xi, xii, 21, 118
(Administration and activities of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion)
137
Clark, Austin H
f
113
Clark, Elton
40
Clark, V. E
113
Clarke, F. W
xii
Cockerell, T. D. A
41
Codwise, Miss Louise
37
Coker, Dr. R. E
40
Coleman, Arthur P. (Dry land in geology)
255
Commerce, Secretary of (member of the Institution)
xi
Committee on printing and publication
21
Congress of Americanists, nineteenth international
23
INDEX.
601
Congresses and expositions, international.
22
Conrad, Prof. T. A
42
Contributions to knowledge, Smithsonian
19, 112
Cottrell, F. G
13, IG
Coville, F. V
xii
Crawford, J. 0
xii
Cromwell, David W
39
D.
Dali, William H
xii, 22, 107
(Theodore Ki cholas Gill )
579
Daniels, Josephus, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution)
xi
Danish West Indies, expedition to St. Thomas
•
11
Daughters of the American Ilevoliition, report of
20, 118
Denmark, C. P
xii
Densmore, Miss Frances
29, G4
Dewey, Dr. F. P
107
Diatoms, the economic importance of the (IMann)
377
Distances of the heavenly bodies, the (Eichelberger)
169
Dorsey, Harry W. , chief clerk of the institution
xi
Dougla.s,D.W
113
Downs, Miss Mildred
63
Dragoji, the great, of (^uirigua, G uatemala (Holmes)
447
Dry land in geology (Coleman)
^
255
E.
Earth, the:
its figure, dimensions, and the constitution of its interior (Cham-
berlin, Reid, Hayford, and Schlesinger)
225
Earth, the, from the gcojdiysical standpoint (Hayford)
239
Earthwork builders of Ohio, art of the great (W'illoughby)
489
Echinoderms, fossil, collecting in the Ohio Valley
9
Economic importance of the diatoms (Mann)
377
Eichelberger, W. S.
(Distances of the heavenly bodies)
169
Estafdishmcnt, the »Smithsoniaii
1
Ethnology, Bureau of Americau
28, 129
library
70
publications
20, 69, 117
report
49
Europe, new archeological lights on the origins of civilization in (Evans)
425
Evans,
Sir Arthur (Now archeological
lights on the origins of civilization in
Europe)
425
Evolution, the present state of the problem of (Caullery)
321
Executive Committee of the Board of Regents, report of. r
119
Explorations and researches
5
Expositions, international congresses and
22
F.
FaV>re, J. H.
, the life and work of (Bouvier)
587
Fairbanks, Charles W. (Regent)
xi,2, 124
Ferris, Scott (Regent)
xi, 2, 124
Fewkes,
J. Walter
xii, 22, 29, 52
(A prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and its people)
461
Finances of the institution
2, 119
602
INDEX.
Page.
Fog-clearing investigations
13, 131
Foote, Dr. J. S
112
Foreign depositories of United States governmental documents
77
Fossil echinoderms in the Ohio Valley, collecting
9
Foster, John W
23
Fowke, Gerard
71
Fowle, F.
E.,
jr
xii, 22, 101, 113, 114
Frachtenberg, Leo J
xii, 29, 61
Freer Art Gallery, the
4, 128
Freer, Charles L
28, 36, 44
G.
Geare, Randolph I
xii
Geographical progress, a half century of (Keltic)
501
Geological explorations in the Rocky Mountains
6, 133
Geological work in Pennsylvania and Virginia
9
Geology, dry land in (Coleman)
255
Geophysical standpoint, the earth from the (Hayford)
239
Gidley, J. W
7
Gilbert, Chester G
xii
Gill, De Lancey
xii, 70
Gill, Herbert A
22,105
Gill, Dr. Theodore Nicholas
22, 105, 107
Gill, Theodore Nicholas (Dali)
579
Goldman, E. A
40
Goldsmith, J. S
xii
Governmental documents, United States, foreign depositories of
77
Gray, George (Regent)
xi, 2, 123, 124
Gregory, Thomas Watt, Attorney General (member of the Institution)
xi
Guatemala and Honduras, exploration of ancient Maya cities in
13
Gunnell, Leonard C
xii, 111
Gun report noise (Maxim)
193
Gurley, Joseph G
xii, 69, 117
II.
Habel, Simeon (bequest)
2, 119
Haeberlin, Dr. Hermann K
63
Hamilton, James (bequest)
2, 119
Hammond, E. H
37
Harriman, Mrs. E. H
28, 45
Harriman Trust Fund
16, 132
Harrington, John P
xii, 60, 117
Harris, Capt. J. R
37
Harts, Col. William W. (Natural waterways in the United States)
545
Hay, Dr. 0. P
107
Hayford, John F.; Schlesinger, Frank; Chamberlain, T. C.; Reid, Harry Field-
ing (The earth: its figure, dimensions, and the constitution of its interior).
.
225
Hayford, John F. (The earth from the geophysical standpoint)
239
Heavenly bodies, distances of the (Eichelberger)
169
Henderson, John B., jr. (Regent)
xi, 2, 40, 124
Hersey, F. Seymour
114
Hewitt, J.N.B
xii, 56
Heye, George G
37, 49
Hildebrand, S. F
40
INDEX.
603
Page.
Hill, J. H., property clerk of the institution
xi
Hodge, F. W
xu,21,22,49,72
Hodgkins, Thomas G (bequest)
2,119, 125
Hollis, Henry French (Regent)
xi, 2,124
Hollister, N
113, 114
Holmes, William 11
xii, 13, 22, 23, 29, G4
(Tile great dmgon of Quirigua, Guatemala)
447
Honduras, Guatmnala and, (exploration of ancient Maya cities in
13
Hough, Waber
xii, 24, 05, 107
Houston,
David
h'ranklin.
Secretary
of Agriculture (member of the
Institu-
tion)
xi
Howard,
Tj. O
xii
Hrdlicka, Ales
xii, 23, 117, 133
Huff, T. H
113
Huneakor, J. G
19,113
I.
Iddings, Dr. Joseph R
41
Ideals of chemical investigations (Richards)
213
Industrial research, the relation of pure science to (Oarty)
523
Interior
of the
earth, bearing of
variations of latitude on our knowledge
of
(Schlesinger)
248
Intcu’ior
of
tlie earth,
constitution
of,
as iiidicatod by seismological
investi-
gations (Reid)
234
Interior of
t he earth from the viewpoint of gcHilogy (Ghamberiin)
225
I nt(a ior, S(?cretary of t!io (mernher of
1 he
1 nstitution)
xi
T Mterualional ('atalogiie of Seicntitic LitiU'atiiro
32, 109
Interiuitioniil (Vmgress
of Americanists, Nineteenth
23
Iiitornatioiial congresses and expositions
22
1 nternational exchanges
30
report on
73
Tnt(‘rparliamentary exchange of oilicial journals
79
Iron, the outlook for (Kemp)
289
J.
J olinston , ]\Iaj
. W. T
37
Judd, NeilM
37,66,71
K.
Keltic, J. Scott (A half century of geographical progress)
501
Kemp, James Furman (The outlook for iron)
289
Kloss, C. B
39
KnoAvles, W. A
xii
Keren expedition to Siberia
8
Kroeber, Dr. A. L
68
L.
Labor, Secretary of (member of the Institution)
xi
LaFlesche, hTancis
xii, 59, 71
Lane, Franklin Knight, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution)
.
.
xi
Langley A(3rodynamical Laboratory, the
18, 127
Lansing, Robert, Secretary of State (member of the Institution)
xi
Latitude, variations of: Their bearing on our knowledge of the interior of the
earth (Schlesinger)
-
-
-
248
694
INDEX.
Pago.
Lavsrton, Maj. Gen. Henry W
39
Leary, Ella
xii, 70
Lewie, J. C. (Some considerations on sight in birds)
337
Lewton, Frederick L
xii
Library, Smithsonian
21,104
Life, molecular structure and (Pictet)
199
Lloyd, James T, (Regent)
xi, 2
Lodge, Henry Cabot (Regent)
xi, 2, 124
M.
McAdoo, William Gibbs, Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institution).
xi
McDermott, Dr. F. Alexander
107
Mclndoo, N. E
113
Manchuria, explorations in China and
10, 133
Mann, Albert (The economic importance of the diatoms)
377
Manning, Van H. (Mine safety devices developed by the United States Bureau
of Mines)
533
Marshall, Thomas R., Vice President of the United States (member of the In-
stitution)
xi, 2
Mastodon from Indiana
7
Maxim, Hiram Percy (Gun report noise)
193
Maxoii, W. R
xii, 107
Maya cities, ancient, exploration of, in Guatemala and Honduras
13
Maynard, George C
xii
Meams, Dr. Edgar A
107, 113
Meek, Prof. S. E
40
Meetings and congresses in the National Museum
45
Merriam, Dr. C. Hart
16, 132
Merrill, 0. P
xii, 21, 117
Mesa Verde Pueblo, a prehistoric, and its people (Fewkes)
461
Mesler, R. D
8
Meteorites, on the origin of (Berwerth)
311
Michelson, Triiman
xii, 61
Miller, Gerrit S., jr
xii, 113
Mine safety devices developed by the United States Bureau of Mines (Man-
ning)
533
Miscellaneous collections, Smithsonian
19, 112
Molecular structure and life (Hctet)
199
Mooney, James.
xii, 54
Moore, Clarence B
23, 37
Morley, Bylvanus G
117
Murie, James R
68
N.
Narcotic plants and stimulants of the ancient Americans (Safford)
387
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
127
National Gallery of Art
44, 129
National Museum, the
26
collections
36
library
106
meetings and congresses in
45
publications
; . .
20, 116
report
36-48
special exhibitions in
46
mimx.
605
Page.
National Research Council
1 g
National Zoological Park
30
accessions
g3
alteration of western boundary
91,129
animals in the collection
86
needs
92
report on
83
Natural waterways in the United States (Harts)
545
Navy, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)
xi
Necrology
33
N ews from
t he stars
(Ab hot )
1 57
Nichols, Mrs. Urances S
99
N octiirnal rad i at ion , stud y of
14
Norman, Arthur L
7I
Norment, Clarence F
23
0 .
Octopus, st ories of the squid and (Bartach)
347
Official journals, interparliamentary exchange of
79
Ogilvie, John
37
Ohio, art- of tlio great earthwork builders of (Willoughby)
489
Origin of met(‘orites, the (Berwerth)
311
Origins of civilization in Europe^, new archeological lights on the (Evans)
425
Outlook for iron, the (Kemp)
289
P.
Paleozoic rocks, studies in the
7
Panaina-Caliloniia Exposition at Ran Diego
26
Panama' Pacific International Exposition
24
Pan American Scientific Congr(>ss, second
22
Parson, A. L
113
Pate, Mr. AV, F
9
Poale,
Dr. A. C
107
Peter, Walter G
38
P(4;roleum resources of the United States (Arnold)
273
Pi('keriiig,
Prof. E.
31
Pictet, Ame (Molecular structure and life).
199
Pirates of tlie deep—stories of the scpiid and octopus (Bartsch)
347
Platt, Charles A
44
Poore, Lucy T. and George W. (bequest)
3, 119, 126
Postmaster General (member of the Institution)
xi
Prehistoric Mesa Yerdc Pueblo and its people, a (Fewkes)
461
President of the United States (member of the Institution)
xi
Printing and publication, committee on
21, 118
Publications
19, 112
Pueblo, a prehistoric Mesa Verde, and its people (Fewkes)
461
Pure science, the relation of, to industrial research (Carty)
623
Q.
Quirigua, Guatemala, the great dragon of (Holmes)
447
606
INDEX.
Page.
Radiation, nocturnal, study of
14
Radin,
I)r. Paul
64
Rathbun, Richard, assistant secretary of the Institution
xi, xii, 48
Raven, H. C
10,37,89,182
Raveiud, W. de C
xii, 24
Rcdfield, William Cox, Secretary of Commence (member of the liislitulion).
.
.
xi
Regents of the Institution
xi, 1
Reid, Addison T. (bequest)
2,3,119, 125
Reid,
Harry
Fielding; Uayford, John
F.
; Schlesiligcr,
Frank; Chamberlin,
T.
(4. (The earth:
Its figure, dimensions, and the constitution of its interior).
225
Reid, Llarry Fielding (Constitution of tlie interior of the earth as indi('ated by
seismological investigations
)
2-U
Report, Smithsonian
20,
]
1
Research Corporation
1(1, 181
Research CouikuI, National
16
Researches, explorations and
5
Rhees, William Jones (bequest)
2, 8,
1 19, 125
Richards, Theodore William (Ideals of chemical investigation)
213
Ridgway, Robert
xii,
1 17
Roberts, Ernest W. (Regent)
xi, 2, 128, 124
Rocky Mountains, geological explorations in the
5, 188
Rose, Dr, J. N
11,27, 41
Rossoll, 11. E
118
Roth, Walter E
117
Russel, Maj. Edgar
87
Russell, Paul G
11
S.
Safety devices, mine, developed by the UniU'd States Bureau of Mines (Man-
ning)
583
Sahord, W. E. (Narcotic plants and stimulants of the aiK'i^mt Americans)
387
St. Thomas, Danish West Indies, expedition to
JI
Sampson, R. A. (A census of the sky)
181
Sanford, George H. (bequest)
3, 120, 125
Sargent, Homer E
29, G3
Schaller, Dr. W. T
41
Schlesinger, Frank; Chamberlin, T. 0.; Reid, Harry Fielding; Uayford, John
F. (The earth:
Its figure, dimensions, and the constitution of its interior).
.
.
225
Schlesinger, Frank (Variations of latitude: Their bearing on our knowledge of
the interior of the earth )
248
Schuller, Rudolf
114
Scientific Congress, second Pan American
22
Sc udder, N. P
xii
Secretary of the Institution
xi, xii,
1, 5, 23, 41, 107, 110, 113, 124, 126, 129, 133
Seismological investigations, constitution of the interior of the earth as indi-
cated by (Reid)
234
Shepard, Dr. Charles Upham
41
Sherman, Hon. P. Tecumseh
27, 39
Shoemaker, C. R
11
Shoemaker, C. W
xii, 82
Siberia, explorations in
8, 132
explorations in eastern
10
INDEX.
607
Page.
Sight in birds, some considerations on (Lewis)
837
Sky, a census of the (Sampson)
181
Smillie, T. W
xii
Smithson, James (bequest)
2, 119
Smithsonian Institution, administration and activities of the (Clark)
137
Sowerby, Arthur de
(
'
10, 40, 133
Special publications
20, 116
Springer, Mr. Frank
9
Squid and octopus, stories of the (llartsch)
347
Stars, news from the (A])l)ot)
157
State, Secretary of (member of the Institution)
xi
Stejneger, Leonhard
xii, 21
Stevenson, Mrs. M.
('
J17
Stimulants, narcotic })lants and, of the ancieut Aim'ricans (Saih)rd)
387
Stone, William J. (Regent)
xi, 2, 124
Swanton, John R
xii, 56
T.
Teit, James
63
Treasury, Secretary of (member of the Institution)
xi
Trenchard, Edward
39
U.
Ulrich, E. 0
7
V.
\'i<’e rresideiit of the United States (member of the Institution)
xi
W.
Walcott, diaries
I)., secretary of the Institution
xi, xii,
1, 5, 23, 41, 107, 110, 113, 124, 126, 129, 133
War, Secretary of (member of the Institution)
xi
Warner, Langdon
134
Waterwa3^s, natural, in the United States (Harts)
545
Wherry, Dr. Edgar T
,
9
White, Andrew 1). (Regent)
xi, 2, 124
David
xii
Edward Douglass, Chief Justice of the United States (member of the
Institution)
xi, 2, 124
Willoughby, Charles (h
(The art of the great earthwork builders of Ohio)
489
Wilson, E. B
113
Mr. Herrick E
9
William Bauchop, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institution)
xi
Woodrow, President of the United States (member of the Institution).
xi
Wissler, Dr. Clark
68
Worch, Hugo
38
Z.
Zoological Park, National
30
accessions
83
alteration of western boundary
91, 129
animals in the collection
86
needs
92
report on
83
o