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Resource Description Report
Prepared for:
Virgin Islands Department of Planning
and Natural Resources
Division of Coastal Zone Management
Commissioned by:
University of the Virgin Islands
Prepared by:
Island Resources Foundation
14 August, 2002
Resource Description Report
For bibliography purposes this document may be cited as:
Island Resources Foundation, 2002. Resource Description Report.
University of the Virgin Islands and Department of Planning and Natural Resources. USVI, 14 August, 2002.
Note:
This document was commissioned by the University of the Virgin Islands from the Island Resources Foundation under the Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management’s VI Marine Park Project (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Award No. NA07O20513.)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Acronyms
Executive Summary
Chapter 1:
Introduction
Project Background
Report Introduction
Chapter 2:
History of Marine Protection Efforts in the USVI
Historical Background
Summary: Chronology of USVI Protected Area Initiatives
Summary of Existing Marine Protected Areas in the US Virgin Islands
Summary: Marine Management Policy Implications of Historical Initiatives
Chapter 3:
Description of Marine Resources in the Territorial Sea
3.0.
The Virgin Islands Marine Environment
3.1.
Overview of Potential Sites to be Included in Marine Protected Areas
3.2.
Information Gaps
Chapter 4:
Criteria for Selection of Marine Protected Areas
Methodology for Choosing Selection Criteria
Defining Selection Criteria
Assessment of Criteria for Ecological Significance
Additional Input Needed to Define Selection Criteria
Chapter 5:  Priorities for Protection
Summary of Priorities for Protection
Relevant Policy Issues
References
Appendices
Appendix A:
Summary of 150 VI Marine Sites and Data Availability
Appendix B:
Detailed Characterizations for Forty Priority Marine Sites
Appendix C:
Chronology of Previous MPA Efforts
Appendix D:
Threatened and Endangered Species of the US Virgin Islands
Appendix E:
Maps and Recommended Mapping Resources
Appendix F:
Copy of Terms of Reference
Appendix G:
List of Contacts for this Report
Appendix H:
Copies of Key Documents
Tables
Table  1:
Potential Areas For Virgin Islands  MPAs
Table 2:
Assessment of Criteria for Ecological Significance
Table 3:
Priorities for Protection—Selected Areas
Appendix A: Summary of 150 Coastal Sites
Appendix C, Table  1:
Proposed Territorial Marine Reserves, 1975
Figures
Figure 1:
Southeast St. Thomas Marine Reserves and Wildlife Sanctuaries
Figure 2:
Red Hind Closure Area, St. Croix
Figure 3:
Mutton Snapper Closure Area, St. Croix
Figure 4:
Red Hind Bank Marine Conservation Area, St. Thomas.
Figure 5:
Boundaries of St. John Coral Reef National Monument.
Figure 6:
Proposed Boundaries VI Coral Reef National Park.
Figure 7:
Map of Virgin Islands
Figure 8:
Marine Portion of Virgin Islands National Park on St. John
Figure 9:
St. Croix: High Priorities for Marine Protection
Figure 10:
St. Thomas/St. John: High Priorities for Marine Protection
List of Acronyms
Area of Particular Concern
CBRS
Coastal Barriers Resource System
CFMC
Caribbean Fisheries Management Council
DCCA
VI Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs
US Department of Commerce
US Department of Interior
DPNR
VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources
ICRI
International Coral Reef Initiative
Island Resources Foundation
Marine Protected Area
NCRTF
National Coral Reef Task Force
Nautical Mile
NMFS
National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, DoC
NOAA
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration DoC
National Park Service, DoI
Significant Natural Area
USVI
United States Virgin Islands
Virgin Islands
VINP
Virgin Islands National Park
VITPS
Virgin Island Territorial Park System
Executive Summary
The Government of the US Virgin Islands has undertaken an initiative to establish the objectives, policies and procedures for management of marine resources within its territorial waters, through the development of marine protected areas (MPAs). This Resource Description report by Island Resources Foundation provides some of the background information necessary to design a successful system of marine protected areas in the U.S. Virgin Islands. The goals of this report are:
To describe the current status of the Territorial Sea of the U.S. Virgin Islands;
To summarize previous efforts to identify and create marine protected areas within the coastal and near coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands; and,
To assess generally accepted criteria for marine protected areas in the U.S. Virgin Islands; and,
As possible, to suggest priorities for MPAs in the Territorial Sea of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Historically, there have been several previous efforts to protect the marine environment in the U.S. Virgin Islands. None have been fully implemented, although some of the existing “protected areas,” such as the marine areas of Areas of Particular Concern (APCs) in the Territorial Sea, are artifacts of the ten previous Virgin Islands-wide efforts discussed in Chapter 2 and Appendix C of this report. Studies have demonstrated that even ecosystems within the currently managed marine areas in the US Virgin Islands such as the Virgin Islands National Park (VINP) are deteriorating [Rogers, 2000]. A wide variety of human and natural impacts have greatly affected the USVI marine resources, including point and non-point source pollution, over-fishing, hurricanes, and coral diseases. Certain marine species that were once abundant in the USVI are no longer in existence, or have become rare, such as the Nassau Grouper, Mutton Snapper, Red Hind, and Queen Conch.
Efforts to collect current information on the status of marine resources in the U.S. Virgin Islands included:
Review of historical and recent studies published and/or collected by IRF;
Contacts with local scientists, government agencies, and other organizations involved in the collection of data related to USVI marine resources; and,
Contacts with local fisherman and recreational users of USVI marine resources.
Special emphasis was placed on 41 areas identified as priorities by one or more of the previous coastal or marine protected area surveys discussed in Chapter 2, including bays and reefs and the coastal waters of the three main islands, as well as waters surrounding offshore cays and reefs.
For these areas, based on the information currently available, and the criteria developed in Chapter 4, the ecological significance of each of these areas was assessed. The evaluation of ecological significance focused on the existence of certain key species or habitats, including sea turtles, groupers and lobster and mangrove stands, seagrass beds and coral reefs. For these areas, based on the information currently available, and the criteria developed in Chapter 4, the ecological significance of each of these areas was assessed. This assessment is limited, however, as other factors such as size and connectivity of areas should be considered before designing a system of marine protected areas.
The criteria developed to evaluate a marine area’s ecological significance in the context of this report include the following:
Important species and species diversity in the area. Important species includes locally endangered and threatened species, as well as keystone species for certain ecosystems (such as elkhorn coral);
Important habitat and ecosystems, including consideration of:
Biological services provided, including feeding, spawning, and nursery areas, as well as areas home to rare and endangered species
Physical services provided, such as shoreline buffering by reefs (hard coasts) and mangroves and beaches (soft coasts);
Adjacency to and connectivity with other high priority natural resource protected areas and ecosystems; and,
The health of the habitat(s) and the water quality within an area.
Based on this analysis, several areas are suggested as high priorities for incorporation into a system of marine protected areas, including:
East End Area, (Great Pond Bay, Jack Bay, Isaac Bay, East Point, Point Udall, Coakley Bay) St. Croix
Salt River Area, St. Croix
Botany Bay Area, St. Thomas (Botany Bay, Sandy Bay, Little St. Thomas)
Jersey Bay Area & Surrounding Cays St. Thomas (Mangrove Lagoon, Benner Bay, Cow & Calf Rocks, Great & Little St. James, Dog Islands)
East End of St. John, including:
Hurricane Hole & Round Bay, St. John
Johns Folly Area (Johns Folly Bay & Le Duck Island), St. John
Northeast Coast of St. John, including Newfound and Haulover Bays
It must be noted, however, that designation of high ecological significance is by itself insufficient criteria for designating areas as marine protected areas. Additional factors, which are influenced by management and implementation considerations beyond the scope of this report, must be taken into account. Some of these important management considerations include:
A statement of the  strategic intent for the overall marine protection system in the USVI Territorial Sea, with special reference to key species or habitats to be sustainably managed, totally protected, or restored from currently unsustainable (or detectable) levels;
The total size of the areas which would be under protection, in relation to areas required for sustainable development or restoration of the resource;
The network of connections among protected areas and the communication needs of key species and ecosystems;
Science gaps reflecting on some of these management considerations (gaps reflecting on knowledge of resource conditions are discussed in Chapter 3);
Operational issues such as budgets, boundary delineations, sustainability options, seasonal factors, etc., etc.
Chapter 1:
Introduction
Project Background
This report is presented as part of the VI Marine Park Project. The project is an initiative of the Government of the U.S. Virgin Islands, implemented under the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs. The VI Marine Park Project is being coordinated by the University of the Virgin Islands on behalf of the Division of Coastal Zone Management, Department of Planning and Natural Resources.
The U.S. National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs was developed to guide the sustainable use of coral reef ecosystems within the jurisdiction of the United States, including its Territories and Commonwealths. Sustainable use simply means that coral reef ecosystems should be used and managed in a manner to ensure the security of the economic, cultural, social, and environmental values and benefits of such ecosystems in perpetuity.
The overall goal of the VI Marine Park Project is to establish the objectives, policies, and procedures for management of marine resources within the territorial sea of the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) over which the Government of the United States Virgin Islands has jurisdiction, through the development of marine protected areas. The VI Marine Park Project involves four main components:
this “Resource Description Report,” prepared by Island Resources Foundation;
“Socio-economic Assessment,” prepared by Hinds, Unlimited;
“Management Framework for a System of Marine Protected Areas,” prepared by Lloyd Gardner of Environmental Support Services, LLC;
“Management Plan: East End of St. Croix Marine Park,” prepared by The Nature Conservancy (TNC)
Report Introduction
Island Resources Foundation has been engaged to prepare a report describing the current state of the marine environment and resources of the USVI. This Resource Description report provides some of the necessary background information for efforts to create marine protected areas within the Virgin Islands. The report contains a summary of past and existing initiatives to protect marine resources in the USVI as well as an overview of the marine environment in the USVI. The primary purpose of this report is to provide a summary of the most up to date information available regarding the current status of the marine environment, with special emphasis on important ecosystems and species.
Few other areas in the Caribbean have the benefit of so much information on marine resources. Thanks to the National Park Service (NPS), US Geological Service, especially the Biological Resources Division with offices on St. John (USGS/BRD) that have been conducting research for the past 25 years, the Division of Fish and Wildlife of the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR/DFW), and more recently, the University of the Virgin Islands and the US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), we have some of the longest and most comprehensive data sets on marine resources in the Caribbean. In addition to summarizing available information for the USVI marine resources, special focus is placed on specific areas considered to have the most potential as marine protected areas. Criteria for ecological significance are defined and applied to these selected areas to provide a ranking of areas that could be considered potential marine protected areas based on natural resource conditions.
For the purposes of this resource description report, priority marine areas are chosen primarily based on ecological significance, with little consideration given to factors such as economic, recreational and restoration values. In addition, for purposes of this resource description report, feasibility of implementing a marine protected area at any given area was not considered [see Terms of Reference, Appendix F). The report makes no a priori assumptions about the nature of the management systems that might be applied to an MPA, other than to assume that all management options are available, including extensive “no take” zones. All of these considerations will ultimately be essential in planning for a successful system of marine protected areas and will need to be considered in the next steps of creating such a system.
One additional caveat needs to be identified for this report: It is a report on the marine conditions of the Territorial Sea, and it does not address some important species and habitat issues of the terrestrial conditions of some cays and coasts that have often been considered in other marine characterizations. It should be noted especially that many of the offshore cays of the Virgin Islands provide critical habitat for threatened or endangered sea birds and some migratory species. Other cays and coastal features provide special landscape values that deserve conservation—these are also not considered in this report.
Chapter 2:
History of Marine Protection Efforts in the USVI
Historical Background
For the USVI, the second half of the twentieth century was witness to a steady growth of mostly failed but increasingly more focused, occasionally collaborative and certainly professional landscape, seascape and ecosystem conservation planning and management efforts. These sprang up principally in response to the socio-economic development process that affects all small islands and their natural resource systems.
As in other areas of the insular Caribbean over the same period, protected area initiatives in the USVI were triggered more by escalating, public-spirited conservation philanthropy than from any visible change in local public policy or commitment of public funds for protecting the “commons”—whether wet or dry, natural or physical, terrestrial or marine.
Local conservation leadership has been a lonely and generally unrewarding task during much of the five decades since 1950. Virtually every high-priority area currently identified for immediate action carried a similar ranking in similar environmental surveys for the past thirty to forty years.
While the studies have continued,
buffer zones have shriveled,
pristine sites and critical habitat for threatened species have been lost,
biodiversity has been reduced,
invasive species have prospered, and
land acquisition costs have risen geometrically.
Certainly the task of protecting the unique natural resources of the Virgin Islands is much harder now than when initially proposed.
In retrospect, there have been a number of encouraging starts, often launched or sponsored by Federal officials—especially from the Department of the Interior—who sought to jump-start a Virgin Islands Territorial Park System. In almost every case, local leadership and local institutions have not been engaged in the process and have not followed through. Plan after plan has fallen victim to legislative disinterest and a lack of vision about the multiple advantages of environmental conservation. Since World War Two, the USVI has been living out its own special development success story that has often obscured its parallel “tragedy of the commons.”.
Nevertheless, acknowledging that even failed attempts can be instructive, what can we learn from this half-century of experience? The following chronology and narrative are designed to help answer that question.
Summary: Chronology of USVI Protected Area Initiatives
[The details of this chronology are found in Appendix C. This summary concentrates on the ten previous surveys in the Virgin Islands, which have addressed Virgin-Islands-wide marine protection issues. ]
1960:
[Survey #1]. In late 1959, at the suggestion of Laurance S. Rockefeller, the Department of the Interior joined forces with Virgin Islands Governor John D. Merwin and the St. Thomas and St. Croix Chambers of Commerce to sponsor a survey of recreational needs, sites and services in the USVI. Such sites were seen as possible St. Thomas and St. Croix supplements to the new National Park on St. John, then being assembled through a land acquisition program.
The needs survey was carried out by a licensed landscape architect, Kenneth B. Simmons, on contract to the National Park Service, following the protocol of the Congressionally authorized “Recreational Area Study Act” of 1936 [49 Stat. 1894]. This study was done specifically to encourage the Territorial Government to develop a territorial park system (similar to state park systems in the continental United States). In retrospect, this 1960 Department of the Interior inventory was remarkable in its foresight, scope and ranking priorities. For example, four of the St. Croix sites that were highlighted some forty years ago—East End, Great Pond, Cramer Park and Salt River—have been consistently featured on virtually all subsequent survey efforts and have precedence to this day.
1968:
[Survey #2] Under sponsorship of the U.S. Department of the Interior, the Department of Landscape Architecture at the University of Massachusetts carried out a study of selected resources in the U. S. Virgin Islands and their relationship to recreation, tourism and open space. A subsequent report, entitled The Islands, was prepared by Dr. Irvin Zube. It included an extraordinarily detailed set of eleven maps and excellent reviews of shoreline zones, corals, offshore cays and resource concentrations. This report was not widely circulated as it openly favored the Jersey Bay/Mangrove Lagoon site on St. Thomas as a protected area, exactly where (at the time) the Virgin Islands Government proposed to construct a new airport.
1970:
[Survey #3] In July, the Department of the Interior sent a senior marine specialist, William Beller, to the Virgin Islands to head a citizens-based study team charged with looking at the Territory’s marine resources from a development and conservation perspective. After 100 volunteer “specialists” were recruited and dozens of public meetings held over a 90-day period, this ad hoc group produced a 170-page report filled with practical recommendations on “The Virgin Islands and the Sea”.
1973
[Survey #4] A three-island conservation inventory was undertaken by the Virgin Islands (federally funded) Soil Conservation Service. A professionally assembled report was published including a new inventory of public recreation sites (actual and proposed) with maps. An agenda for maintaining coastal water quality was included. The recreational sites were picked up under the State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP), published every 5 years since.
1975
[Survey #5].The National Park Service commissioned a team from the West Indies Lab of Fairleigh Dickinson University, led by John Adams and John Ogden to highlight high priority conservation sites, including marine, offshore cays, and other landscape factors for conservation: Potential National Natural Landmarks: US Virgin Islands. Priority sites included several coastal and marine areas. [Adams, 1975]
1976
[Survey #6].Virdin Brown, was appointed Commissioner of Conservation under the new administration of Cyril E. King. Commissioner Brown, assisted by two of his assistants—Bob Mathes, who headed Planning and Development, and Tim Still, a park planner—prepared and circulated a work plan for implementing the long-awaited Territorial Park System.
1977:
[Survey #7] The first draft of the U.S. Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program was developed under sponsorship of the U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. The process of assessing Areas of Particular Concern (APCs) and Significant Natural Areas (SNAs), each of which required site studies and ranking, began at this time. The Virgin Islands Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs (DCCA) developed a list and map of SNAs, and the Planning Office prepared a selected list of APCs.
1977
[Survey #8] Under contract with the Virgin Islands Planning Office, Island Resources Foundation assembled a study team of scientists, geographers and planners with the aim of developing a planner’s handbook characterizing the component parts and functional elements of the Virgin Islands insular ecosystem (marine, terrestrial and benthic). This document, which was entitled Marine Environments of the Virgin Islands: Technical Supplement # 1 [Towle, 1977] and published in 1977, included an inventory of natural resources, an analysis of biophysical relationships, coastal zone planning guidelines and scoping information for resource management, including APC and SNA coverage and ranking.
1978–79
[Survey #9] During this period a team of lawyers from Chelsea International in Washington, DC was employed by the Office of the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Commerce under the framework of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Program. The team was charged with conducting a survey of four possible Marine Sanctuary sites in the Virgin Islands and identifying a preferred site to develop under the aegis of an emerging Virgin Islands Territorial Park System. A public hearing was held on the preferred site in 1978 while DCCA was reformulating the marine component of its stalled territorial park plan. Other sites on St. Thomas were later surveyed, and DCCA developed a Marine Sanctuary Advisory Board to help with site selection and planning.
1990
[Survey #10] Three-and-a-half months after Hurricane Hugo, the Department of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR) requested funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to undertake a field-level coastal damage assessment of the Territory. In June of 1990 the Government of the Virgin Islands entered into a professional services contract with Island Resources Foundation to manage an interdisciplinary post-Hugo Damage Assessment and Environmental Recovery Planning Strategy. An additional task was included in the project, somewhat afield from hurricane disaster recovery—namely, “to manage a Feasibility Study for Development of a Virgin Island Territorial Park System”.
The exercise was launched with a community-based open charette, led by Governor Alexander Farrelly and Onaje Jackson from DPNR. By this method, 35 reportedly damaged sites were nominated and ranked. An open voting arrangement was employed, using the Delphi strategy for ranking. The broad listing (which excluded Federal property and sites) included 11 Areas of Particular Concern sites, 26 Significant Natural Area sites, and 17 Coastal Barrier sites.
Project activity was carried out by several interdisciplinary teams who generated a flow of up-to-date damage assessments, vegetation and risk mapping, intervention options, remedial action plans, and triage-like data sorting, all leading to site profiles and a detailed 35-site data base.
A comprehensive nine-page matrix was designed and populated, including aerial, underwater and land-based photography, documentation, and water quality station index numbers. Damages were mapped with key word indexing and narrative summaries. The matrix also tracked the source and dates of prior site nominations for protected area status by type and ranking. The final reporting incorporated surveys of available and/or desirable adjacent land, mapped by parcel and showing parcel numbers and appraised costs for park acquisition.
Marine Protected Areas in the US Virgin Islands
As illustrated in the maps included as Attachments 1 and 2 in Appendix E , there are a variety of marine protected areas already in existence throughout the US Virgin Islands. These areas are briefly summarized below….
Buck Island Reef National Monument
Often lumped together in conventional discussion with the St. John VI National Park, the Buck Island Reef National Monument is both administratively distinct, and separately authorized. This small park comprises 175 acres (71 hectares) on Buck Island and 699.3 acres (285 hectares or about 1.1 square mile) of seabed adjacent to and surrounding (in an irregular ellipsoid) Buck Island off the north coast of St. Croix. The monument was proclaimed on December 28, 1961. It has a shoreline of four kilometers. The Government of the Virgin Islands has concurrent jurisdiction over the waters of the Monument, but Federal rights are “proprietary” over the land area.
By virtue of systematic monitoring by the National Park Service and the Biological Resources Division of the US Geological Service, NOAA, and detailed studies by graduate students and the West Indies Lab of Fairleigh Dickinson University, this area is one of the most intensively monitored and studied reef systems in the Caribbean.
St. John:
VI National Park
The marine component of the VI National Park on St. John was added to the 3550 hectares of the original park in 1962. The marine component of the VI National Park includes approximately 2287 hectares [less than 9 square miles], all within the VI Territorial Sea at the time of designation. Most of the original marine areas of the Park are located north and south of the island of St. John.
It is notable that after 40 years of National Park management of a substantial portion of the sea areas around St. John it appears that local fish stocks on some of the major reefs have declined and are continuing to decline.[Beets and Rogers, in press] Park waters have not, until now, been maintained as no-take zones, but there has been an attempt to limit fishing to traditional users with traditional gear. Apparently these limitations have not been sufficiently rigorous to prevent continued over-fishing.
St. Croix:
Salt River Bay National Historic Park and Ecological Preserve
This is a 948 acre (384 hectares or approximately 1.5 square miles) federal park and reserve established in February, 1992. The federal property is adjacent to and managed jointly with a similar-sized territorial protected area. The area of the joint protected area includes the Salt River Estuary and coastal waters of the USVI. A management plan has been drafted.
These areas are shown as areas “K” and “L” in Figure 3, below.
Southeast St. Thomas Marine Reserves and Wildlife Sanctuaries
In 1993 the Virgin Islands Legislature established a complex of four Territorial Marine Reserves and Wildlife Sanctuaries in the Mangrove Lagoon/Jersey Bay area.
These four areas are identified in the sketch chart distributed by the DPNR Division of Fish and Wildlife, as displayed below in Figure 1.
Figure 1:
Southeast St. Thomas Marine Reserves and Wildlife Sanctuaries
Fisheries Reserve Areas
There are three areas in the USVI where the Caribbean Fishery Management Council [CFMC, 1999] has closed fishing for part of the year because of seasonal fish spawning activity. The red hind closure south of St. Thomas is closed permanently year round whereas the red hind and mutton spawning sites around St. Croix are closed permanently on a seasonal basis [Dr. Richard Nemeth, personal communication, 22 July 2002]. As indicated below, only one of these, the St. Croix Mutton Snapper Spawning Aggregation Area, is within the Territorial Sea, but all three areas should  influence MPA selection, based on the knowledge of these spawning areas.
Red Hind. The Red Hind Spawning Aggregation Area is labeled as area “G” on the MPA map of St. Croix in Appendix E-3, which is excerpted in Figure 2, below. [Note that this map also shows the disputed extended area of the Buck Island Reef National Monument as area “N.”]
The Division of Fish and Wildlife describes the Red Hind Spawning Aggregation Area in the following fashion:
Red Hind Closure, St. Croix, U.S.V. I.
The Red Hind Spawning area is closed December 1 – February 28, as stated in the Final Regulations of Amendment One of the Caribbean Fishery Management Council Shallow Water reef fishery management plan.. . .  Anyone caught fishing in this area will be considered in violation of the closed area and may be given a Federal fine up to $100,000 and one year in jail.
Mutton Snapper. The Mutton Snapper Closure area is shown as area “C” on the MPA map of St. Croix in Appendix E-3, and is shown in the excerpt below.
Figure 2:
Red Hind Closure Area, St. Croix
Mutton Snapper. The Mutton Snapper Closure area is shown as area “C” on the MPA map of St. Croix in Appendix E-3, and is shown in the excerpt in Figure 3 below.
Figure 3:
Mutton Snapper Closure Area, St. Croix
As indicated by this map excerpt, the St. Croix Mutton Snapper Fish Aggregation area is the only one of the three CFMC spawning reserves which is within the Territorial Sea.
Red Hind Bank Marine Conservation Area. This is identified as area “I” on the MPA map of St. Thomas in Appendix E-4. As indicated by the map excerpt below, this area is outside of the Territorial Sea, but decisions about MPA status for nearby areas of the Territorial Sea should be influenced by the knowledge that this is an important spawning area.
Closed since 1989, on suggestion of CFMC, the closed season extends from December to March.
Figure 4:
Red Hind Bank Marine Conservation Area, St. Thomas.
18 Areas of Particular Concern
The Areas of Particular Concern were approved by the Legislature of the US Virgin Islands in 1993. The list of the approved APC sites include:
Botany Bay, St. Thomas, VI
Chocolate Hole/Great Cruz Bay , St. John, VI
Christiansted Waterfront, St. Croix, VI
Coral Bay, St. John, VI
Cruz Bay/Enighed Pond, St. John, VI
East End, St.Croix, VI
Fredericksted Waterfront, St.Croix, VI
Great Pond Bay, St.Croix, VI
Mangrove Lagoon/Benner Bay, St. Thomas, VI
Magens Bay and Watershed, , St. Thomas, VI
Mandahl Bay Lagoon Restoration Area, , St. Thomas, VI
Salt River Bay, St.Croix, VI
Sandy Point, St.Croix, VI
Southgate Pond/Chenay Bay, St.Croix, VI
Southshore Industrial Area, St.Croix, VI
St. Croix Reef System Reserve, St.Croix, VI
St. Thomas Harbor and Waterfront, , St. Thomas, VI
Vessup Bay/Red Hook Area, , St. Thomas, VI
Note that not all of the 18 APCs were nominated because of the quality of their natural resources—to the contrary, areas such as St. Thomas Harbor and Christiansted Harbor are APCs because of the need to mitigate or remedy damages already inflicted on the natural environment of these areas.
New Coral Reef and Marine National Monument Designations
Both the Buck Island national monument expansion and the St. John Monument designations were made in an end-of-administration gesture by the Clinton Administration in November, 2001. Both designations have been protested by the Government of the US Virgin Islands. The Expansion of the Buck Island Reef National Monument is shown in Appendix E-3, and in Figure 2, above.
Figure 5:
Boundaries of St. John Coral Reef National Monument.
[From a National Park Service Press Release, November 2001]
Fueled in large part by the apparent continued decline of the fish populations in the protected waters of St. John and adjacent waters to Buck Island in St. Croix, these new monument areas are designed to provide substantially increased areas under protection. The actual designations of the two expansions to the national monuments are smaller than a much larger sea area proposed in late 1999, as the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Park:
Figure 6:
Proposed Boundaries VI Coral Reef National Park.
[from Garrison, 1999]
Marine Management Policy Implications of Historical Initiatives
As demonstrated in the chronology above, the concept of a Virgin Islands territorial system of parks and protected areas is not a new one. On the other hand, there is no evidence that a territorial park system has been a popular notion amongst the resident citizenry. Perhaps this arises as a cultural residual from the colonial system of estate land ownership where historically very little land was in public hands. This made it more difficult to convert unique natural landscape features and wildlife habitat into protected areas of one kind or another. Furthermore, most land is privately owned, and many land-owning Virgin Islanders (including traditional resource users with presumed proprietary rights) are uniformly skeptical about any proposed constraint on private development that might diminish appreciating land values or restrict free access.
Other residents, especially on the larger islands of St. Thomas and St. Croix, have in recent decades remained passively neutral, while a minority of local citizens have become outspoken about their concern over the cumulative impacts of accelerating development on the environment. For this latter group, in the best tradition of sound land-use planning, the continuing need to select, set aside and protect the very best from among special natural or scenic areas and historic sites seems obvious. Of particular concern have been those coastal areas with unique or remarkable aesthetic, educational and recreational value.
Over the past forty years, there have been at least ten serious attempts in the Territory to identify, list, publicize and gain public approval for setting aside “valuable,” ecologically important or otherwise remarkable landscape and seascape and even submerged land features as high priority candidates for inclusion in a territorial system of parks, recreational areas or reserves of one kind or another. Most have more or less failed to get much beyond the listing state. The few exceptions are described in the preceding section.
Part of the problem arises from the real or perceived anti-development stance taken by many advocates of protected areas. Their concerns about the adverse impacts of rapid growth and their hostility towards many hastily designed and environmentally risky development projects have been seen as unrealistic. Anti-development environmentalism has often been perceived as obstructionist, elitist and insensitive to the real interests of Virgin Islanders, landowners, and the needs of the poor and marginalized in the community. Working people with memories of unemployment or underemployment, often accompanied by genuine difficult livelihoods, are not likely to embrace the arguments of those who appear to favor no growth or who might impose a host of new regulations closing off traditional access to de facto “common property” resources.
It is noteworthy that the first two protected areas of significance in the Virgin Islands were conceived and created by wealthy outsiders who first purchased the properties in question and then donated them to government (both federal and territorial). They were, first, Arthur Fairchild’s gift of Magens Bay in 1947 and, a decade later, Laurance Rockefeller’s gift of the land that created the Virgin Islands National Park in 1956. Both areas were to include marine features.
But, in retrospect, it should be noted that these philanthropic precedents, especially that of Laurance Rockefeller’s purchase of over half the land area of St. John in the early 1950s, actually had an unanticipated negative effect within the Territory. The size of the area and the scale of the gift provided an excuse to those in and out of government who thereafter saw little need for setting aside any additional “park” land. Worse still, Rockefeller’s windfall generosity gave false encouragement to those who were hesitant about investing public funds in land protection schemes, preferring to wait for other private sector, philanthropic donors to appear, checkbook in hand.
Over the years a few donors did, in fact, come along to donate land to the Virgin Islands Government that was to be maintained as open space or used for the public good. The community is indebted to Fairleigh Dickensen for the large parcel north of Isaac Bay on St. Croix’s East End and to David Vialet for his gift of Cass Cay at the False Entrance to the St. Thomas Mangrove Lagoon. There were a few others like Henry Reichold, who twice gave land for educational use, and Warren Corning at Botany Bay, who cared about sea bird nesting sites. On St. Thomas, the Paiewonsky family donated most of Hassel Island for inclusion in the Virgin Islands National Park.
But such special-purpose, private-sector gifts have only emerged on a very ad hoc basis and mostly in bits and pieces. They seldom addressed what was comprehensively needed for the protection of unique natural systems or the provision of adequate recreational space. Finally, some observers have noted that there might have been many more donations if the Virgin Islands Government had put even the semblance of a formal park management system in place.
Chapter 3:
Description of Marine Resources in the Territorial Sea
3.0.
The Virgin Islands Marine Environment
This chapter provides an overview of the environment and resources found in the USVI Territorial Sea. The marine environment within USVI territorial waters contains a complex and diverse resource. The Government of the US Virgin Islands has jurisdiction over all non-U.S. Government waters and submerged lands from the shoreline to 3 nautical miles [5.556 km] from the shoreline of each of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The total land area of the Virgin Islands is approximately 133 square miles (345 square kilometers); and the area of the Territorial Sea is estimated at 579 square miles (1500 square kilometers).
This section also provides general information on the geography, area, physical characteristics, important habitats and important species in the Virgin Islands marine environment.
Detailed maps illustrating the benthic habitat in the waters surrounding the USVI have been prepared by the Biogeography Program of the National Ocean Service of NOAA, and the Conservation Data Center at the University of the Virgin Islands. These maps are included in this Report as Attachments 1, 2, and 3, in Appendix E.
3.0.1.
Geography and Area of the Territorial Sea
The northern Virgin Islands, St. Thomas and St. John, lie on a shallow geological shelf together with the British Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico [Dammann 1969]. This shelf, the Puerto Rican Plateau, is generally less than 200 feet deep and is surrounded by deep water. To the north of the shelf, the Puerto Rican Trench reaches depths up to 27,500 feet while the Virgin Islands Basin, located between St. Thomas and St. Croix, reaches 13,500 feet.
The map below, provided by Dr. Richard Nemeth of the University of the Virgin Islands Center for Marine and Environmental Studies, provides an interesting overview of the Virgin Islands which provides insight into the intimate linkages between the US and British Virgin Islands. The numbers in this map represent monitoring sites used by UVI in the Virgin Islands submission to the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment [Nemeth, 2002], which represents a helpful resource for seeing [US] Virgin Islands marine resources within the context of the wider geographic setting. In a similar vein, the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC) conducted a series of 13 baseline studies on coral reef systems in the British Virgin Islands which can provide both geographic and temporal context for MPA planning activities.
Figure 7:
Map of Virgin Islands
The Puerto Rican Plateau extends 5-8 miles north and 12-15 miles south of St. Thomas and St. John [VanEepoel et al, 1971]. The islands themselves lie on an inner shelf terrace that is only 60 feet deep. This terrace reaches 0.8 miles to the south and 0.3 miles to the north of the islands [Garrison et al, 1971].
St. Croix lies on a submerged ridge, separated from the northern Virgin Islands by the Virgin Islands Basin. Within 0.5-3 miles to the south and 10 miles to the east of St. Croix the water is only 36 feet deep, while to the north and west of the island water depths drop quickly to several hundred feet.
The Territorial Sea of the US Virgin Islands for the purposes of this Resource Description is the waters within the three (nautical) mile limit, not under the jurisdiction of the Federal government.
3.0.2.
Physical Conditions of the Marine Environment
The physical characteristics of seawater have a strong influence on the marine life it supports. Tropical offshore seawater is generally nutrient poor and supports a low density of marine life. The abundance of marine life around the Virgin Islands is dependent on land-based nutrient input, the nutrients generated by light-dependent growth on the bottom of the island shelves, and some mixing of deepwater upwellings at the edges of the island platforms. According to DPNR, coastal water quality in the US Virgin Island is generally good but declining. Nine sites of 59 water quality monitoring sites are listed as “impaired” waters based the 1998 Water Quality Assessment (305b) Report by DPNR. These waters were considered impaired mainly because they did not meet dissolved oxygen or turbidity standards [DPNR, 2000].
Average monthly water temperatures of the offshore waters around the Virgin Islands ranges from 240C in the winter to 280C in the summer [Dammann, 1969). During the summer coastal waters can reach temperatures as high as 310C. Stresses from these higher sea surface temperatures are believed to contribute to coral bleaching events and possibly to increased susceptibility to diseases. Global climate change is likely to increase these stresses in the Virgin Islands, leading to greater risk for reef related ecosystems
DPNR has identified point source and non-point source pollution such as uncontrolled runoff and vessel waste discharges as additional stresses affecting the quality and chemistry of USVI waters [DPNR, 2000].
The North Atlantic Equatorial and Caribbean currents dominate the current pattern around the Virgin Islands. Surface waters tend to flow out of the east in winter and out of the southeast in summer at speeds of up to 0.7 knots [Dammann, 1969]. This aquatic “engine” influences or controls the dispersion of organisms and pollutants throughout the Territorial Sea and will influence the selection of protected areas, with less impacted marine areas generally found “up-current,” to the east.
Strong waves and swells from winter storms in the northern North Atlantic (called ground seas by local fishermen) can create coastal waves 4 meters [12 feet] high. Such waves and attendant currents on the sea floor can create significant submarine damage to ecosystems (and foul or destroy fishing equipment). Similarly, waves and swells in the summer associated with hurricanes damage reefs and coastal systems. These episodic disasters increase the need for protected areas which can provide sources of material to regenerate devastated natural systems.
Coastal erosion and occasional sediment injections into the coastal waters of the Virgin Islands are a natural condition of island life. Excessive erosion and sediment deposition on coastal marine ecosystems is an effect of the development and over-development of coastal areas which has become commonplace in the insular Caribbean and especially the Virgin Islands. The strong tropical showers typical of the region (and predicted to increase in some Global Climate Change forecasts) can temporarily greatly increase the sediment-related stresses in bays and adjacent waters that are catchment basins for large watersheds. These changes can stress marine organisms attached to the bottom. Salt ponds, lagoons, mangroves, and fringing coral reefs all play a role in helping to stabilize and mitigate the effects of such episodes on nearshore waters.
3.0.3.
Important Habitats
The marine environment in the Virgin Islands consists of several distinct habitat types. These habitats are limited to shallow water and coastlines, where nutrients and oxygen are more abundant. Each habitat is defined by one or more dominant species. While some organisms, such as algae, sponges and fishes can survive in several different habitats; others are exclusively found in one specific habitat. Three habitats in the Virgin Islands Territorial Sea, coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves, are areas of high-energy production and species richness. Other habitats, such as rocky shores, beaches and salt ponds, require specific adaptations.
3.0.3.1.
Coral reefs
Coral reefs are diverse marine habitats based on the compacted and cemented skeletons of reef-building coral. There are over forty different types of reef building corals in the Virgin Islands [Rogers and Beets, 2001]. Interspersed with these coral are many other marine organisms which form a complex ecological network. This network can include other types of coral, algae, sponges, starfish and sea urchins, snails and clams, crabs lobster, and many different species of fish. Coral reefs consist of diverse communities, each with its own physical characteristics and living organisms. Hard corals are also the source of much sand produced as by-product of the grazing of several herbivorous species of fish, such as parrot fish (Scaridae family), on live corals.
Corals reef are an important resource for the Virgin Islands. Most of the marine species, including lobster, caught locally for food are dependent on coral reefs. Diving and snorkeling over reefs are popular activities for locals and tourists.
Over the past twenty years, corals stress by hurricanes, coral bleaching, diseases, and human impact has been documented in the Virgin Islands [Rogers and Beets, 2001]. While most of these stresses exist constantly, severe outbreaks and combinations of stresses have led to a decline in the health of the Virgin Islands coral reefs [Nemeth, 2001]. Little is known about the causes of and recovery from coral diseases.
Reef destruction from human recreational activities is easily detectable in popular dive and snorkel sites throughout the Territorial Sea. Boat groundings and anchoring damages have also affected several Virgin Islands reefs [Rogers and Garrison, 2001]. Runoff from development on the islands is considered one of the biggest threats to near shore coral reefs. Pollution of ground- and surface waters can impact coral reefs directly through the effects of toxic substances, or fertilizers in such runoff can promote the growth of algae that compete with the corals for light and space on the reef.
3.0.3.2.
Algal plains and ridges
Algal plains and ridges consist of areas of mounds of encrusting calcareous algae commonly covered by fleshy algae. They can tolerate periodic desiccation, high wave action and high sunlight intensity. They are commonly found in association with coral reefs. Algal plains are also found in deeper areas around all of the Virgin Islands.
3.0.3.3.
Seagrass beds
Seagrass beds are highly productive habitats, producing a significant amount of oxygen in inshore waters [Towle, 1977) and forage for many herbivorous species. Three different types of seagrass are commonly found in Virgin Islands bays. Scattered among the grasses are sand-building calcareous algae (predominantly Halimeda ssp. and Penicillus ssp.), which are the source of many beaches [Rogers and Teytaud, 1988]. These plants form a dense network, which can stabilize coastal sand deposits.
Seagrasses provide food directly to grazing fish, turtles, conch, and sea urchins. Seagrass beds are nurseries for many species of fish by providing shelter for juveniles and plant detritus as food source. Many commercially important fishes, such as snappers and grunts, feed on the animals living on the seagrass beds.
Seagrass beds are dependent on clear water that allows the sunlight to penetrate to the grasses near the bottom. Seagrass beds show significant sensitivity to physical destruction. It takes many years, sometimes decades, for patches of grass removed by dredging, anchoring or hurricanes to recover.
Historical accounts state that seagrass beds were widely distributed in the bays of the Virgin Islands but these days large, dense seagrass beds are found in few bays.
3.0.3.4.
Rocky shores
Rocky shores are cliffs, rock faces or large boulders extending directly into the sea. Only a limited number of marine organisms can survive the rough conditions of this habitat. Several types of algae and coral can anchor themselves to the rocks and provide a food source for snails, sea urchins and mollusks. The edible whelk, also known as West Indian top snail, lives in this habitat and is culturally significant in local diets.
3.0.3.5.
Beaches
Beaches are parts of the shore that are covered with sand, gravel or coral rubble. Sand can be made up of small pieces of rock and ground up fragments of coral, limestone algae, and shells. Sand beaches are constantly changing and provide little shelter for marine organisms. A number of crabs, mollusks and worms live in the intertidal zone, while other crabs, including the edible land crab, live above the high tide mark. All four endangered or threatened sea turtles use sand beaches as nesting sites in the Virgin Islands.
Many beaches in the Virgin Islands are heavily used for recreational purposes. Indeed, several artificial beaches have been created, with variable results. In 1950s and ‘60s it was common to use beach sand as building material, with sand mining and near shore dredging occurring at rates far beyond the ability of the natural systems to replenish beach reserves. Overexploitation of beach sand resources has been responsible for the loss or diminished size of many beaches in the Virgin Islands, including Brewers Bay, Lindbergh Bay and Chocolate Hole.
3.0.3.6.
Mangroves
Mangroves are complex shallow-water habitats. There are three different types of mangrove trees in the Virgin Islands. Black and white mangroves are found in salty, marshy regions close to shore. Red mangroves are the most distinct, standing on prop roots in seawater. Mangrove root systems provide habitats for a diverse community of marine organisms, including algae, sponges, corals and oysters. This also creates sheltered nurseries for many species of juvenile fish and lobsters.
Mangrove roots trap sediments from the water. Over time, this process can lead to seaward extension of land. The removal of sediment helps to protect near-shore reefs.
Most mangrove stands in the Virgin Islands have been filled for development, leaving Salt River, St. Croix and the Mangrove Lagoon, St. Thomas, as the only remaining large mangrove stands. Fringing mangroves are still found along several bays, including Hurricane Hole St. John.
3.0.3.7.
Salt ponds
Most salt ponds are formed when mangroves or fringing reefs isolate former bays. The salt pond habitat requires special adaptation. Evaporation of seawater and flooding with seawater and fresh water can cause salinity levels to fluctuate widely. Several crab and algae species are commonly found in salt ponds and some salt ponds support the growth of brine shrimp.
The greatest threat to salt ponds has been filling for development. Salt ponds are found throughout the coastal areas of the USVI. There are 68 remaining major salt ponds throughout the USVI [Boulon and Griffin, 1999).
3.0.4.
Endangered, Threatened or Candidate Species
Of the 11 species of animals listed as endangered or threatened by the Virgin Islands, [Appendix D] most are marine organisms. Two of the endangered species, the Caribbean monk seal (Monachus tropicalis) and the West Indian manatee, are so rare that they can be considered extinct in the Virgin Islands. Two types of endangered whales, humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) and sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), pass through the Virgin Islands with their calves in late winter and early spring.
Sea Turtles. Sea turtles are a principal group of endangered animals that must be considered in the context of habitat protection. Two of the four turtle species found in Virgin Islands waters, the leatherback sea turtle and the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata)  sea turtle, have been listed as endangered for more than 30 years. Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) have been listed as endangered for less time and the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is threatened, not endangered. [NMFS, Appendix D]
The Leatherback turtle is the largest living turtle and can weigh up to 1,300 pounds with a shell length of up to six feet [ O’Keefe, 1995]. Leatherback turtles prefer to nest on steeply graded beaches with deep-water approaches. These conditions are rarely found, and Sandy Point, St. Croix is one of only 13 significant nesting sites worldwide. Leatherback turtles are deep ocean inhabitants and feed almost exclusively on jellyfish. Leatherback turtles have never been extensively hunted and the key to their survival seems to be the protection of their nesting areas.
Hawksbill turtles are medium-sized with an average shell length under three feet and average adult weight of 110 pounds. Sub-adults and adults are commonly found associated with coral reefs, where they feed on sponges. Hawksbill turtles can also be found in mangrove-fringed bays where seagrass and small animals are their main diet. These turtles often stay in the same area their whole life [Boulon and Griffin, 1999]
Green sea turtles are bigger than hawksbill turtles, weighing an average of 350 pounds with a shell size of 3-4 feet. Juvenile Green sea turtles are often found in shallow bays around the Virgin Islands. Adult Green sea turtles seek shelter under coral ledges in shallow water [Boulon and Griffin, 1999].
Endangered Corals. Two coral species found in the Virgin Islands, staghorn coral and elkhorn coral,(Acropora palmata) have been added to the NMFS candidate species list. Both species are branching corals that prefer shallow water. Elkhorn and staghorn coral are widely distributed, yet their abundance has recently decreased by 50%-95%. Most of the permanent damage to these corals is due to White Band Disease, which was first identified in St. Croix in 1977 [Gladfelter, 1977]. Other coral diseases, storms, bleaching and land-derived pollutants, sewage and sediment have also contributed to the decline of elkhorn and staghorn coral. Recovery of elkhorn corals has been reported in several areas in the Virgin Islands.
Groupers. Two grouper species, Goliath Grouper (formerly named Jewfish— Epinphelus itajara) and Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus), are on the candidate list for endangered species. Groupers are slow-growing, long-lived reef fish. Goliath groupers can attain lengths of over 6 feet, weigh over 500 pounds, and are suspected to live over 50 years. Groupers are top-level predators and as adults feed mainly on fish. Goliath and Nassau groupers spawn in aggregations. Spawning aggregations of a few individuals to up to several thousand individuals occur at specific areas at specific times of the year, generally during full-moon cycles. Juvenile groupers settle into a variety of habitats in shallow coastal waters. Spawning aggregations have been specifically targeted by fishermen. Due to overfishing, Nassau grouper populations in the Virgin Islands crashed in the 1970s [Olsen and LaPlace, 1978] and all harvesting of these Nassau and Goliath Grouper species has been prohibited in federal Caribbean waters since 1993.
3.0.5.
Commercially Important Species
Fishermen in the Virgin Islands harvest about 180 species of reef fish, in addition to queen conch (Strombus gigas) and spiny lobster [CFMC 1985, Tobias 2001]. Traditionally, groupers and snappers have been the dominant commercial fish species in the Virgin Islands. Following the decrease in landings of the large grouper species, the smaller grouper species such as Red Hind became a favorite catch. In recent years, Red Hind populations have dropped substantially, leading to the establishment of seasonal and permanent no-take zones at spawning areas. Recent data suggests that Red Hind populations are starting to recover [Nemeth, 2001]
The decline of traditional species resulted in a change in species composition of catches, with smaller plant-eating fishes making up a higher proportion [Beets and Rogers, in press]. Other predator fish, including jacks, tuna, kingfish and dolphin are also caught more frequently.
Caribbean spiny lobster populations in the Virgin Islands have declined, as indicated by a decrease in the average size caught and the density of individuals found in some scientific studies [Olsen, 1975, Garrison, 2001] and supported by fisher accounts of decreasing size and increasing unit efforts in the lobster fishery [Downs, 1998]. Spiny lobsters require different habitats at different stages of their lives. Spiny lobster larvae are pelagic, while juveniles are most commonly found in nearshore mangrove, seagrass and macroalgal habitats. In the Virgin Islands, larger juveniles and adults are commonly found in hardbottom and coral reef habitats, but they are mobile and have been shown to move several miles offshore [Olsen, 1971, Barre, 1971]. Mature female lobsters migrate to the shelf edge to release fertilized eggs [Garrison, 2001]. In order to protect lobster populations, diverse habitats extending from mangroves to the shelf edge must be protected. Lobster catch is already restricted to specific harvest methods and sizes and sexes throughout the Virgin Islands.
Queen conch and whelk (West Indian topsnail) were once abundant around the Virgin Islands. In recent years, whelk and conch populations have stabilized or increased, after years of reported declines from overfishing. Seasonal and spatial harvest restrictions, as well as size restrictions, have been helpful in stabilizing populations. A second 5-year closure on the harvest of these species is currently being considered. The harvest of these species is no longer economically significant.
See Chapter 2.3 for a discussion of the three fish aggregation reserve areas set aside by the Caribbean Fishery Management Council for commercially important grouper species.
Anecdotal reports suggest that the continuing presence of ciguatera fish poisoning cases from catch in Virgin Islands waters serves to depress demand for local species. If international research efforts are successful, there may be an increase in local fisheries demand and prices for local fish.
3.1.
Overview of Potential Sites to be Included in Marine Protected Areas
This section provides a short summary of individual areas within the Virgin Islands marine environment, focusing on areas that are relevant as potential marine protected areas. Appendix A presents the 150 marine and coastal sites that we identified as significant features for the VI Territorial Sea and other areas inside the 3 nautical mile limit of the Territorial Sea. Significance was determined by the Federal Geographic Names Information System (GNIS), features labeled in other maps, and local customary name use. The areas in Appendix A (and in Table #2, below) are listed by island, in geographical sequence starting at the southwestern corner of each island and continuing in a counter-clockwise fashion. To avoid confusion from similar names, each feature is given a code consisting of the unique island initial (C, J, T), and a number identifying each site.
Specific areas have been identified as significant natural areas through various reports conducted by and for the Government of the US Virgin Islands and the Federal Government, as discussed in Chapter 2. This section provides an overview of important areas, based on data currently available. Marine areas within the Virgin Islands National Park boundary are not addressed in this report.
Data on the current status of the marine environment has been collected and reviewed by Island Resources Foundation. A summary of the data available for each of the bays, cays, and offshore marine areas in the Territorial Sea is included in Appendix A. Appendix B provides a more detailed summary of available information for the 40 priority areas in the USVI marine environment. Gaps in this data are discussed in section 3.2.
Table  1:
Potential Areas For Virgin Islands  MPAs
Code
Name
Rationale for Selection
Previously Identified
Current Research Available
Professional Recommendation
Public Meeting Input
ST. THOMAS
Perseverance Bay
VITPS
Brewers Bay
VITPS
Saba Island, Flat & Turtledove Cays
Mangrove Lagoon
Benner Bay, Jersey Bay
Cow and Calf Rocks
Great & Little St. James, Dog Islands
Vessup Bay
Thatch - Congo Cays
(APC)
Smith Bay (Lindqvist Beach)
VITPS
Hans Lollick, Little Hans Lollick, Pelican Cay
VITPS
Mandahl Bay
Magens Bay, Lerkenlund Bay
Caret Bay
Botany Bay, Sandy Bay, Little St. Thomas
Salt Cay/West Cay
ST. JOHN
Great Cruz Bay
Chocolate Hole
Fish Bay
Johns Folly Bay
LeDuck Island
Coral Bay
Hurricane Hole, Round Bay
Flanagan Island
VITPS
Newfound Bay
VITPS
Haulover Bay
ST. CROIX
Sandy Point
Manchenil Bay, Halfpenny Bay
VITPS
Great Pond Bay
Jack Bay, Isaac Bay
East Point, Point Udall
Coakley Bay
Chenay Bay, Southgate Pond
Altona Lagoon (Shoy Beach)
Long Reef
Salt River Bay
Cane Bay, Davis Bay
(APC), SNA
Annaly Bay
Rainbow Beach
Fredericksted Harbor
3.1.1.
St. Thomas
This section summarizes 16 areas around St. Thomas. The location of each area, and its benthic characteristics are shown on the Benthic Characteristics map in Appendix E. Also, detailed information regarding each area is included in Appendix B.
Perseverance Bay
Perseverance Bay is located on the southwest coast of St. Thomas. It contains several marine habitats in good condition. The land around Perseverance Bay is a privately owned. The beach is undeveloped. Difficult beach access and the low residential density limit human impact. The water in the bay partially satisfies the standard for Class B uses [DPNR,2001].
Brewers Bay
Brewers Bay, located on the southwest coast of St. Thomas, is partly privately owned and partly owned by the University of the Virgin Islands. It is a popular recreational beach. UVI students study the seagrass bed for research projects and UVI maintains a floating dock for its dive boats on the eastern end of the bay. The water in the bay partially satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Saba, Flat and Turtledove Cays
Saba, Flat and Turtledove Cays are located off the southwestern coast of St. Thomas. They are owned by the territorial government and are designated Wildlife Sanctuaries. There is a seagrass bed southwest of Saba and a coral reef around Flat Cay. The cays receive little human impact other than occasional poaching of sea bird eggs and scavenging for whelks.
Mangrove Lagoon
St. Thomas’ only remaining mangrove lagoon is located on the southeastern coast of the island in a bay encompassing Benner Bay and 3 cays. The land surrounding the bay is largely owned by the territorial government and some sections are in private hands. The area has been a designated a Territorial Marine Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary since 1992 [Chapter 2.2]. This area serves as a nursery for many fish species and lobster. The bay is threatened by groundwater injections from the Turpentine Run Superfund cleanup site and the presence of the island’s largely unlined landfill, as well as the presence of the island’s only abattoir, the race track and horse stables, and many misfunctioning septic and package sewage treatment plants in the periphery of the Lagoon. Constant flushing washes out much of the polluted water. After heavy rains, however, sediment-laden water and sewage outflow spills into the lagoon. Water quality testing shows plentiful bacterial contamination which spikes after heavy rains [DPNR,2001]..
Benner Bay, Jersey Bay
Benner Bay and Jersey Bay, located on the southeastern side of St. Thomas, are often referred to as the outer Mangrove Lagoon area. The bays include extensive mangrove stands and seagrass beds. They are a heavily used boating area, with docks, live-aboards and marine repair facilities. Dense housing lines the edge of Benner Bay. The water satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR,2001].
Cow and Calf Rocks
This popular dive site is located off of Nazareth Bay on the southeast corner of St. Thomas and within the boundaries of the Marine Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary. The rocks rise out of 70 feet deep water and support colorful species of coral and an abundant sponge community. Rock crevices and caves house many species of fish, lobsters and reef invertebrates.
Great St. James, Little St. James, Dog Islands
The St. James Islands located off of the southeast end of St. Thomas are privately owned and the site of a luxury residence. The surrounding waters are part of the Marine Reserve and Wildlife sanctuary [Chapter 2.2]. Several reefs adjacent to the islands are popular dive sites and turtles nest on the beach.
Vessup Bay
Located on the East End of St. Thomas, Vessup Bay is a mangrove-fringed bay heavily impacted by the Red Hook urban center and the marine industry. The water quality in the bay is low; in part because the bay has a low flushing rate, and in part because of raw sewage from septic systems and the periodic breakdown of the public package sewage treatment plant which discharges into the head of the bay. The water in the bay exceeds the limits of bacterial contamination and turbidity for Class B uses, [DPNR,2001].
Thatch – Congo Cays
This series of five cays is located off of the northeastern corner of St. Thomas. The water to the north of the islands is deep and humpback whales are seen there in winter. To the south of the cays lie coral reefs and sea grass beds, which are preferred dive sites. Several residences are located on Lovango Cay. Grass Cay and Congo Cay are owned by the VI Government and are designated Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Smith Bay (Lindqvist Beach)
Smith Bay is located on the northeastern coast of St. Thomas, across from Thatch Cay. The land is privately owned but undeveloped. The bay contains diverse marine habitats including a heavily used recreational beach. The water in the bay supports Class B uses, [DPNR,2001].
Hans Lollick, Little Hans Lollick, Pelican Cay
Hans Lollick is the largest uninhabited cay near St. Thomas located off of the Northside and is surrounded by coral reef. Little Hans Lollick and Pelican Cay lie just north of Hans Lollick. The cays are privately owned and the beaches are used for picnicking and camping. Hawksbill turtles nest on the beaches.
Mandahl Bay
Mandahl Bay is located on St. Thomas’ Northside, south of Hans Lollick Island. The land around it is owned by the territorial government but leased to a development corporation. In the 1960s, the corporation dredged the salt pond and opened it to the sea, creating a lagoon. The bay, which has recovered well, is subject to limited human impact, including mooring, fishing and a few residences on the hills above the bay. The water quality satisfies the requirements for Class B uses, [DPNR,2001].
Magens Bay, Lerkenlund Bay
Magens Bay on the Northside of St. Thomas contains one of the most popular beaches on the island. The area surrounding the beach is publicly owned, while the eastern and western shores are privately owned. Patches of coral reef and seagrass beds are found on the eastern shore, while a stressed fringing coral reef is located on the Lerkenlund side. Turtle nesting has been observed at Magens Bay beach. The water quality is generally sufficient for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001], however, bacterial counts and turbidity levels are high following heavy rainfall.
Caret Bay
Caret Bay is located on the northwestern side of St. Thomas. It contains part of a large coral reef. While some areas of the reef have been stressed by sediment-laden run-off, others show a highly diverse, healthy coral reef habitat. The water satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR,2001].
Botany Bay, Sandy Bay, Little St. Thomas
Located on the West end of St. Thomas, the land around Botany Bay and Sandy Bay is privately owned and receives only minimal human impact
. The bays contain diverse, pristine habitats and the beach at Sandy Bay is a turtle-nesting area. However, a 60-acre area adjacent to Sandy Bay was recently rezoned for hotel development. The Nature Conservancy owns little St. Thomas. The water quality in the area generally satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR,2001].
Salt Cay, West Cay
The two adjacent cays are located just off the West end of St. Thomas. They are owned by the VI government and are designated Wildlife Sanctuaries. Both cays are also listed on the National Registry of Natural Landmarks. The marine environment around the cays is diverse and pristine. Human impact is limited to fishing and occasional camping.
3.1.2.
St. John
This section summarizes ten areas around St. John. The location of each area, and its benthic characteristics are shown in the attached map of St.John in Appendix E. Also, detailed information regarding each area is included in Appendix B.
A large portion of the marine environment around St. John is currently managed as a National Park. While fishing and other activities are restricted within the National Park, except for an area around the snorkeling trail at Trunk Bay, none of the waters in the National Park are no-take zones. The map below, excerpted from the MPA map of St. Thomas and St. John produced by the UVI Conservation Data Center [Appendix E] shows the boundaries of the St. John National Park.
Figure 8:
Marine Portion of Virgin Islands National Park on St. John
In 2000, the Federal Government announced creation of the St. John Coral Reef National Monument, including areas within the Territorial Sea in the area marked “C” above, and extending to the South of St. John, to the edge of the Territorial Sea, an area of approximately 18,000 acres, or almost 30 square miles—about 1.5 times the land area of St. John. The St. John Coral Reef National Monument is not shown on the map above, but is displayed in Figure 5 in Chapter 2.
Great Cruz Bay
Great Cruz Bay is located on the west end of St. John. It contains a variety of marine habitats. A hotel is located on the northern shore of the bay and the watershed is a low-density residential area. The bay is still stressed by high levels of turbidity caused by dredging 15 to 30 years ago and by increasing numbers of anchored and moored boats, including live-aboards. The water in the bay partially satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Chocolate Hole
Chocolate Hole, on the west end of St. John, is a high energy bay with several types of healthy marine habitats. While it serves many different uses, the use intensity does not seem to negatively affect the environment. The recent reactivation of a hotel development abandoned in the 1980s may, however, change the status of the habitats. The water quality in the bay is sufficient for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001]..
Fish Bay
Fish Bay is located on the southwestern coast of St. John, just east of the National Park. The land around the bay is mostly privately owned except for the southwestern corner which is a part of the Virgin Islands National Park. The watershed is being developed as a low-density residential area. The bay contains a mangrove area and a coral reef which are being affected by sediment-laden run-off. Fish Bay is currently a watershed demonstration area, where DPNR CZM is working with community groups such as the Fish Bay Homeowners’ Association to implement measures to control erosion in the watershed. The water in the bay satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Johns Folly Bay
This bay is located the north side of Ram’s Head peninsula, on the southeastern-most tip of St. John, adjacent to National Park waters. The land surrounding the bay is in private ownership. A rocky beach lines the coast and a coral reef is located off of the beach. This bay is included in the Coral Bay area APC draft management plan.
LeDuck Island
LeDuck Island, located off the southeastern coast of St. John, is owned by the VI government and is designated a Wildlife Sanctuary. It contains several different marine habitats in good condition. Human impact is limited to recreational fishing.
Coral Bay
Coral Bay is the population and marine center on the east end of St. John. Development in the area is threatening the marine environment. Land around the bay is mostly in private hands. The major habitats are mangroves and seagrass beds. The bay is affected by sediment-laden run-off from throughout the watershed. The water quality in the bay satisfies the requirements for class B uses.
Hurricane Hole, Round Bay
Located on the eastern coast of St. John, Hurricane Hole and Round Bay are surrounded by privately owned land on the north and National Park land to the east and west. Parts of the waters in the area are included in the Virgin Island Coral Reef National Monument. Hurricane Hole contains the largest mangrove stand in St. John. The area is an important nursery for marine life.
Flanagan Island
Flanaghan Island is the eastern-most point of St. John. It is owned by the territorial Government and designated a Wildlife Sanctuary. A coral reef is located near the island and the waters around the island are used for artisan fishing.
Newfound Bay
Newfound Bay is located off the northeastern shore of St. John. The land around the bay is privately owned but undeveloped. The fringing coral reef found in the bay has been impacted by damage from storms and from coral disease and bleaching. The bay provides an example of classic fringing reef elaboration and the dynamics of coastal land formation. The reef, predominantly elkhorn corals, appears to be recovering from previous damages and disease. The bay provides extreme wave protection to the interior of the bay [Rogers, Miller and  Waara, 2001]. “Exceptionally good examples of fringing coral reef and saltpond formation. . . clearly surpass in quality and development similar features already represented with the VI National Park on St. John.” [Adams, 1975]
Haulover Bay
Haulover Bay is located in the northeastern corner of St. John. The east side of the bay is abutted by private land; the west side is in the Virgin Islands National Park. The bay contains several different marine habitats. Run-off carrying sediment from road construction has been shown to enter the bay at a spot where currents can carry plumes to both or either the west side of the bay (which is in the National Park) or Newfound Bay. [Rogers et al, 2001]
3.1.3.
St. Croix
This section summarizes 14 areas on St. Croix. The benthic characteristics of coastal St. Croix, to an approximate depth of 20 meters or 60 feet are shown in the attached map in Appendix E.. Also, detailed information regarding each area is included in Appendix B. Several of the areas described here are included in the East End area of St. Croix for which the Nature Conservancy is preparing a marine protected area management plan.
Sandy Point
Sandy Point is a sand beach peninsula at the southwestern tip of St. Croix, adjacent to deep water. The beach is an important Leatherback turtle nesting area used also by Hawksbill and Green turtles. The beach has been identified as one of the fourteen major Leatherback nesting beaches in the world. It has been designated a Critical Habitat by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the surrounding waters have been designated a Critical Habitat by the National Marine Fisheries Service. Westend salt pond is a National Wildlife Refuge. The beach is used recreationally and is adjacent to a residential area.
Manchinel Bay, Halfpenny Bay
Manchinel Bay and Halfpenny Bay form a contiguous bay on the south shore of St. Croix, approximately 3 miles south of Christiansted. The land surrounding the bay is privately owned, and it includes a medium density residential area. The bay contains mangroves and a sand beach with a patch reef off the beach. The beach is a turtle nesting area. The water quality satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Great Pond Bay
Great Pond Bay, named after the large salt pond adjacent to the bay, lies on the southeast coast of St. Croix. The territorial government owns the salt pond, while most of the land surrounding the bay is in private hands. Multiple shore and marine habitats are represented in this bay. Several use restrictions have been placed on the salt pond to protect the Southern pink shrimp population. The bay is affected by agricultural run-off, camping and fishing. The water quality is sufficient for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Jack Bay, Isaac’s Bay
Located on the southeastern shore of St. Croix just west of Point Udall, Jack and Isaac’s Bays are protected by The Nature Conservancy, which owns all the property in the surrounding watershed. The water quality is high, due to a strong current and difficult access. The marine habitats, including coral reef, seagrass bed and algal ridge are in good condition. Turtles nest on the sand beaches. “The best example of a combined beach, shallow lagoon, and coral reef environment.” [Adams, 1975]
East End Bay, Point Udall
Owned by the VI government, this area represents a pristine rocky shore habitat with little human impact. The coral reef outside the bay is in good condition. This area is impacted by fishing for reef fish and shellfish.
Coakley Bay
Coakley Bay is located on the northeastern shore of St. Croix. The land around the bay is privately owned and zoned for medium density residential development. Diverse habitats including a salt pond, mangroves, seagrass beds and a patch reef are represented in the bay. The water quality in the bay satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Chenay Bay, Southgate Pond
Located on the northeastern shore of St. Croix, approximately 3 miles east of Christiansted, Chenay Bay contains a variety of marine habitats including a large salt pond. While the eastern end of the salt pond is healthy , a marina affects the water quality of the western end of the salt pond.
Shoy Beach (Altona Lagoon)
Shoy Bay is located directly east of St. Croix, a major urban center with commercial and residential development. The sand beach is used recreationally, although pollution impacts the waters. The lagoon is a protected area for the Southern pink shrimp and several use restrictions apply. Commercial fishing and shrimping are not permitted. The water in the lagoon is of sufficient quality for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Long Reef
Long Reef is a 1-mile long reef to the east and north of Christiansted on the north side of St. Croix. The reef has been affected by the major urban center in close proximity and the eastern side of the reef shows a low percentage of live coral cover. The water in the area satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Salt River Bay
The Salt River Area is a major estuary on the northern coast of St. Croix. It contains 3 smaller bays and an underwater canyon in the offshore sections, which are rich in marine biological diversity. The mangrove stand is the largest remaining mangrove habitat on St. Croix. Approximately 400 acres of land and 600 acres of water are protected as a federal National Historic Park and Ecological Preserve while another area is a territorial Wildlife Refuge and Marine Sanctuary. Most of the bay is managed jointly by federal and territorial agencies. Sections of the bay are used for boating, including a marina and live-aboards. The area is a popular dive site. The water quality generally satisfies requirements for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
“The submarine drop-off from Salt River Bay illustrates well deep water marine environment. Salt River is a classic example of an estuary with well developed mangrove zones.” [Adams, 1975]
Cane Bay, Davis Bay
Cane Bay and Davis Bay on the north shore of St. Croix have recreational beaches and spectacular reefs offshore. Humpback whales pass through the deep waters outside the reef. Sediment loading and heavy recreational use by divers have stressed the reef. Davis Bay is the site of a hotel complex. The water satisfies the requirements for Class B uses [DPNR, 2001].
Annaly Bay
Annaly Bay is located on the northwestern shore of St. Croix. It represents an unusual type of habitat, with strong waves and deep water off of a mangrove-fringed rocky shoreline. The coral rubble beach is difficult to access and the watershed is undeveloped, leaving the bay in very good condition. Humpback whales pass through the Territorial Sea north of the bay.
Rainbow Beach
Rainbow beach is located on the western side of St. Croix. Offshore, Rainbow Reef is a popular dive site with mountainous star coral. The waters are used for recreational and artisan fishing. The bay is exposed to high winter swells, which at times cause high levels of turbidity.
Fredericksted Harbor
Fredricksted is the residential center on the west coast of St. Croix. It is an active cruise ship port. While significant portions of the outlying reef have been destroyed by boating activities, the pier itself is a unique marine habitat with a variety of sponges, soft corals, lobsters, crabs, sea horses and other invertebrates. It is a popular dive site. The sand beach is used by Green sea turtle for nesting. Water quality measurements taken until 1996 showed that the water satisfied the requirements for Class C uses [DPNR, 2001].
3.2.
Information Gaps
In reviewing the data available for understanding the current status of the marine environment in the USVI, several data deficiencies were noted. Data gaps and recommendations to fill those gaps include:
Monitoring data is limited and available data is not collected, maintained or analyzed to common standards. Long term monitoring of coral reefs, fish assemblages, and water quality is being conducted by various agencies to varying degrees on each of the three U.S. Virgin Islands. (Rogers, 2000) While there have been some long term monitoring studies in the USVI, these are generally limited to St. John and St. Croix, and are focused on near-shore reef habitats.
Recommendations:
Additional studies/monitoring are needed in order to track changes in reef fish assemblages and habitat structures. This monitoring should encompass a wider variety of habitats and be conducted over appropriate temporal and spatial scales.
Mapping products are incomplete. Coral reef communities and benthic habitats in the Virgin Islands have only recently been mapped (see the NOAA National Ocean Service biogeography products at <http://biogeo.nos.noaa.gov/products/benthic/>, and the mapping product does not cover the entire VI territorial sea.
Recommendations:
Additional work to complete mapping of the remaining sections of the USVI territorial sea would help local scientists and managers to better plan studies and management activities.
There is a lack of knowledge regarding interactions and processes affecting the marine environment. The processes affecting recruitment and retention of larvae and juvenile coral reef organisms are not fully understood. Patterns of migration, key information for management of MPAs, are not clearly understood. We have little information on the recent proliferation of coral diseases affecting territorial reefs. In addition, we do not understand how the deterioration of mangroves and seagrass beds contributes to the degradation of coral reefs. Information relating to human carrying capacity and its relationship to sustainable development and land-use is not known. [McManus, 2001]
Recommendations:
Additional studies and reporting are needed to allow scientists and managers to better understand the processes affecting the marine resources in the Virgin Islands. Specifically, research on coral disease could be integrated with that of reef connectivity, recruitment and physical oceanographic modeling. [McManus, 2001]
The U.S. Virgin Islands should develop more watershed-based indicators of water quality and marine impacts of human activities. The Virgin Islands should also maintain a reporting system for incidences of coral bleaching or disease—either locally developed, or extracted from emerging Federal/Caribbean regional systems.
There is a lack of user-friendly accurate and appropriate models for implementing integrated coastal zone management. The Virgin Islands does not have a current planning process that integrates marine and coastal issues.
Recommendations:
The current Unified Watershed Assessment and Restoration process should be further developed as a model to facilitate integrated coastal zone management.
There is a lack of compiled information about known, major human impacts on the marine environment. For example, the Virgin Islands has permitted scores of submarine cables, power lines, artificial reefs, and fish aggregation devices, but none of these have been mapped or otherwise tracked by permitting authorities.
Recommendations:
DPNR should review all previously permitted marine activities and provide one source where the Environmental Impact and Assessment information submitted with these permits can be consulted.
Chapter 4:
Criteria for Selection of Marine Protected Areas
Methodology for Choosing Selection Criteria
The criteria used for this report are designed to provide a process to demonstrate the comparative ecological significance of forty high priority areas. The criteria applied in Section 4.1 place a focus on:
The known presence of major species as discussed in Chapter 3 for some significant life stages or functions (breeding, feeding, nursery areas, etc.)
Significant habitat, especially reefs, sea grass beds and algal plains, and mangroves judged to be superior quality by experts or local users
Habitat which supply special services such as coastal buffering and amelioration of impacts on both land (e.g., reefs that act as breakwaters) and in coastal and nearshore waters (e.g., filtering effects of salt ponds and mangroves).
The Terms of Reference [Appendix F] for this Resource Description Report preclude the incorporation of MPA management considerations, such as strategic goals for protected areas, recreational and other non-consumptive uses, feasibility/sustainability considerations, or other non-resource-based consideration. The criteria presented in Section 4.1 are themselves insufficient to create a sufficient ranking of marine areas worthy of protection. Other factors that need to be included for a more complete and rounded ecological assessment are presented in Section 4.2. These factors will be directly influenced by management considerations for the areas under consideration and need to be evaluated at the stage of comparing high priority areas and designing an overall marine park systems plan for the Virgin Islands.
This report is part of an effort to provide information for the US Virgin Islands Marine Park Project.  The areas discussed here fall within territorial jurisdiction. Sites outside the 3-mile boundary and areas under federal jurisdiction, such as the Virgin Islands National Park, have not been addressed in this chapter, but these areas should be carefully considered in terms of overall impacts of a system of protected areas comprising both Territorial and Federal areas, and in consideration of complementary and cooperative use of program resources by managers of both systems.
In short, it is incumbent on local managers, whether Territorial or Federal, to organize the effective protection of natural resources, since the fish cannot be expected to know on which side of a jurisdictional boundary they happen to feed or sleep.
Defining Selection Criteria
4.1.1
Important Species
Most areas of the near coastal waters of the US Virgin Islands have been systematically surveyed since the early days of human habitation to identify the presence of important species. Over time the relative abundance of various species and local fashion will change the definition of “important species” (within living memory, Caribbean lobster was considered a trash fish), but this selection criteria concentrates on those species highlighted in Chapter 3.
4.1.2
Key Habitat
Coral reefs—especially highly diversified or varied reef habitats such as that presented by elkhorn coral forests which are reported to be under threat in the Virgin Islands—sea grass beds, mangroves and linking areas are all known to be important. Many of the historic surveys of potential marine park or protected areas discussed in Chapter 2 or Appendix C focused on these basic habitats, and newer research studies and characterizations usually include habitat monitoring and assessment to standard protocols. The source of these assessments are identified in Appendix B.
4.1.3
Habitat Providing Special Services
Biological services are essential for the survival of marine organisms. These services are, on one hand, providing for the survival of adult organisms and on the other hand, providing for reproduction and survival of the offspring. The details of which habitat provides which service for how many species are, at this time, poorly understood. In this section, an attempt is made to assign a value to each area based on two types of biological services, Adult Habitat and Reproduction Habitat.  Sites are evaluated taking into account generic data for individual habitats, scientific studies and knowledge gained from users of the areas.  The evaluation of each area for these habitats is based on the following.
Functional Adult Habitats need to provide food and, for many species, shelter. Most adult marine organisms find food in high productivity areas, such as coral reefs, seagrass beds and algal flats. Coral reefs are the primary source of shelter for adult organisms in the Virgin Islands marine environment. Areas of greater species diversity are considered more important than areas with limited diversity.
Reproduction Habitats include mating and spawning areas (including spawning aggregation areas) and nursery habitats.  The best-known nursery habitats are mangrove stands and seagrass beds. Recent studies have identified other areas in the Virgin Islands marine environment as important nursery resources for the juveniles of commercially important fish species [A. Adams, Thesis; NPS report by Ivan Mateo].
Brewers Bay in St. Thomas, a bay with an average mixed seagrass habitat, has been shown to contain more juvenile fish than an adjacent rich seagrass bed and the major mangrove habitat on the island [Nemeth, 2000]. What little is known about the spawning areas of pelagic fish does not directly apply to this report. For example, the known spawning areas for the Red Hind grouper, which are currently under protection by the CFMC, fall outside the boundary of the Territorial Sea.
Another criteria under the category of biological services is the existence of certain species in a particular area at a certain stage in their life cycle.  For the purposes of this report, an area considered important to the protection of certain species of marine organisms will be given higher value. In order to evaluate whether an area was important to one of the endangered or commercially important species (discussed earlier in section 3.0.4), we considered the following.
For endangered species, special emphasis is placed on areas which provide nesting and browsing areas for endangered sea turtle species
For commercially important species, those areas which are known resources of commercially important fish species and lobster. Fish resource areas were identified in part by interviews with local fishermen and in part by a review of the NOAA mapping of critical coastal resources in the Oil Spill Sensitivity Mapping [NOAA, 2000].
4.1.4
Physical Services
The extent to which areas provide physical services is the second set of criteria used for selection of potential marine protected areas for the purposes of this report. In the last twenty years, tropical storms and hurricanes have had major affects on the marine environment in the Virgin Islands. Stands of Elkhorn coral have been completely wiped out and seagrass bed sections have been blown out, destroying valuable habitats which are slow to recover.  The criteria of physical services is defined as the existence of near-shore protection of habitats, and is evaluated based on the following.
The existence of  fringing and barrier coral reefs (“hard coast”) that provide protection for important near-shore habitats. These reefs provide a critical function for the protection of diversity after an inevitable and uncontrollable catastrophe. This criteria is assessed in part based on the Report on Coastal Barriers for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands [IRF,1981].
The existence of mangroves, salt ponds, beaches, and, seagrass beds (“Soft Coast”) that provide near-shore habitat protection services.   Soft coast areas are often settlement areas for sediment that could otherwise threaten near-shore coral reefs. The sediments collected in mangrove lagoons have also been shown to trap specific pollutants. These habitats protect near-shore water quality and moderate the physical effect of waves.
4.1.5
Additional Criteria
In addition to biological and physical services provided by the marine resources of an area, two other important criteria are assessed.  To evaluate areas for selection of marine protected areas the following factors affecting areas’ ecological significance must be considered as well.
Adjacency or proximity to other marine protected areas.  Location of an area in close proximity to an existing protected area leads to a higher rating of the area’s ecological significance.  This assessment is based on recent studies indicating that marine protected areas with insufficient buffer zones (VI National Park) are not effective in protecting fish stocks (Rogers and Beets). On the other hand, marine protected areas with buffer zones have been successful [Mascia, 2001].
The health of the habitat(s) and the water quality within an area are also evaluated as criteria for selection as a potential marine protected area.  It is assumed that pristine areas are the most ecologically valuable, while partially degraded areas, which may otherwise seem valuable, will not provide the same level of diversity and resilience.
Assessment of Criteria for Ecological Significance
The criteria described in the previous section have been evaluated for the priority areas that are considered relevant as potential marine protected areas, discussed in Chapter 3 and sketched in Appendix B. The results of this evaluation are presented in the table below.  For each area included in our review, the table below attempts to rate its ecological significance based on the criteria defined above.  As discussed later, these criteria are insufficient to create a ranking of marine areas worthy of protection. Other factors influenced by management considerations should be evaluated before priorities for protection are established.
The legend for the following table follows a familiar four point scale, plus an acknowledgement that information is not sufficient to make a recommendation:
Very important factor
Below average factor
Above average factor
Need to Check information
Average factor
Table 2:
Assessment of Criteria for Ecological Significance
ASSESSMENT OF CRITERIA FOR ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Site Code & Name
Biological Services
Coastal Protection Services
Buffer for Protected Area
Habitat/ Water Quality
Ecological Significance
Priority Habitat
Priority Species
Adult Habitat
Nursery/ Nesting/ Spawning Area
Endangered
Commercial
Hard Coast
Soft Coast
ST. THOMAS
Perseverance Bay
Brewers Bay
Saba Island, Flat & Turtledove Cays
Bolongo Bay Reef
T26 & T27
Mangrove Lagoon, Benner Bay, Jersey Bay
T28 & T31
Cow  and Calf Rocks, Great & Little St. James, Dog Islands
High
Vessup Bay
Thatch - Congo Cays
High
Smith Bay (Lindqvist Beach)
Hans Lollick, Little Hans Lollick, Pelican Cay
High
Mandahl Bay
Magens Bay, Lerkenlund Bay
Caret Bay
Botany Bay, Sandy Bay, Little St. Thomas
High
Salt Cay/West Cay
High
ST. JOHN
Stevens Cay
J5 &J6
Great Cruz Bay, Chocolate Hole
Fish Bay
High
Johns Folly Bay
High
LeDuck Island
High
Coral Bay
Hurricane Hole, Round Bay
High
Flanagan Island
Newfound Bay
High
Haulover Bay
High
ST. CROIX
Sandy Point
High
Manchenil Bay, Halfpenny Bay
High
Great Pond Bay
High
Jack Bay, Isaac Bay
High
East Point, Point Udall
Coakley Bay
High
Chenay Bay, Southgate Pond
High
Altona Lagoon (Shoy Beach)
Long Reef
Salt River Bay
High
Cane Bay, Davis Bay
Annaly Bay
Legend:
Very important factor
Above average factor
Average factor
Below average factor
Need to secure added (available) information
Additional Input Needed to Define Selection Criteria
The previous pages describe a framework of criteria for the assessment of ecological significance of marine areas. It results in rating areas for very high, high, medium and low ecological significance. It does not, however, complete the ecological assessment needed to select and design marine protected areas.
In the course of establishing a marine protected areas plan several other considerations must be taken into account. Each area must be evaluated in the context of the portfolio of all potential areas and priorities assigned by the plan. The implementation strategy of an overall concept of protection goals will need to consider the ecological value of existing areas of protection and aim to complement these areas with a set of new areas of protection.
The size of the area to be protected will depend on the goal to be achieved. A protected area preserving the nesting area of an endangered turtle requires different parameters than one aimed at increasing the population of an overfished grouper species. Several studies provide guidelines for size considerations for marine protected areas [Mascia, 2001, Roberts, 1997, Halpern, 2001, Salm, 2002].
Planning for marine protected areas should also take into consideration the connectivity among individual habitats. The ecosystem of a protected coral reef, which is cut off from seagrass and mangrove habitats to which it was previously connected, will suffer dramatically. It is important to protect not only ecologically significant habitats, but also the water, current-driven, and benthic pathways that connect these habitats. This can mean insuring protection of seemingly low value coral rubble hardbottom areas which juvenile grunts travel daily between their nighttime reef foraging area and the daytime lagoonal seagrass hide-away.
Finally, it is important to protect replicates of habitats in different areas in order to ensure survival in the event of a natural or manmade disaster. In this context,  St. Thomas/St. John and St. Croix, should be considered as independent ecosystems since it is not very likely that surviving individuals in the Northern Virgin Islands will replenish habitats in St. Croix and vice versa. The principle of redundancy suggests, for example, that the mangrove lagoon areas in St. Thomas and St. John should both be protected.
Chapter 5:  Priorities for Protection
Summary of Priorities for Protection
The goals of this report are to describe the status of the marine environment of the Virgin Islands and to pinpoint marine protected area candidates. Chapter 3 presented an overall picture of the marine environment and provided specific information for individual habitats, species and areas.
In Chapter 4, individual areas were compared using a set of criteria aimed at evaluating the ecological significance of each area. Each area was assigned a relative value of low, medium or high significance. As described in Section 4.2, a designation of high ecological significance is by itself insufficient criteria for designating areas as a candidate marine protected area. Additional considerations, which are influenced by management and implementation considerations, must be taken into consideration.
Chapter 5 creates a priority ranking for marine protected area candidates based solely on ecological considerations. The evaluation of ecological significance in Chapter 4 focused on the priority species of sea turtles, groupers and lobster. Mangrove stands, seagrass beds and coral reefs, which provide high levels of productivity and diversity were the priority habitats.
For the purposes of this report, the conservation goal of protecting multi-habitat areas, which can support a diversity of species and habitats is assumed.  To achieve this goal, individual areas were assessed within the framework of existing marine protected areas under territorial, federal or foreign jurisdiction.
The areas were also evaluated based on a theoretical network of protection using the high ecological significance areas identified in Chapter 4. This approach led to a grouping of several areas that were within close proximity and which complemented each other towards creation of areas with a high diversity of habitats. These groupings themselves do not represent a careful analysis of the optimal boundaries of the candidate areas. This optimization must be carried out in a later step in the overall planning process.
The results of this analysis are summarized in the table below.  Areas of high priority ranking were determined for each island in order to allow for the application of the principle of redundancy discussed in Section 4.2. Candidate areas include some areas that are currently under some level of protection by the territory.
Table 3:
Priorities for Protection—Selected Areas
Area
Code
Site Name
Ecological Significance
Protection Status
Priority Ranking
ST. THOMAS
Botany Bay Area, STT
Botany Bay, Sandy Bay, Little St. Thomas
High
HIGH
Salt Cay/West Cay
High
Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon Area & Cays, STT
T26, T27
Mangrove Lagoon, Benner Bay, Jersey Bay
Medium
Marine Reserve, APC
HIGH
T28, T31
Cow  and Calf Rocks, Great & Little St. James, Dog Islands
High
Marine Reserve
Mandahl & Hans Lollick Area, STT
Hans Lollick, Little Hans Lollick, Pelican Cay
High
MEDIUM
Mandahl Bay
Smith Bay & Cays, STT
Thatch - Congo Cays
High
(APC)
MEDIUM
Smith Bay (Lindqvist Beach)
Southwest Bays and Offshore Cays, STT
Perseverance Bay
Medium
Brewers Bay
Saba Island, Flat & Turtledove Cays
Medium
ST. JOHN
Johns Folly Area, STJ
Johns Folly Bay
High
HIGH
LeDuck Island
High
Southeast Bays, STJ
Hurricane Hole, Round Bay
High
APC, NM
HIGH
Northeast Bays, STJ
Newfound Bay
High
HIGH
Haulover Bay
High
(NPS)
Coral Bay Area, STJ
Coral Bay
MEDIUM
Fish Bay Area, STJ
Fish Bay
High
MEDIUM
Stevens Cay, STJ
Steven Cay
Medium
ST. CROIX
East End Area, STX
Great Pond Bay
High
HIGH
Jack Bay, Isaac Bay
High
East Point, Point Udall
Medium
Coakley Bay
High
Salt River Area, STX
Salt River Bay
High
APC, NMFS-Critical Area
HIGH
Chenay Bay Area, STX
Chenay Bay, Southgate Pond
High
MEDIUM
Long Reef, STX
Long Reef
Sandy Point Area, STX
Sandy Point
High
APC, Marine Reserve, National Ecological Preserve
Manchenil Bay Area, STX
Manchenil Bay, Halfpenny Bay
High
The areas in St. Croix that were designated high priority areas are already protected. The East End Area represents healthy nearshore habitats which are likely to interact with Lang Bank, part of the most extensive coral reef system on the Puerto-Rican/Virgin Islands shelf. The Salt River Area represents the only significant mangrove stand on St. Croix. Protection of the sections under territorial jurisdiction can complement the function of the sections under federal protection.
The sketch map below shows the general areas rated highly for St. Croix
Figure 9:
St. Croix: High Priorities for Marine Protection
Two areas in St. Thomas achieved a high priority ranking. The Botany Bay Area, including Little St. Thomas, Salt and West Cay represents one of the healthiest marine environments around the island. High diversity of species and habitats has been documented and it is a nesting area for endangered sea turtles. The Mangrove Lagoon Area, including the closest cays and islands has been shown to be an important habitat for the juveniles of many species. While the habitat and water quality are somewhat degraded, the fact that the lagoon is the only significant mangrove area left on St. Thomas, and the high productivity it exhibits in spite of the obvious stresses, results in a high priority ranking.
Both of the high priority areas in St. John lie on the east end of the island. The Hurricane Hole Area is the only significant mangrove stand on St. John and complements the other habitats nearby that are already under protection by the US National Park Service and the British Virgin Islands National Parks Program. The Northeast Bays area creates a buffer zone for the National Park and protects a significant stand of Elkhorn coral, although these coral have been damaged.
The sketch map below shows the general areas rated highly for both St. Thomas and St. John. In this display, we have purposely sketched these areas generously to illustrate the opportunity for useful (if hard to implement) intergovernmental cooperation to achieve broader marine resource conservation and restoration objectives. The two areas in St. John are especially significant as potential supplements to existing Federal management of the current marine areas of the National Park, and the possible addition of the National Coral Reef Monuments.
Figure 10:
St. Thomas/St. John: High Priorities for Marine Protection
Relevant Policy Issues
For the purposes of this report, emphasis has been placed on ecological significance. The priority areas ranking discussed here does not take into account several important factors including:
Goals for management of marine protected areas in the Virgin Islands
Recreational and other non-consumptive uses of the areas
Feasibility of Implementation
Availability of Funding
Community Support
As information regarding these factors is determined, actual prioritization of areas to be considered for protection may be significantly different.
The priority ranking established here is only a snapshot of a dynamic and poorly understood system. It is a best approximation using the data currently available. As more information becomes available for individual areas, species or habitats or as the parameters of overall connectivity and the effects of marine protected areas, become more clearly defined, this study must be updated. Furthermore, changes in habitat or water quality will influence the ecological significance of an area and may lead to a change in overall ranking of an area. Any changes in the status of endangered or commercially significant species should lead to an update of this report. Last not least, any implementation of marine protected areas should have a noticeable effect on the marine environment and will require updating of this report.
References
Adams, A. and W. Tobias, 1993. Red mangrove prop-root habitat as a finfish nursery area: a case study of Salt River Bay, St. Croix, VI. Proceedings of the 46th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute
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Appendix A:
Summary of 150 VI Marine Sites and Data Availability
Appendix A: Summary of 150 Coastal Sites
Protection Possibility
Data Availability
Federal
Virgin Islands
Code
Name
Other
MR&WS
Other
Benthos
Fish
Water Quality
Impacts: Human & Natural
St. Thomas
Sail Rock
Savanna Island
Kalkun Cay
Fortuna Bay
Perseverance Bay
Runnel Bay
Brewers Bay
Nemeth, 2001
Nemeth, 2002
Saba Island, Flat & Turtledove Cays
Nemeth, 2001
Adams, 1975
Nemeth, 2002
Lindbergh Bay
Krum Bay
Water Island
Nemeth, 2002
Hassel Island
Crown Bay
St. Thomas Harbor
Pacquereau Bay
Morningstar Bay
Buck Island, Capella Island
Nemeth, 2001
Frenchman Bay
Green Cay
Little Colucus Bay
Bolongo Bay Reef
Bolongo Bay
Bovoni Bay
Stalley Bay
Frenchcap
Mangrove Lagoon
xx Volson, 2001
Adams, 1975
xx Volson, 2001
Benner Bay, Jersey Bay
Volson, 2001
Volson, 2001
Cow and Calf Rocks
xx Volson, 2001
xx Volson, 2001
Nazareth Bay
Cowpet Bay
Great & Little St. James, Dog Islands
Volson, 2001
Volson, 2001
Great Bay, Cabrita Point
Volson, 2001
Volson, 2001
Muller Bay
Vessup Bay
Red Hook Bay
Thatch - Congo Cays
St. John Bay
Shark Island
Smith Bay (Lindqvist Beach)
Water Bay
Coki Bay
Spring Bay
Sunsi Bay
Tutu Bay
Hans Lollick, Little Hans Lollick, Pelican Cay
Mandahl Bay
Lovenlund Bay
Magens Bay, Lerkenlund Bay
Hull Bay
Inner & Outer Brass Islands
Dorothea Bay
Neltjeberg Bay
Mail Bay
Caret Bay
Nemeth, 2001
Nemeth & Nowlis, 2001
Hendrik Bay
Santa Maria Bay
Stumpy Bay
Bordeaux Bay
Cockroach Cay, Cricket Rock
Dutchcap Cay
Botany Bay, Sandy Bay, Little St. Thomas
Salt Cay/West Cay
ST. JOHN
Steven Cay
Cruz Bay
Frank Bay
Turner Bay
Great Cruz Bay
Chocolate Hole
Rendezvous Bay
Wolff et al., 1999
Wolff et al., 1999
Fish Bay
XxNemeth 2001
Rogers & Beets 2001
xx Rogers & Beets 2001
Cocoloba Cay
Reef Bay/Genti Bay
Europa Bay
Little Lameshur Bay
Rogers & Beets 2001
Rogers & Beets 2001
Southeast Coral Reef
Catanzaro 2001
Great Lameshur Bay
Nemeth, 2001
Rogers & Beets, 2001
Rogers & Beets, 2001
Grootpan Bay
Kiddel Bay
Saltpond Bay
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Booby Rock
Drunk Bay
Johns Folly Bay
J20a
Lagoon Point
XAdams, 1975
LeDuck Island
Friis Bay
Johnson Bay
Sanders Bay
Coral Bay
Hurricane Hole, Round Bay
Privateer Bay
Flanagan Island
East End Bay
Newfound Bay
xx Rogers & Beets, 2001
Rogers et al, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers et al, 2001
Haulover Bay
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Mennebeck Bay
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Brown Bay
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Waterlemon Bay
Waterlemon Cay
Leinster Bay
Mary Creek
Mary Point
Whistling Cay
Francis Bay
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Maho Bay
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Cinnamon Bay
Wolff et al., 1999
Wolff et al., 1999
Trunk Bay, Jumbie Bay, Denis Bay
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Hawksnest Bay
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Rogers and Beets, 2001
Turtle Bay
Durloe Cays
Caneel Bay
Druif Bay Salomon Bay
Two Brothers
ST. CROIX
Sandy Point
Long Point Bay
Manning Bay
Krause Lagoon
Ruth Cay
Canegarden Bay
Manchenil Bay, Halfpenny Bay
Spring Bay
Fareham Bay
Great Pond Bay
x Mateo, 2001
Tobias, 1993
Tobias, 1998
Robin Bay
Mateo, 2001
Turner Hole
Mateo, 2001
Grapetree Bay
Jack Bay, Isaac’s Bay
East Point, Point Udall
Cottongarden Bay
Mateo & Tobias 2001
Mateo, 2001
Mateo & Tobias 2001
Knight Bay
Tague Bay
Mateo & Tobias 2001
Mateo, 2001
Mateo & Tobias 2001
Yellowcliff Bay
Mateo & Tobias 2001
Mateo, 2001
Mateo & Tobias 2001
Solitude Bay
Buck Island
XxBythell et al., 2000
Long Reef
XNemeth 2001
Coakley Bay
Prune Bay
Chenay Bay, Southgate Pond
Green Cay
Punnett Bay
Altona Lagoon (Shoy Beach)
Tobias, 1995
Christiansted Harbor, Gallows Bay
Protestant Cay
Salt River Bay
XNemeth 2001
x Adams and Tobias, 1993
Tobias, 1995
Cane Bay, Davis Bay
xx XNemeth 2001
Annaly Bay
Maroon Hole
Hams Bay
Butler Bay
Sprat Hole
Rainbow Beach
Fredriksted Harbor
Legend:
(Benthic/Fish data) Indicates General description information available
(Water Quality) Indicates Monitoring Site
xx –
(Benthic/Fish data) Indicates species specific, updated, detailed information available
(Water Quality) Indicates data available since 1998
Names in bold italics indicate areas identified as potential MPAs in Chapter 3.
Notes:
Other Protection status includes:  Sandy Point is designated as a marine reserve; Sail Rock is owned by UVI.
Appendix B:
Detailed Characterizations for Forty Priority Marine Sites
This Appendix includes a short site characterization summary for each area where enough data was available to make this a useful exercise. Efforts to collect current information on the status of marine resources in the US Virgin Islands included:
Review of historical and recent studies published and/or collected by Island Resources Foundation
Contacts with local scientists, government agencies, and other organizations involved in the collection of data related to USVI marine resources – (see list of contacts in Appendix D)
Contacts with local fisherman and recreational users of USVI marine resources
Appendix C:
Chronology of Previous MPA Efforts
1930: The U.S. Forest Service, after a survey of surviving forest areas in the US Virgin Islands noted “. . . in St. John there is a real opportunity for the establishment of a National Forest . . . [where] the steep slopes and the wind swept ridges should be kept perpetually in forest.” Ten thousand acres at $5.00/acre was the budgetary target. [Kramer, 1930] This is almost the identical size of the park created by the eventual Rockefeller gift in 1956.
Although not related to marine issues, this is the first evidence of site-specific concern for environmental conservation in the US Virgin Islands. This also begins the too-typical pattern of outsider enthusiasm for land or marine conservation in the Virgin Islands without evidence of local input, understanding or support.
1939: A visiting U.S. National Park Service team inspected and recommended that the island of St. John be developed as a new national park. This was only a preliminary screening that was followed by no action and ultimately stalled by the Second World War.
1943: Arthur Fairchild offered to give to the Virgin Islands people a 58.2 acre [23.6 hectares] park at Magens Bay on the north side of St. Thomas where he resided and had built an arboretum. He provided, in advance, a plan for a Park Management Authority. Government delays and paper work slowed the donation process, and the Deed of Conveyance was not completed until April 22, 1947. But the park still exists today, as a monument to his generosity, forward thinking, and insistence on an independent statutory authority with a separate board and management.
1952: Conservation philanthropist Laurance S. Rockefeller visited Caneel Bay and St. John on his yacht Dauntless as part of a larger Eastern Caribbean survey. The idea of combining a sugar plantation restoration/hotel within a park-like setting was of interest to him, and he returned to the island later to buy 600 acres at Caneel from the Textron Corporation and to build a resort at Caneel Bay.
Meanwhile, through intermediaries, Mr. Rockefeller had been acquiring acreage adjacent to the Caneel Bay Resort for an eventual donation to the US National Park Service.
The end result was creation of a small coastal “park” that featured coastal forests, historic buildings, a hotel, hiking trails, and eventually coral reefs and underwater trails. Meticulous attention was paid to landscaping, natural resource husbandry, and horticultural amenities. In spite of skepticism expressed about the economic feasibility of such great investment in environmental amenities, the critics were to be proven quite wrong over time, as the Caneel Bay Resort became one of the most profitable in the region.
1956: Dedication of the Virgin Islands National Park, St. John. Laurance Rockefeller transferred deeds for all property he had purchased outside of Caneel Bay to the National Park Service. The Caneel Bay hotel opened in December of 1956.
1960: [Survey #1]. In late 1959, at the suggestion of Mr. Rockefeller, the Department of the Interior joined forces with Virgin Islands Governor John D. Merwin and the St. Thomas and St. Croix Chambers of Commerce to sponsor a survey of recreational needs, sites and services in the USVI. Such sites were seen as possible St. Thomas and St. Croix supplements to the new National Park on St. John, then being assembled through a land acquisition program.
The needs survey was carried out by a licensed landscape architect, Kenneth B. Simmons, on contract to the National Park Service, following the protocol of the Congressionally authorized “Recreational Area Study Act” of 1936 [49 Stat. 1894]. This study was done specifically to encourage the Territorial Government to develop a territorial park system (similar to state park systems in the continental United States). The 65-page report contained dozens of illustrations and three USCGS foldout charts [#s 3242, 3240, and 3241). It provides evaluations of 23 territory-wide recreational sites and 37 proposed new candidate sites. Approximately half of these were coastal sites.
In retrospect, this 1960 Department of the Interior inventory was remarkable in its foresight, scope and ranking priorities. For example, four of the St. Croix sites that were highlighted some forty years ago—East End, Great Pond, Cramer Park and Salt River—have been consistently featured on virtually all subsequent survey efforts and have precedence to this day.
1961: The Buck Island Reef National Monument with 283 hectares of surrounding water and reefs was officially designated by the U.S. Department of the Interior, which was eager to set an example for the Territorial Government in protecting some of the offshore cays (see the 1960 survey).
1962: A marine component of 2,287 hectares [8.8 square miles] was added to the terrestrial area of the Virgin Islands National Park originally created in 1956. This opened up the unusual opportunity of developing an integrated land and sea marine park and tied the two ecosystems together in one “coastal system” planning framework. Furthermore, this “marine protected area” now stands, some 40 years later, as one of the oldest such sites in the world, a veritable working model of tested management practices and lessons learned regarding a tropical insular site.
1968: [Survey #2] Under sponsorship of the U.S. Department of the Interior, the Department of Landscape Architecture at the University of Massachusetts carried out a study of selected resources in the U. S. Virgin Islands and their relationship to recreation, tourism and open space. A subsequent report, entitled The Islands, was prepared by Dr. Irvin Zube. It included an extraordinarily detailed set of eleven maps and excellent reviews of shoreline zones, corals, offshore cays and resource concentrations. This report was not widely circulated as it openly favored the Jersey Bay/Mangrove Lagoon site on St. Thomas as a protected area, exactly where (at the time) the Virgin Islands Government proposed to construct a new airport.
1969: The Department of the Interior selected St. John’s Lameshur Bay as the preferred site for a “Man in the Sea” saturation diving project called TEKTITE, which was extended as a project into 1970s and attracted the attention of a number of well-known coral reef ecologists and fisheries biologists. Because of TEKTITE, the Governor’s office at this time had a parallel interest in promoting the Virgin Islands as a coral reef and marine ecosystem research center, but this never fully evolved (despite Interior’s encouragement and the investment of Fairleigh Dickinson University in the West Indies Lab on St. Croix).
The TEKTITE project was successful but was summarily moved to Puerto Rico. In this particular case, as in the later Virgin Islands and the Sea initiative, good intentions by Interior came to naught because of an absence of local political support, despite the fact that the Lieutenant Governor had been appointed head of a new Virgin Islands Marine Resource Council, which also accomplished little and eventually faded away. It was a lost opportunity.
Dr. John E. (Jack) Randall, famous for his studies of prototype artificial reef studies at Lameshure Bay, St. John, published a survey of global marine parks, entitled “Conservation in the Sea.” The booklet featured the Virgin Islands National Park’s underwater park areas. [Oryx, Fauna Preservation Society]
1970: [Survey #3] In July, the Department of the Interior sent a senior marine specialist, William Beller, to the Virgin Islands to head a citizens-based study team charged with looking at the Territory’s marine resources from a development and conservation perspective. After 100 volunteer “specialists” were recruited and dozens of public meetings held over a 90-day period, this ad hoc group produced a 170-page report filled with practical recommendations on “The Virgin Islands and the Sea”. The Lt. Governor’s Office issued a preprint with limited circulation, but the Governor’s Office declined to publish it and the venture never moved ahead to an implementation phase. Mr. Beller moved on to Puerto Rico and later to Hawaii, where he successfully developed similar ”Island and the Sea” community-based studies that were published and have, in recent years, been revisited with new updated editions.
1970-1974: The four-year period from 1970 to 1974 saw the emergence of several seemingly promising initiatives dealing with natural resources in the Territory, some of which were subsequently undone by later events.
Governor Ralph Paiewonsky had earlier taken a lead in searching for ways to obtain more lands for public use and open space. With the help of Stanley Cain (Department of the Interior), his administration had established the ingenious but short-lived and now-defunct Hess Oil Conservation Fund to purchase potential park land and open space areas. This was to be funded by a small royalty paid by Hess Oil on each barrel of crude oil imported by its refinery on St. Croix. Later the arrangement with Hess was abandoned and the fund dismantled. Although no significant parklands were ever purchased under its provisions and its appointed advisory board never met, there were expectations during the early 1970s that if appropriate conservation initiatives were launched, appropriations would be available to support them through the Hess Conservation Fund.
Quite unexpectedly, in 1972, Senate Act No. 3190 was proposed, calling for establishment of a “Territorial Park System” for the Virgin Islands. The objectives of the Act, sponsored by then-Senator Virdin Brown, were “to preserve and enhance landscapes and seascapes typical of the Virgin Islands, the habitats of wildlife and sea life and historical and archaeological sites.” Unfortunately, the Act also reorganized the relatively new Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs (predecessor to the current Department of Planning and Natural Resources), and the administration of then-Governor Melvin Evans was not interested in the proposed administrative reorganization. Therefore, apart from some serious planning, nothing happened. It was, in retrospect, a good idea whose time had not yet come.
During this period, submerged lands within the three-mile boundary limit were transferred by the Federal Government to the Territorial Government [Act No. 3667 entitled “Trustlands Occupancy and Alteration Control Act”). One objective of this act was to place inshore dredging activity under local monitoring and regulatory control. Federal oversight had proven insufficient.
In 1972, Alan Robinson, the Virgin Islands National Park’s resident scientist in St. John, completed a detailed development study and plan for a marine protected area at Lagoon Point, Coral Bay, St. John. No follow-up action was taken except the site later became an Area of Particular Concern (APC) in the draft Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program.
In 1973 [Survey #4], a three-island conservation inventory was undertaken by the Virgin Islands (federally funded) Soil Conservation Service. A professionally assembled report was published including a new inventory of public recreation sites (actual and proposed) with maps. An agenda for maintaining coastal water quality was included. The recreational sites were picked up under the State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP), published every 5 years since.
In 1974, DCCA’s Director of Planning and Development, Robert Mathes, recommended establishing “marine reserves within the Territorial Park System” for the protection of natural and/or cultural-historic marine resources. He sought to restrict some areas as “controls” to monitor environmental change elsewhere in the Territory. There was no follow-up.
In 1974, the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act was modified just prior to passage to include the Territory of the Virgin Islands. The Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Act was to be five years in the making [see below, 1979).
1975: The DCCA Director of Planning and Development, Robert Mathes, proposed specific new Territorial Marine Reserves as follows [Copy of typescript from Island Resources’ files; File name: DCCA/75/TP.]:
Appendix C, Table  1:
Proposed Territorial Marine Reserves, 1975
Proposed Territorial Marine Reserves: 1975
Priority 1
Priority 2
St. Thomas
Coki Point
Mandahl Bay and Salt Pond (environmental restoration experiment area)
Botany Bay/Sandy Bay
Jersey Bay/ Mangrove Lagoon (western portion)
St. Croix
Eastern St. Croix Reef System
Great Pond Bay
Long Point Mangrove Lagoon
Manning Bay Mangrove Lagoon
Altona Lagoon
Southgate Pond
St. John
Santa Monica Wreck Site
In 1975, Dr. Alan Robinson, formerly the Chief Natural Scientist in the VINP on St. John prepared an official survey of marine and coastal parks in the US. Of the 21 sites included, only the VINP and Florida park areas had the highest rankings of both prime significance and representative coverage in four classification categories. The paper was presented to the 1975 World Marine Parks Conference in Tokyo.
1976: The prospects of implementing Act No. 3190 to create a Territorial Park System (see above) improved when the bill’s sponsor, Senator Virdin Brown, was appointed Commissioner of Conservation under the new administration of Cyril E. King. Commissioner Brown, assisted by two of his assistants—Bob Mathes, who headed Planning and Development, and Tim Still, a park planner—prepared and circulated a work plan for implementing the long-awaited Territorial Park System [Survey #5]. The plan in outline form included a proposed budget of $199,000 of which $150,000 was designated for external consultants to support in-house staff). The work program anticipated:
… planning and developing the park system in an environment of scarce resources and a climate of cooperation. A first class, multi-faceted park system is the goal, comprehending conservationist, recreational, educational and managerial roles [Brown Memo, November 22, 1976).
Meanwhile, the 12,650 acre [5,118-hectare] Virgin Islands National Park on St. John and significant adjacent marine waters were formally designated as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO (after it was so nominated by the U.S. Department of the Interior). It is classified within the IUCN Uvardy System as a component of the Lesser Antillean biogeographic province.
1977: [Survey #6] The first draft of the U.S. Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program was developed under sponsorship of the U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. The process of assessing Areas of Particular Concern (APCs) and Significant Natural Areas (SNAs), each of which required site studies and ranking, began at this time. DCCA developed a list and map of SNAs, and the Planning Office prepared a selected list of APCs. [See the VI/CZM Program Plan, pp. 139 to 169 and/or the Impact Assessment Document, pp.84 to 107.) Sites identified included the following:
St. Thomas:
Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
Mandahl Bay Lagoon Restoration Area
St. Croix:
St. Croix Reef System Reserve
Green Cay
East End/Isaac Bay
Long Point Mangrove Lagoon
Manning Bay Mangrove Lagoon
Altona Lagoon
Southgate Pond
Salt River – Sugar Bay
Sandy Point
Great Pond Bay
St. John:
Lagoon Point
[Survey #7] Under contract with the Virgin Islands Planning Office, the Island Resources Foundation assembled a study team of scientists, geographers and planners with the aim of developing a planner’s handbook characterizing the component parts and functional elements of the Virgin Islands insular ecosystem (marine, terrestrial and benthic). This document, which was entitled Marine Environments of the Virgin Islands: Technical Supplement # 1 [Towle, 1977] and published in 1977, included an inventory of natural resources, an analysis of biophysical relationships, coastal zone planning guidelines and scoping information for resource management, including APC and SNA coverage and ranking.
1978.
Act No. 4163, authorized adding 121 acres, donated by Fairleigh Dickinson, Jr., to Cramer Park [St. Croix] as a territorial park, with a shore front easement for “studies in ecology, marine biology, oceanography, etc.” This area was to be named the Fairleigh Dickinson Territorial Park.
1979:
Act No. 4248 “Virgin Island Coastal Zone Management” was enacted by the V.I. Legislature. The actual Program Plan had been previously vetted by an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process carried out by the U.S. Department of Commerce.
[Survey #8] During this period (1978 and 1979) a team of lawyers from Chelsea International in Washington, DC was employed by the Office of the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Commerce under the framework of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Program. The team was charged with conducting a survey of four possible Marine Sanctuary sites in the Virgin Islands and identifying a preferred site to develop under the aegis of an emerging Virgin Islands Territorial Park System. A public hearing was held on the preferred site in 1978 while DCCA was reformulating the marine component of its stalled territorial park plan. Other sites on St. Thomas were later surveyed, and DCCA developed a Marine Sanctuary Advisory Board to help with site selection and planning.
In November 1979 NOAA (U.S. Department of Commerce) printed a Notice of Intent in The Federal Register to Prepare an Environmental Impact Statement for a proposed marine sanctuary in the Virgin Islands. Consultation began with other Federal agencies (Caribbean Fisheries Management Council, the Army Corps of Engineers, Department of the Interior), local NGOs and local fisheries cooperatives. The site selected, Jersey Bay, generated significant opposition from the Virgin Islands fishing community, and the planning process ultimately ended in a stalemate, with no marine sanctuary. [DCCA, 1979]
By the end of the decade, DCCA had been unsuccessful in developing systemic elements for its proposed system of parks and protected areas. This was due in part to the untimely death of Governor King, under whose administration planning for the concept was first carried out. His successor as governor, Juan Luis, did not place equal emphasis on development of a territorial park system, and focus shifted almost entirely to implementing the relatively new, Federally sponsored and funded Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program. For those concerned that prospective marine park and protected area sites continued to be at risk, the CZM planning initiative appeared to offer some hope through potential implementation of improved management strategies for selected coastal “areas of particular concern” (APCs) and “significant natural areas” (SNAs).
That expectation went mostly unrealized, as APC/SNA program implementation has never been undertaken. Between 1978 and 1980, none of the draft APC and SNA management plans developed were completed. A decade would pass before the subject would again be approached. In the meanwhile, the Territory’s fisheries, wetlands, beaches, historic sites, harbors and salt ponds would do without the policy guidance, management standards and protection tools normally associated with coastal resource management programs. Many of these are still not in place, even in draft or pilot form.
1980-1990:
However, times and priorities do change. The collective impacts of continuing development, over-fishing, and sediment discharge from land- and marine-based pollution began to raise new management questions with respect to the marine environment. Among resource managers and some government leaders there was a new focus on the need to protect some aspects of the coastal and marine resource base so that the remainder might prosper.
The decade of the 1980s saw the beginning of a change in perspective among some Virgin Islanders regarding the efficacy of natural area resource conservation. Some of the high points that led to more routine mechanisms of protection—especially marine reserves—are listed below.
1981:
Although no action had been taken on the 1972 Territorial Parks Act, a DCCA staff member, John Alexander, developed a preliminary policies and standards document for a Virgin Islands Park System. One noteworthy feature of this 90-page plan was that the marine areas of proposed parks—such as Magens Bay, St. Thomas’s Mangrove Lagoon and Salt River—were clearly included within proposed “park” boundaries. However, this park systems plan draft was never circulated widely, nor was it ever completed.
During this period, the Virgin Islands National Park came under more frequent and often harsh criticism from St. John’s residents. St. Johnians were disturbed by escalating land costs and by a seemingly pervasive number of National Park Service regulations limiting certain “traditional” natural resource uses (e.g., tying up private fishing craft to mangroves within the Park or using mangrove wood for fishpot construction and charcoal making). The VINP Superintendent, seeking opportunities to lessen the criticism, arranged in 1981 for the regional office of the NPS to contract with the Island Resources Foundation to undertake an economic impact assessment of the National Park on St. John. The EIA was designed to document the economic role played by the VINP, both in St. John and the in Virgin Islands Territory.
This study [Posner, Towle, et al. “Economic Impact Analysis for the Virgin Islands National Park.” Island Resources Foundation, St. Thomas. 95 pages, 1981.] was carried out by a team of economists and planners who concluded that the direct and indirect benefits of the Park were ten times greater than the costs. [The study was later featured in a 1990 book from Island Press by John Dixon on the Economics of Protected Areas, pp. 154-161.) It is noteworthy that the marine component of the VINP contributed significantly to the economic productivity and service support functions of the VI tourism industry, the Territory’s major employment sector.
1983:
DCCA circulated a much expanded and improved earlier draft of “Proposed Rules and Regulations for Territorial Marine Parks and Reserves.” [Copy of typescript draft from Island Resources’ files; File name: DCCA/83/TP.] They were filed without action.
Also in 1983, following UNESCO’s earlier selection of the National Park on St. John as a Biosphere Reserve, the U.S. Department of the Interior moved to fulfill its obligation to carry out a detailed biophysical characterization of the Reserve (essentially the island of St. John) and its adjacent submerged lands, reefs and coastal waters. To accomplish this, $500,000 was provided for the VINP to undertake this comprehensive study using a 13-member institutional collaboration that was eventually named the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC).
Coordinated by Island Resources Foundation, from 1983-1988, 30 separate studies were completed, principally of St. John’s marine and coastal ecosystems. The coastal inshore seabed was mapped in its entirety, watershed/reef linkages were explored, long-term monitoring sites were established, and management issues defined. A series of 30 separate VIRMC reports was published. They are still available [see the Chapter 6, References] and furnish a building block of information on the marine environment of the Virgin Islands. Furthermore, this five-year, half- million-dollar data assembly remains a model for interdisciplinary research and a reference point for any ongoing or proposed marine protected area research in the Territory.
1989:
In September 1989 Hurricane Hugo inflicted severe damage on many coastal ecosystems and the Territory’s fishing industry. The trauma of the storm had enormous impact and led to serious discussions about recovery and mitigation strategies as well as resource management options. Only two months after Hugo, the Division of Fish and Wildlife and the V.I. Senate's Natural Resources Committee discussed major changes in fisheries legislation and simultaneous closure of 9 reef and 13 sea grass areas to accelerate recovery. These discussions were carried over to the new decade.
1990:
In August, new Rules and Regulations for a Virgin Islands Marine Reserve System [Typescript draft from Island Resources’ files; File name: DPNR/F&WL/1990.]: were circulated by the Territory’s Division of Fish and Wildlife. The protected sites were mostly coastal inshore areas drawn only from St. Thomas. In retrospect, the exclusion of the rest of the Virgin Islands in the proposed system was a tactical error. The recovery scheme and proposed reserve system were not approved, and the idea was dropped.
1990 to Date:
The shock effect of Hurricane Hugo (September 17-18, 1989) and sundry storms and hurricanes that followed during the decade of the 1990s (especially hurricane Marilyn in September 1995) has not yet dissipated among the survivors, the social order and the environments of the several Virgin Islands. The events of September, 2001, only add to the sense of impermanence. The subtleties of the impacts still lurk everywhere. Therefore, planning for any expansive coastal or marine protected area is fraught with risk and needs to be done both with caution and “an eye to windward,” along with a mantra that is built upon the “cautionary principle” and grounded solidly in the historical record.
1990:
Just three-and-a-half months after Hugo, a senior staffer from the Department of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR) requested funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to undertake a field-level coastal damage assessment of the Territory. Aerial surveys had already been done by FEMA, specifically of heavily populated areas, to assess housing and infrastructure losses. Approval by NOAA and the local contracting process required an elapsed time of five months. It was not until June of 1990 that the Government of the Virgin Islands entered into a professional services contract with Island Resources Foundation to manage an interdisciplinary post-Hugo Damage Assessment and Environmental Recovery Planning Strategy. Somewhat hidden within the language of the contract was an interesting additional task—namely, “to manage a Feasibility Study for Development of a Virgin Island Territorial Park System”.
The project seemed like a grand case of serendipity. To utilize the recovery effort as a launching vehicle for a long-delayed territorial park system seemed to make good sense. But, in retrospect, there was an element of wishful, even naive thinking in this apparent stroke of good fortune, given the extent of Hugo damage to landscapes, seascapes, institutions and budgets.
The exercise was launched with a community-based open charette, led by Governor Alexander Farrelly and Onaje Jackson from DPNR. By this method, 35 reportedly damaged sites were nominated and ranked. An open voting arrangement was employed, using the Delphi strategy for ranking. The broad listing (which excluded Federal property and sites) included 11 APC sites, 26 SNA sites, and 17 Coastal Barrier sites, which suggests the selection process was by no means frivolous or self serving for charette participants.
Three months of somewhat frenetic on-site field work followed, carried out by several interdisciplinary teams who generated a flow of up-to-date damage assessments, vegetation and risk mapping, intervention options, remedial action plans, and triage-like data sorting, all leading to site profiles and a detailed 35-site data base [Survey #9].
A comprehensive nine-page matrix was designed and populated, including aerial, underwater and land-based photography, documentation, and water quality station index numbers. Damages were mapped with key word indexing and narrative summaries. The matrix also tracked the source and dates of prior site nominations for protected area status by type and ranking. The final reporting incorporated surveys of available and/or desirable adjacent land, mapped by parcel and showing parcel numbers and appraised costs for park acquisition.
All documentation and final reporting data were submitted to DPNR in 1990, but all files, documents, and data sets was apparently lost when DPNR facilities were struck by Hurricane Marilyn in 1995. One complete and one partial set survive in Island Resources Foundation’s document library, which is now housed at Coral World, St. Thomas.
The recommendations for territorial park site selection and an implementation strategy, as contained within this extensive post-Hugo resource assessment, have essentially been ignored in the intervening decade.
1991-2001: One of the more promising aspects of the Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program has been the prospect that APC management plans would provide needed conservation guidelines and site protection strategies for valuable resource features within each of the 18 identified APCs, all sited within the coastal zone. Unfortunately, it has been a discouraging story of delay, delay, and more delay.
Although part of the Virgin Islands CZM Program, APC planning was initially shunted aside (except for a half-dozen good-intentioned, rough-draft plans developed by Robert Teytaud, first under the direction of DCCA and later DPNR, in the 1980s). Nothing else was done until 1991 when Island Resources Foundation was contracted by DPNR to research and produce all 18 APC management plans in draft form in less than 24 months. Each draft plan was reviewed in a series of public meetings. A disagreement over the scope of the documents followed after all 18 APC plans had been accepted by DPNR), and the Island Resources-generated documents have since been redefined as background documents. Subsequent contractors, including the University of the Virgin Islands, have failed to complete the required “management plans” for a selected and limited number of APC sites. To date, no APC management plan has been approved by the Virgin Islands Legislature, a step required under CZM legislation prior to plan implementation. Thus far, the APC planning initiative has been a convoluted, generally disappointing planning exercise.
1992: In a short-lived newspaper called Sun2, editor-publisher Gary Schlueter reported that in St. Thomas there were 74 acres of public parkland, including 47 acres at Magens Bay; and 601 acres of public housing. [Schlueter, 1992]
1992: The[US] Omnibus Territories Act of 1992 created the Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve and a Virgin Islands Territorial Park Commission with the mandate to “see that all park management, development and interpretation activities should be guided by a single management plan. The Act also provided training funds for the Territory. [Schlueter, 1992] The plan is not yet completed.
1997: Sponsored by the Caribbean Fisheries Management Council (CFMC) in San Juan, a Fisheries Reserve—part of a Marine Conservation District—was proposed for the Territory as a fisheries management mechanism. The area identified for the Reserve was located off the southwesterly coast of St. John. Dr. Michael Downs, representing Impact Assessment, Inc., a California-based consulting firm, carried out a detailed socio-economic evaluation for the proposed District (a “no-take” zone)[Downs, 1997]. Opposition by local fishers and lack of Virgin Islands Government support resulted in the plan being a non-starter, and it was dropped by CFMC after a public hearing.
1999: The USGS Biological Resources Division studied alternatives for improved protection of local fisheries and coral reef resources in the US Virgin Islands. The result was a report and recommendation for a Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Park and Replenishment Areas [Garrison, 1999].
[Since this article was submitted a column in the Virgin Islands Daily News by Olasee Davis called our attention to an extensive survey—the 11th—of marine and coastal park recommendations that was produced in 1964, but which was never circulated widely in the US Virgin Islands.]
Appendix D:
Threatened and Endangered Species of the US Virgin Islands
This Appendix contains copies of endangered and threatened species documentation for National Marine Fisheries Service and the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources.
D.1.
Endangered and Threatened Species and Critical Habitat Under the Jurisdiction of the National Marine Fisheries Service
D.1.1.
U.S. Virgin Islands
Listed Species.
Scientific Name
Status
Date Listed
Marine. Mammals
blue whale
Baleaenoptera muculus
Endangered
12/02/70
finback whale
Baleaenoptera physalus
Endangered
12/02/70
humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae
Endangered
12/02/70
sei whale
Baleaenoptera borealis
Endangered
12/02/70
sperm whale
Physeter macrocephalus
Endangered
12/02/70
Caribbean monk seal
Monachus tropicalis
Endangered
03/11/67
Turtles
green sea turtle
Chelonia mydas
Threatened
07/28/78
hawksbill sea turtle
Eretmochelys imbricata
Endangered
06/02/70
leatherback sea turtle
Dermochelys coriacea
Endangered
06/02/70
loggerhead sea turtle
Caretta caretta
Threatened
07/28/78
D.1.2.
Species Proposed for Listing
None
D.1.3.
Designated Critical Habitat
Leatherback sea turtle: The waters adjacent to Sandy Point. US Virgin Islands up to and inclusive of the waters from the hundred fathom curve shoreward to the level of mean high tide with boundaries at 17( 42’ 12” and 64( 50’ 00”.
D.1.4.
Proposed Critical Habitat
None
Candidate Species
Scientific Name
Fish
jewfish
Epinephelus itajara
Nassau grouper
Epinephelus striatus
D.2.
ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS
OF THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
[Compiled by the Division of Fish and Wildlife (DPNR), the UVI Extension Service, Eleanor Gibney (Caneel Bay), Gary Ray (U. of Wisconsin) and William McLean (UVI).]
Scientific Name
Common Name
Distribution/Remarks
Plants
D.2.1.
Federal Plant List
Buxaceae
Buxus vahlii
Vahl’s boxwood
Endangered, St. X—May be extinct
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylium thomasianum
Prickly Ash
Endangered, St. T., St. J.
Myrtaceae
Calyptranthes thomasiana
St. Thomas Lidflower
Endangered, St. T., St. J.
D.2.2.
Virgin Islands Plant List
Agavaceae
Agave eggersiana
Eggers agave
St. X
Aizoanceae
Cypselia humifusa
St. T., St. J.
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex urbanii
Urban’s holly
St. J., Tortola
I. sideroxylloides
Central American oak
St. J.
Bromeliaceae
Tilllandsia lineatispica
Piñon
Rare bromeliad, St. J., St. T.
Cactaceae
Mammilaria nivosa
Wooly nipple
St. X., St. J., St. T., Offshore cays
Opuntia triacantha
Buck Is. (St. X.), St. T.
Celastraceae
Maytenus cymosa
St. X., St. T.
Convolvulaceae
Operculina triquetra
St. X., St. T., endemic
Euphorbiaceae
Croton fishlockii
Recent St. J. sightings
Fabaceae
Erythrina eggersii
Egger’s Cockspur
St. T., St. J., St.. X
Galactia eggersii
Egger’s galactia
St. T., St. J.
Malpighiaceae
Malpighia woodburyana
Cowage cherry
St. T., St. J., Offshore cays
M. infestissima (=pallens)
Stinging bush
St. X.
M. linearis
All VI
Malpighia sp.
Similar to M. coccigera, St. J.
Byrsonima sp.
New species? St. J.
Malvaceae
Psidium amplexicaule
St. J.
Psidium sp.
St. J., new species?
Sida eggersii
N. offshore cays
Myrtaceae
Eugenia sp.
Recent St. J. sightings
D.2.3.
Virgin Islands List
Mabuya mabouia
Slipperyback skink
Resident, breeding
Otus nudipes newtoni
VI Screech owl
Resident, breeding
Chordeiles gundlachii
West Indian nighthawk
Resident, breeding?
Anthracothorax dominicus
Antillean mango
Resident, breeding?
Podiceps dominicus
Least grebe
Resident, breeding?
Sterna antillarum
Least tern
Migrant, breeding
Phaethon lepturus
White-tailed tropicbird
Resident, breeding
Ardea herodius
Great blue heron
Resident, breeding
Casmerodius albus
Great (common) egret
Resident, breeding
Egretta thula
Snowy egret
Resident, breeding
Nycticorax nycticorax
Black –cr. Night heron
Resident, breeding
Ixobrychus exilis
Least bittern
Resident, breeding
Anas bahamensis
Bahama duck
Resident, breeding
Oxyura jamaicensis
Ruddy duck
Peripheral resident,
Rallus longirostris
Clapper rail
Resident, breeding
Fulica caribea
Caribbean coot
Resident, breeding
Charadrius alexandrinus
Snowy plover
Resident, breeding?
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus
Willet
Resident, breeding
Puffinus Iherminieri
Audubon shearwater
Migrant, breeding
Aratinga pertinax
Brown-throated parakeet
Resident, breeding
Columba leucocephala
White-crowned pigeon
Resident, breeding
Geotrygon mystacea
Bridled Quail dove
Resident, breeding
Myriarchus stolidus
Stolid flycatcher
Resident, breeding
Noctilio leporinus
Fisherman bat
Resident, breeding
Stenoderma rufum
Red fruit bat
Resident, breeding
Brachyphylla cavernarum
Cave bat
Resident, breeding
Order Antipatharia
Black coral
Marine benthic, high demand
Epinphelus itajara
Jewfish
Marine
The above list represents plants and animals occurring in the US Virgin Islands which are protected bv either the US Endangered Species Act of 1973 or the VI Endangered and Indigenous Species Act of 1990 (Act No. 5665). This list is promulgated under Act 5665, Section 104(g) mad may he revised as new information becomes available.
(signed) Roy E. Adams,
Commissioner DPNR
5 June 1991
Appendix E:
Maps and Recommended Mapping Resources
A list of sources and possible coverages, including the US Army Corps of Engineers imagery and mapping, more recent imagery, the NOAA biogeography mapping, the CDC mapping of vegetative communities, new soils maps, new USGS/USDA Soil Conservation Service mapping of [14] Federal Hydrographic Units (HUCs), DPNR mapping (by Island Resources and CDC) of 49 "management watersheds" for Unified Watershed Assessment and Restoration process
Available maps at the time of this publication are presented below. Five maps in Appendix E have been printed by the Conservation Data Center in 11x17 format; three other maps, copied from the Hurricane Hugo maps of potential Territorial Park sites, are also presented in pages E-8 to E-11.
Recommended Mapping
All of the current maps and future possible maps, as highlighted below should be available to the staff and experts of the VI Marine Advisory Committee in both hard copy and digital GIS formats for desktop overlays, statistical analysis, and further development.
Map of Marine Geographic Names. Current geographic names of the US Virgin Islands are insufficient to name and characterize the marine areas of the Territorial Sea. As part of the on-going consultation with the Virgin Islands public, DPNR should develop a more complete list of names and accurate locations for known marine features in the Territorial Sea and adjacent areas.
Map of Marine Zones. The biogeography team of NOAA’s National Ocean Service has shown maps of the bottom zones surrounding the major islands, based on the same data collection activities that developed the Benthic Characteristics maps. These “Zone” maps have different information from the Benthic Characteristics and should be used by planners. [Presented at the NOAA Mapping and Monitoring Conference in STT, 15 January 2002.]
DEM (Digital Elevation Model) Displays of Southern Virgin Banks. This was another tool presented as an early draft product by Rick Nemeth and the NOAA-ites. It could be important for supplementary information guidinng boundary determinations for areas offshore St. Thomas and St. John. It is uncertain whether this display is based on new bathymetric data. If so, the Committee needs this possible new data, as it is available.
Aerial photos collected by NOAA, 1999–2000. The NOAA biogeography web site <http://biogeo.nos.noaa.gov/projects/mapping/caribbean> has done an excellent job of presenting images from these extensive 1:48,000 scale overflights, but these data are not geo-referenced, and they lack the subtleties of coloration that would facilitate interpretation by non-professional users. The Marine Park Advisory Committee should seek both hard copies of the photos and a geo-referenced image format that they could use in a GIS.
Authoritative Map of the Boundaries of the Territorial Sea. The authority for the current mapping of the limits of the Territorial Sea of the US Virgin Islands is unclear. These need to be better documented or based on legally certified sources.
Map of Artificial Reefs, Fish Aggregation Devices and Submarine Cables. All of these human intrusions into the marine environment have received permits from DPNR, hence their locations should be known and mapped to aid in future planning.
Territorial Sea and Protected Areas of the USVI and
Marine Characteristics of the US Virgin Islands
The five maps which follow are facsimiles of 11” x 17” maps which are being submitted with the final version of this report. Most of the information in the larger format maps can be seen in these facsimile maps. High resolution graphic images of these maps are available on the CD-ROMs of this report and related documents distributed on request from Island Resources Foundation <marineresources@irf.org>.
Appendix F:
Copy of Terms of Reference
ATTACHMENT
TO PROFESSIONAL SERVICES AGREEMENT FOR
ISLAND RESOURCES FOUNDATION
July 16, 2001
SERVICES TO BE PROVIDED BY ISLAND RESOURCES FOUNDATION
Consistent with the governing Memorandum of Agreement between the University of the Virgin islands (UVI) and the Government of the Virgin Islands’ Department of Planning and Natural resources (DPNR), the Island Resources Foundation (IRF) will assist the University of the Virgin Islands (UVI) in developing a Marine Park Management Plan for the U.S. Virgin Islands through the preparation of a Resource Description report on the marine environment and resources of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Specifically, IRF will:
Review all available information on the marine environment in the US Virgin Islands, and assemble selected materials to provide:
Best current knowledge of habitat locations and extent;
The status of commercially, recreationally, and environmentally important marine species; and
Review of major socio-economic conditions affected by and affecting the marine areas of special concern, including previous efforts to implement protection status for various areas in the Territory.
Consult with various territorial and federal government agencies that conduct research on, and have responsibility for, the marine environment. Meet with representatives of public stakeholders such as fishermen and scuba divers, to obtain further industry-specific information.
Pinpoint marine areas and species of territorial, regional and global importance, and provide supporting documentation and mapping of priority habitat and marine park candidate areas, based on existing maps and location descriptions.
Describe areas where knowledge is lacking, and propose ways to obtain this information, including detailed mapping of resources and proposed boundaries.
In meeting the above objectives, IRF will undertake the following tasks:
Assemble selected relevant information on the marine environment of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Where it is not possible to obtain copies of relevant materials, the location, and requirements to access that information, should be noted.
Prepare a bibliography of the assembled information.
Prepare a report on the status of the marine environment, with special emphasis on important ecosystems, species, and other resources, including the threats to important resources.  A summary of past and existing initiatives to protect marine resources in general, or specific marine habitats, in the U.S. Virgin Islands should be included.
Meet with knowledgeable persons and relevant institutions to supplement information gathered from documents and databases.
Where appropriate, conduct rapid field surveys to update information on the most important resources/habitats.
Identify data gaps, and propose ways to obtain missing/relevant data.
Participate in meetings with DPNR, VI Parks Advisory Committee, and project collaborators as required.
DELIVERABLES
IRF’s efforts will result in the following products:
A Resource Description Report, summarising the status of the marine resources in the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Assembled documents and materials.
Bibliography of assembled documents.
List of names and addresses of persons contacted/interviewed during the assignment.
Appendix G:
List of Contacts for this Report
To be presented in the final document.
Appendix H:
Copies of Key Documents
This is a list of the documents which we hope to be able to provide to the archives of the Marine Park Advisory Committee together with the final version of this report.
In addition, we will provide a CD-ROM with copies of this document, multiple formats and resolutions of graphics developed for and displayed in this report and all other available documents that we can secure in electronic format.
Areas of Particular Concern: Background Studies
Selected VIRMC Studies
Characterizations of Recommended Territorial Marine Park Sites After Hurricane Hugo
Specific Documents to be copied, printed ,or presented on CD-ROM with the final version of this report:
Adams, A. and W. Tobias, 1993. Red mangrove prop-root habitat as a finfish nursery area: a case study of Salt River Bay, St. Croix, USVI Proceedings of the 46th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute.
Adams, A., 2001. The Importance of Lagoon Habitats of Bank-Barrier Reefs as Nurseries for Coral Reef Fishes. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA.
Alexander, J., 1981. Virgin Islands Park System (Draft Report). VI Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs, St Thomas, VI.
Anderson, M., Lund, H., Gladfelter, E. and M. Davis, 1986. Ecological Community Type Maps And Biological Descriptions For Buck Island Reef National Monument (St. Croix) And Proposed Marine Park Sites in The British Virgin Islands. Biosphere Reserve Research Report #4. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Beets, J. and C. Rogers, 2001. Changes in fishery resources and reef fish assemblages in a Marine Protected Area in the US Virgin Islands: the need for a no-take marine reserve. Proceedings of the 9th International Coral Reef Symposium. Bali, Indonesia.
Beets, J. and L. Lewand., 1986. Collection Of Common Organisms Within The Virgin Islands National Park/Biosphere Reserve.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #3. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Beets, J., Lewand, L. and E. Zullo, 1986. Marine Community Descriptions And Maps Of Bays Within The Virgin Islands National Park/Biosphere Reserve.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #2. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Boulon, R. 1986. Fisheries Habitat Of The Virgin Islands Region Of Ecological
Importance To The Fishery Resources Of The Virgin Islands
Biosphere Reserve.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #9. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Boulon, R. 1986. Long-term Monitoring Of Fisheries In The Virgin Islands Biosphere ReserveBiosphere Research Report #13. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Boulon, R. and I. Clavijo. 1986. Utilization Of The Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve By Artisanal Fishermen .Biosphere Reserve Research Report #11. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Boulon, R., 1986. Map Of Fishery Habitats Within The Virgin Islands Biosphere
Reserve.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #8. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Boulon, R., 1987. A Basis For Long-term Monitoring Of Fish And Shellfish Species In The Virgin Islands National Park.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #22. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Bythell, J., Hillis-Starr, Z. and C. Rogers, 2000. Local variability but landscape stability in coral reef communities following repeated hurricane impacts. Marine Ecology Progress Series, Vol.204:93.
Caribbean Fishery Management Council,  1999. Amendment Number 1 to the Fishery Management Plan for Corals and Reef Associated Plants and Invertebrates of Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands For Establishing a Marine Conservation District Including Regulatory Impact Review and Initial Regulatory Flexibility Analysis and a Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement. San Juan, PR.
Caribbean Fishery Management Council, 1994. “Description of the fishing Activity in the Proposed Marine Conservation District South of St. John US Virgin Islands. San Juan, PR.
Caribbean Fishery Management Council, 1999.  Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for Amendment Number 1 to the Fishery Management Plan for Corals and Reef Associated Plants and Invertebrates of Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands for Establishing a Marine Conservation District. San Juan, PR.
Chelsea International Corporation, 1983. National Marine Sanctuary Site Evaluations: recommendations and final reports. Prepared under contract for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Sanctuary Programs Division. Washington, DC.
Dammann, A. and D. Nellis, 1992.  A Natural History Atlas to the Cays of the US Virgin Islands. Pineapple Press, Inc. Sarasota, Florida.
Dammann, A., 1986. Assessment Of Fish And Shellfish Stocks Produced In The Biosphere Reserve.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #10. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Earhart, J., Reilly, A. and M. Davis, 1988. Initial Inventory Of Three Permanent Forest Plots In The Virgin Islands National Park.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #26. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Garrison, G., 1999. Scientific Background for the Selection of Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Park Boundaries and Replenishment Areas, A report to Virgin Islands National Park Service, St. John, US Virgin Islands.
Graves, C.; L.Vaultes; D. Vosick; B. Neely; K. Wheaton; J. Touval; B. Runnels, 2000. Designing a Geography of Hope: A Practitioner’s Handbook for Ecoregional Planning, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA.
Hubbard, D., 1987. A General Review Of Sedimentation As It Relates To Environmental Stress In The Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve And The Eastern Caribbean In General..Biosphere Reserve Research Report #20. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Hubbard, D., Stump, J. and B. Carter, 1987. Sedimentation and Reef Development In Hawksnest, Fish, and Reef Bays, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Biosphere Reserve Research Report #21. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1992. Cruz Bay/Enighed Pond (St. John) Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1992b. East End (St. Croix) Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1992c. Great Pond Bay (St. Croix) Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1992d. Magens Bay (St. Thomas) Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1992e. Vessup Bay/Red Hook (St. Thomas) Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993a. Botany Bay (St. Thomas) Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993b. Chocolate Hole/Great Cruz Bay (St. John) Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993c. Christiansted Waterfront (St. Croix) Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993d. Coral Bay (St. John) Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993e. Frederiksted Waterfront (St. Croix) Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993f. Mangrove Lagoon/Benner Bay (St. Thomas) Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993g. Mandahl Bay (St. Thomas) Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993h. Salt River Bay (St. Croix) Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993i. Sandy Point (St. Croix) Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993j. Southgate Pond/Chenay Bay (St. Croix) Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993k. Southshore Industrial Area (St. Croix) Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993l. St. Croix Coral Reef System Area of Particular Concern and Area of Preservation and Restoration: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993m. St. Thomas Harbor and Waterfront  Area of Particular Concern: Draft Management Plan. Background studies prepared under contract for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Zone Management. St. Thomas, VI.
Knausenberger, W., Matuszak J. and T. Thomas, 1987. Herbarium Of The Virgin Islands National Park: Consolidation And Curation Of A Reference Collection. Biosphere ReserveBiosphere Research Report #18A. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Koester, S. 1986. Socio-economic And Cultural Role Of Fishing And Shellfishing In The Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #12. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Mateo, I and W. Tobias. ? The role of nearshore habitats as nursery grounds for juvenile fishes on the Northeast Coast of St. Croix, USVI.
Mateo, I. and W. Tobias, 2001. Distribution of shallow water coral reef fishes on the northeast coast of St. Croix, USVI. Caribbean Journal of Science, 37, No 3-4: (in press)
Mateo, I., 2001. Final Report: Recreational Fisheries Habitat Assessment Study, St. Croix, F-7, 1995-2000. US Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
Mateo, I., 2001b. Final Report: Recreational Fisheries Habitat Assessment Study, St. Croix, F-7, 2000-2001.  US Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
Matuszak, J., Craft E. and W. Knausenberger, 1987. Establishment And Soil Characterization Of Long-term Forest Monitoring Plots In The Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere ReserveBiosphere Research Report #18B. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Nemeth, R. and J. Sladek Nowlis, 2001. Monitoring the effects of land development on the near-shore reef environment of St. Thomas, USVI. Bulletin of Marine Science 68: (in press)
Nemeth, R. and L. MacDonald, 2001. Delivery, Deposition and Effects of Land-based Sediments on Coral in St. John, US Virgin Islands. Water Resources Research Institute, Project Number VI99-02. University of the Virgin Island, St. Thomas, VI.
Nemeth, R., 2001. Assessment of Virgin Islands coral reefs using the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment. F, Final Report. US Department of Interior.
Nemeth, R., 2002. The Connectivity of Fishery Resources among the US and British Virgin Islands: Investigating Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Larval Fish Supply and Settlement, Final Report. Puerto Rico Sea Grant College Program.
Nichols, M., 1988. Man’s Long-term Impact On Sedimentation: Evidence From Salt Pond Deposits.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #23. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Putney, A. 1987. Conceptual Framework For The Management Of The Virgin Islands Biosphere ReserveBiosphere Research Report #16. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Putney, A. 1987. Data Synthesis And Development Of A Basis For Zoning Of The Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #15. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Ramos-Perez, C. and C. Gines-Sanchez, 1988. Geochemistry Of St. John And Influence On Marine Systems.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #27. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Roberts, C., Bohnsack, J., Gell, F., Hawkins, J. and R. Goodridge, 2001. Effects of Marine Reserves on Adjacent Fisheries. Science 294:1920.
Rogers, C. 1988. Recreational Uses Of Marine Resources In The Virgin Islands
National Park And Biosphere Reserve: Trends And Consequences.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #24. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Rogers, C. and E. Zullo, 1987. Initiation of a long-term monitoring program for coral reefs in the Virgin Islands National Park. Biosphere Reserve research report # 17. Prepared under contract by Island Resources Foundation for the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC), with funding from the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. St. Thomas, VI.
Rogers, C. and J. Beets, 2001. Degradation of marine ecosystems and decline of fishery resources in marine protected areas in the US Virgin Islands. Unpublished paper.
Rogers, C. and R. Teytaud, 1988. Marine and terrestrial ecosystems of Virgin Islands National park and Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve research report #29. \Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Rogers, C., et al., 2001. Status of Coral Reefs in the US Virgin Islands (2000)
Rogers, C., Miller, J.and R.J. Waara, 2001. Tracking changes on a reef in the US Virgin Islands with videography and SONAR: a new approach
Tobias, 1995. The determination of mangrove habitat for nursery ground of recreational fisheries in St. Croix, Final Report,1991-1995. US Department of the Interior,  Fish and Wildlife Service.
Tobias, 1998. Mangrove habitats for nursery grounds of recreational fisheries of St. Croix, 1995-1997.US Department of the Interior,  Fish and Wildlife Service.
Tobias, W. 1993. Mangrove habitat as Nursery Grounds for Recreationally Important Fish Species – Great Pond, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
Tobias, W., Telemaque, E. and M. Davis, 1988. Buck Island Fish And Shellfish Populations.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #26. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Tobias, W., Telemaque, E. and M. Davis, 1988. Buck Island Fish And Shellfish Populations.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #26. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Towle, E., D. Grigg, W. Rainey, et al., 1976. Marine environments of the Virgin Islands. Technical supplement no. 1. Prepared under contract by Island Resources Foundation for the Virgin Islands Planning Office, Coastal Zone Management Program. St. Thomas, VI.
Towle, E., et al., 1991. Hugo’s coastal impacts: damage, recovery, and revival of the Territorial Park System. Prepared under contract by Island Resources Foundation for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources. St. Thomas, VI.
Tyson, G. 1987. Historic Land Use In The Reef Bay, Fish Bay, And Hawksnest Bay Watersheds, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands, 1718-1950.  ReserveBiosphere Research Report #19. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
Volsen, B., 2001. Final Report: Recreational Fisheries Habitat Assessment Project, St. Thomas/St. John, F-7, 1996-2000. US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
Wilder, R., Tegner, M. and P. Dayton, 1999. “Saving Marine Biodiversity,” Issues in Science and Technology, Spring 1999
Williams, S., 1988. Assessment Of Anchor Damage And Carrying Capacity Of Seagrass Beds In Francis And Maho Bays For Green Sea Turtles.Biosphere Reserve Research Report #25. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). St. Thomas, VI.
In Section 2.1,below, each of these wide ranging environmental assessments is labeled as “[Survey #1],” “[Survey #2],” etc.
See Appendix A and B for lists of references for each site.
An “x” in this column means that in the course of the several public meetings and consultations with stakeholders and members of the three island communities that there were specific comments offered in support of some level of protection for the marine areas associated with this site.
Towle, E., et al., 1991. Hugo’s Coastal Impacts: damage, recovery, and revival of the Territorial Park System. Prepared under contract by Island Resources Foundation for the VI Department of Planning and Natural Resources. Four volumes plus Executive Summary. St. Thomas, VI.
The sub-title of this report notwithstanding, the Virgin Islands did not in 1991 have a Territorial Park System with a marine component.
Botany Bay has recently been re-zoned by the Virgin Islands Legislature, pursuant to announced plans to develop it as a major vacation resort and condominium home site.
Green turtles are listed as threatened, except for breeding populations of green turtles in Florida and on the Pacific Coast of Mexico, which are listed as endangered.
Candidate species are not protected under the Endangered Species Act, but concerns about their status indicate that they may warrant listing in the future. Federal agencies and the public are encouraged to consider these species during project planning so that future listings may be avoided
Marine Protected Areas
12 February 2002
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Resource Description Report
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Marine Protected Areas
Resource Description Report
14 August 2002
Marine Protected Areas
Resource Description Report
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Marine Protected Areas
Resource Description Report
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Resource Description Report
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Marine Protected Areas
Resource Description Report
14 August 2002
Resource Description Report
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Appendix A: Summary of VI Marine Sites and Data Availability
Resource Description Report
Page A-
PAGE
Appendix B: Detailed Characterizations for 40 Priority Marine Sites
Resource Description Report
Page B-
PAGE
Appendix C: Chronology of Previous MPA Efforts
Resource Description Report
Page C-
PAGE
Appendix D: Endangered Species of the USVI
Resource Description Report
Page D-
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Appendix E: Mapping and Recommended Mapping for this Report
Resource Description Report
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PAGE
Appendix F: Copy of Terms of Reference
Resource Description Report
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Appendix G: List of Contacts for this Report
Resource Description Report
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Appendix H: Copies of Key Documents
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