DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF EDUCATION
.
BULLETIN, 1919, No. 88
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF
EDUCATION
1916-18
IN FOUR VOLUMES
VOLUME I
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1921
THE UNITED STATES
BUREAU OFP\EDUCATION.
Created as a Department March t, 1867.
Made an office of the interior Department July 1, 1869.
COMMISSIONERS.
HENRY BARNARD, LL.
Maroh74:,- 1867, to March 15, 1870.
JOHN EATON, PH.. D., LL. D.,
March 16, 1870, to August
1886.
NATHANIEL H. R. DAWSON, L. H. D.,
August 6,1886, to September 3, 1889.
WILLIAM T. HARRIS, PH. D., LL. D.,
September 1.5, 1889, to June 80, 1906.
ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, Pn. D., LL. D.,
July 1, 1906, to JIM 80, 1911.
PHILANDER PRIESTLEY ,CLAXTON, Lirr. D., LL. D.,
July 8, 1911, to June 1, 1921.
JOHN JAMES TIGERT, M. A. (OxoN), I.L.
June
1921, to date..
2510-i6
DEC 13 1..21
.tr/4-3
Io
88
.A(.0
79 9
BB
CONTENTS.
Page.
Chapter I.A survey of higher educationBy Samuel P. Omen and
Walton C. John
5
Chapter 11.Medical educationBy N. P. Colwell. M. D
71
Chapter 'In.Engineering educationBy F. L Bishop
97
Chapter IV.Commercial educationBy ,Frank V. Thompson
105
Chapter V.Public education in the cities of the United Stan',
115
The larger cities By J. 11 Van Sickle and John Whyte_
115
The smaller cities-43y W. S.. Deffenbaugh
125
Chapter VI.Rural educationBy H. W. Foght
159
Chapter VII.Secondary educationBy Thomas H. Briggs
155
ChapterVIILInstruction in artBy Walter Sargent
227
Chapter IX.-Instruction in masieBy Waldo S. Pratt
257
Chapter X.Vocational education-By William T. Bawden
269
Chapter XI.Agricultural edecatiodBy C. H. Lane
297
Chapter X ILThe United States School Garden ArmyBy J. 11. Francis'_
335
Chapter XIII.Kindergarteq educationBy Alndra.M. Winchester
339
Chapter XIV. Home economicsBy Mrs. Henrietta W. Calvin and
Carrie A. Lyford
355
Chapter XV.Home educationBy Ellen C. Lombard
391
Chapter XVI.Educational hygiene By Willard S. Small
403
Chaser XVII.Recent progress in Negro education -By Thomas Jesse
Jones___
423
Chapter XVIILEducational surveys By Edward Franklin Buchner
437
Chapter SIX. Review of educational legislation, 1917 and 1918--By.
William R. Hood
491
Chapter XX.Library activities, 1916-1918
527
Chapter XXLEducational work of the churches
553
Chapter XXILEducational work of the Young Men's Christian As,So-
ciations-By William Orr
606
Chapter XXIII.EducatIOnal work of the Boy ScoutsBy Lorne W.
Barclay
663
Chapter XXIV.Girl Scouts as an educational forceBy Juliette Low
677
Chapter XXV.Education In the Territories and dependencles
683
Education to Porto RicoBy Paul G. Miller
683
Education in the Canal ZoneFrom report of A. R. Lang
708
The Virgin IslandsFrom report of the school director
711
HawaiiBy Henry W. Kinney
712
The Philippine public-school systemBy W:` W. Marquardt
718
Education in Alaska
733
-
_
758
3
CHAPTER I.
A SIMI-F,V OF HIGHER EDIT NTTO.I'si.
By SAAILML P. CAPEN AND WALTON C. JOHN.
CONTENTS.Part I. Higher education in the. period preceding the war: Standardizing
agenciesThe Junior collegeFifty years of. the land-grant collegesA new associa-
tion, the American Asso, Intim of University Instructors In AccountingUniversity
surveys and the survey movementThe Supreme Court of Massachusetts sets aside
the Harvard-Technology agreementThe Rhodes scholarshipsThe Carnegie pen-
sion and insurance schemesAcademic freedom of speechTwo State institutions
attackedSpecial legislation touching higher educationAmericanization.
Part II.
The colleges and the war : Problems raised by the warTraining and the effective
organization of training agencies for national serviceUniveratty committee of the
advisory commission of the Council of National DefenseIndependent action by
colleges in preparation for war serviceStudents and the draftFurther efforts to
secure Federal direction of civilian training agenciesCommittee on the relation
of engineering schools to the Government
Emergency (American) Council on Educa-
tionCommittee on education and special training of the War Department.
HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE PERIOD PRECEDING THE WAR.
PART I.
-
The year 1916-17 undoubtedly marks the close of an important
epoch in the history of higher education in the United States.
It is
impossible to foretell as yet what changes will be wrought in the
purposes, methods, and control of higher institutions by the war.
But the events mentioned in the closing sections in this review have
so completely interrupted the old order, have to such an extent broken
up the mold of academic thought, that the calm resumption of the
processes and ideas of the past decade is unthinkable. It may there-
fore be worth while to consider very briefly what have been the main
tendencies and achievements in the field of higher education during
the past 25 years.
Since the last decade of the nineteenth century there has been no
considerable increase in thquminber of collegiate institutions.
Twen-
ty-five years ago there were 594 colleges and universities. In the
current Report of the Conunissiol or of Education there are listed .
574 colleges, universities, and technological schools, and 85 independ-.
ent junior colleges, ss total o? 662 institutions Aich report giving
instruction above high-school grade. The slight increase in the
total number of higher institutions is due to the recent multiplication
of junior colleges.
There has, in fact, been a decrease in colleges of
the older type since 1893.
As the benefactions to higher education
have been more numerous and substantial in the list 25 years than.
4
eIMINIIII1111111110111MIN
6
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
ever before, it would appear that there are approximately founda-
tions enough to provide higher educational facilities for those that
need and desire them. The distribution of collegiate institutions is,
however, very uneven. The East and Middle West are well supplied.
The States west. of the Mississippi River, on the other hand, exhibit
an irregular scattering of higher institutions which, unfortunately, in
many regions bears little relation to the distribution of the population
to be served.
It may be a safe prediction that new foundations of
regular collegiate institutions, if deemed. necessary at all, are more
likely to be made in this region than ill the other sections of the
country.
,
In general, the need of the Nation is not so much to increase the
number of higher educational institutions as to improve the quality of
many of them.
There is still a vast difference, as has been implied in
previous reports, between what is understood as collegiate and uni-
versity training in the more favored communities and what goes
under the same name in communities served by ill-equipped, under-
staffed institutions.
The remarkable growth in the wealth and itntterial equipment of a
considerable percentage of,, higher institutions empliasizessithis dis-
crepancy in quality.
The excellence of higher edfication does not
depend on money alone.
Nevertheless, the possession of certain
material resources makes it easier for an institution to attain ex-
cellence.
The well-endowed private colleges and the liberally sup-
ported State institutions have therefore set a pace in improving
educational standards which less fortunate institutions have found it
\difficult or impossible to follow.
The remarkable 'expansion of
higher education on the material side is indicated by the amounts
spent for it 25 years ago and in the year just preceding the war. In
1893 the national expenditure for higher education was $22,944,776
and in 1916, $110,532,396.
The increase in the number of persons
served during the sane period is almost equally striking.
In 1893
the total collegiate enrollment in the United States' was 110,50, in
1916 it was 829,387.
It is clear, then, that although the number of
.
. higher institutions has not increased very much, there has been a
large increase in the amount of higher education provided.
This increase in the amount of higher education corresponds, of
-course, to an increasing demand' for it.
Indeed, one of the most
patent tendencies of the last quarter of a century has been the,
democratization of coll'sge education. Twenty-five years ago it was
regarded as the privilege of the select few,. the selection not being
Made, hoWever, wholly on the baths of wealth or any other artificial
class distinctions. The combined pressure of State institutions, large
Oilman:pie enterprises, and the.Propaganda of leading educational
1.
HIGHER EDUCATIbN.
7
writers led to the gradual spread of the belief that not only should
college education be open to everybody, but that ,nearly everybody
should have it. A certain reaction is to be noted in very recent years
from this extreme position. The experiences of higher.institutions
with large numbers of persons of innate mental limitations has led*
to the growing conviction among university and college officers that,
after all, higher education is for the few and not for the many. But
the few must be selected by me. hods more liberal and democratic
than any which have yet been devised.
Coincident with the tendency mentioned in the last paragraph has
been the expans
and liberalization of, the college curriculum. A
quarter of a ce
u
ago there was practically but one curriculum for
colleges of
ts am sciences.
Already, however, the virus of the
'..elective sys m,, as put into practice by Harvard, was making itself
?elt. By the end of another 10 years it had swept the United States,
and the reaction against it in its extreme,form had begun to set in.
Having been freed through the elective system from the shackles of
an antiquated and outworn scheme- of studies, institutions now began
to grope for some new unifying principle to guard against the
dangers of intellectual license which appeared in the general working
out of the elective system. The new mechanism is the group system.
Under various manifestations this principle of curriculum formation
has been generally adopted in the public and nonsectarian institutions
of the country.
Certain colleges and universities under denomina-
tional auspices retain in +substance the formal curriculum of the late
nineteenth century.
The liberalization of college curricula has gone hand in-hand with
a closer articulation between colleges and seconder), schools. In fact,
the problem of perfecting ibis articulation has occupied perhdps an
undue amount of the attention of associations of both college and
school officers during the past quarter of a. century.
On the one
hand, the schools, responding to a 'vigorous popular pressure, hive
asserted their right to an independent development, free from the
dOmination of higher institutions.
On the other;the colleges, yield-
ing to the new doctrine .of the extension of higher education (andito
the ever-present urge for numbers), have abated the rigid pre-
scriptions of subjects which were common 25 years ago. The decline
of the entrance examination and the development of accrediting sys-
tems are complementary Movements during this period. The present
. extent of coordihation between the colleges and secondary'chools is
indicated in this review (see p. 9)."
Foremost in this movement have been naturally the State -sup-,
ported higher institutions.
These, whitch were-conceived as the apex
of thefschool systems of their respective States,have, won their way
to a degreof influence and popularity which cold n of have been-
.
8
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
forenen 25 years ago.
Indeed, the enormous expansion of State
univdrsities and state colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts is
one of the outstanding features of the recent history of higher educa-
tion in this country,
The variation in the excellence of the work done by different types
of higher institutions has already been alluded to. With the growth
in the number of persons availing themselves of higher educational
opportunities, arid the increasing 'nobility of the population of the
United States, colleges have been brought into ever-closer and more
frequent comparisons with one another. Migrations of students from
one institution 'to another have become more and more common.
Larger numbers have gone forward every year ffom the baccalau-
reate course to professional and graduate study. The discrepancies
in standards, therefore, become painfully apparent. One of the most
important tendencies of the last 15 years has been the, tendency
toward standardization of higher institutions.
(This carries with it
also a certain amount ol standardization of secondary schools.)
A.
large number of agencies have first and last engaged in this work.
Associations of higher institutions, both regional and national, inde-
pendent educational foundations, church boards, and several govern-
mental offices have all played a part. If it were possible to measure
higher education or the efficiency of institutions by purely objeCtive
criteria applied to the institution and not to its product, one might
regard the problem of standardization as solved. Nearly all of the
agencies just referred to have elaborated and defined such quantita-
tive measurements as may baopplied to an orgimizilkm which after
all eludes the most preciso measuring stick.
W
undoubtedly
much gond has been accomplished by the activitievif standardizing
agencies, it is only just to record that there has been also a certain
amount of damage. The American educational public has conic to
think too largely in terms of credits, counts, or material equipment.
Confirmation of this statement appears in the evidence recorded in
the last five Reports of the Commissioner of:Educatlen, and in the
proceedings of nearly every sectional and national ed)cational asso-
ciation. Fortunately the reaction against the tendency to estimate all
education in quantitative terms
already set in.
It should be ac-
celerated by the educational ex
ences of the war.
Later in the report mention is madwf the extraordinary growth
of land-grant colleges and the developMnt of university courses in
applied science.
No doubt _the foreign observer would find this
phase of our recent educational history the most impressive of all.
The relative strength of the liberal college has declined in forror of
the vocational higher institution.
Colleges and universities not un-
deifitate;control, and primarily f9unded for to purpose of provid-
MOHO EDUCATION.
ing education in the liberal arts, have been forced by public demand
to add numerous professional curricula, such as commerce, journal-
ism, business administration, and the several varieties of engineering.
But in this great movement the land-grant colleges and the State
universities have been the leaders.'
STANDARDIZING AGENCIES.
,
NON-STATE ACCREDITING AND EXIRMINING BOARDS.
Perljaps no question has occupied the time of college and high-
school officers 'Dory than the administration of college entrance .re-
quirements. The orgqnizations charged with the responsibility of con-
trolling entrance examinations have increased in number till they
now jnfluence nearly every secondary school of significance in the
United States. A numerical summary of the extent of this activity is
given in the following pargraphs.
THE NEW ENGLAND C01.1.FA:F. ENTRANCE CERTIFICATE BOARD.
The sixteenth annual report of the New England College Entrance
Certificate Board states that
the total number of schools that had the certificate privilege last year from
the board Is 543, of which 81 had the specimen certificate privilege. Fouhtun-
tired and fifteen of these (about 76 per cent, as against 84 per cent last year)
sent one or more pupils on certificate to the colleges represented on the board.
At the present time there are 47 schools on the trial list, 429 on the fully ap-
proved list, making a total of 476.
To these may be added 74 schools that had
the right of sending special students on certificate, making a 'grand total of.550
schools that have the certificate privilege of the board for the cowing year.
The following institutions comprise the mernberAip of the New
England College Entrance Certificate Board : Amherst College, Bates
College, Boston University, Bowdoin University, Brown University,
Colby College, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Middlebury Col-
lege, Mount Ilfolytke College, Smith College, Tufts College,-Univer-
sity of Vermont, Wellesley College, Wesleyan University, Williams
College.
THE CO'LLEOS ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD.
The College Entrance Examination Board examined 9,265 candi-
dates during the year 1916-17.
According to the secretary's report,
988 schools sent candidates to the board's examinations. Of these,
525 were public schools and 463 private schools, sending 2,823 and
6,071 candidates, respectively.
In addition there were 371 candidates
who were conditioned college students or were prepared by private
tutors or were self-prepared or neglected to state how they received
-their preparation. The public schools sent to the examination 961
fewer candidates than last year, the loss in boys being 792 and in
10
r BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
.
girls 169. From the private schools there was a loss of 403 boys
which was offset in part by a gain of 113 girls.
The total number
of boys taking the board's examinations in 1918 was less than last
year by 1,338.
I NCRI:ASLNG RECOGN ITION OF THE COM PREHIt ICE EX AMIN ATION PLAN.
" Notwithstanding the fact that the number of candidates 'taking
the board's examinations was less this year than last, the number of
candidate!; presenting themselves under the new plan of admission
increased from 495 to 580." In 1918 this number has increased to 75-2.
Under this plan the certificate and examination methods of admin-
sion are combined. The candidate presents a certificate from the
secondary school testifying to the quantity of work covered. The
college takes a sample of the quality by examining him in four sub-
jects.
The examination is designed to test the candidate's general
knowledge of a given subject and his intellectual power, not to ascer-
tain whether he has mastered a prescribed book or course.
THE NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools
at the meeting of March '23-24, 1917, reported 108 colleges, 51 insti-
. tutions primarily for the training of teachers, and 8 junior colleges
on its list of accredited higher institutions. Altogether, 1,225 schools
reported, of which 1,164 were finally accredited; 913 were accredited
unqualifiedly, 215 were accredited,,with warning, 39 of the old schools
were dropped, and 75 new schools were added.
Till ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND
EPARATORY SCHOOLS OF THE MIDDLE STATES,.
AN
MARYLAND.
The Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools bf the Mid
dle States and Maryland reported for 1917 a membership of 68 uni-
versities and colleges and 154 secondary schools.
THE ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE SOUTHERN STASSfe
The Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the South-
ern States reported for 1917 a membership of 42 universities and
colleges and 47 secondaryschools.
Taken altogether, the foregoing reports show for the year 1917,
the number of 2,896 public and private secondary schools which are
directly affiliated with one ct,r more of these six accrediting or ex-
amining organizations.`
STATE ACCREDITED SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
The following table shows, for the year 1916, 8,075 secondary
schoole on the accredited lists of State boards of education or State
t,
universities, or both.
high schools reported
observe that at least 58
a State standardizing
Summary ofState or
States.
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware.
District of Columbia..
Florida
(leorgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri.
Montana
a
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey.
Now Mexico..
Now York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma .. . ...... y.
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming,
Total .
HIGHER EDUCATION.
11
As the' total number of public and private
for 1916 is about 14,00Q, it is of interest to
per centof the high schools are connected with
or accrediting agency.
credited secondary schools in the rnited States. 1916.
(The cm. s ( X) mains yes.)
.tctred- '.Stored
iteilna.
iLedy
ary
State
schools. board.
121
44
278
73
64
11
II
x
x.
.......
50
X
97
7r,
.
462
X
431
3.51
385
191
too
199
61
76
269
261
144
239
73
261
17
79
143
35
714
44
606
22
74
333
2°
' 29
7R
117
307
31
176
164
'99
319
28
8,075
x
%cored-
lied
by
State
univer-
sity.
x
Units
quind
by-
1
Observation.
7:
5
Cf.
!!-E.
tea:
en
14
x_
15
23 by State board and 21 by State university.
14
15
In 1914-15.
15
I
1915-16.
Ufiits not specified.
State university accredits 10 only.
Units not
specified.
.......
Accredited by standard university.
Units not
specified.
X
16
X
15
14
59 institutions with 15 units; 34 with 14 units.
X
15
X
It
385 by State university; 77 by State depart-
ment.
X
16
X
15
X
15
99 class A; 79 class 11 I; iCei class B II; Maims B
X
15
111 ; 13 unclassifies1.,
96 Maas A; 95 class w.
X
-
18 of the Inn belong to supplemontarfasta of
State universities.
14
14
33 first group; 26 second group.
15
..
15 .
14
Affiliated with the State university.
15 .
x
1.5 ... 104 group !.%; 141 group 11; 72 group C.
15
14
Four full years required.
... ...
15
14
.
19 approved by University of New Mexico; 16
approved by State department.
Units not expressed.
x.. .
14
x
15 ..
15 ..
First grade secondary schools.
x
15
15 ..
15
Units not stated,
x.
-
.1 4
Schools fully accredited.
x
-
.
14
144 group 1 of State universiles; 193 on State
depart ment lists, besides States universities.
15
Units not given.
.
14
IS
First class secomtejry schools.
14
15
12
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
sacrarri ATTEMPTS OF NATIONAL AND REGIONAL
ASSOCIATIONS AT COLLEGIATE
STANDARDIZATION.
.Seferal influential associations of higher institutions have in the
- past two years added to the already numerous definitions of the
standard college and of the junior college. The following are prob-
ab/y the most significant of these efforts.
THE ASS8CHTION OF AMERICAN COLLEGES.
.
The Association of American golleges has ipublished a study by
Dr. Calvin H./hench.which in substance establishes three grades of
standard colleges. Dr. French designates the'le as the minimum col-%
lege; the average college, and the efficient college. The pith of this
interesting report is given here:
Comparative table showing the minimum, the average, and the efficient college.
It.ims com
The mini-
The aver -
mum col-
we college.
The
lege. based based on 16
e
on 45-typ1-
typical
fficient
cal institu-
institu-
college.
lions.
Lions.
'Total Twits required for entrance
Total hours required for graduation.
Number of Instructors, excluding president and library ofilciaLs
Teaching boors perkweek (approximate).
Enrollment
Cost of administration
Cost of Instruction
Cost of maintenance
lb
90
8
15
100
15
60
14
15
165
15
(4)
46
15
500
87,325
12,000
12, 675
91, 358
16, 941
12,941
918,050
99,000
49,100
Total oast
32, 000
.
Avenge *Jules of all instructors
.
11,300
Salary of president
2,500
Average value of plant
350,000
Average value of endowment
432,000
Total woos
7s2,000
36, 214
100, 750
,
1,210
2, 500
736, 877
455,010
.691,687
2,150
5; 000
965,0(X)
2, 215, 000
3, 200, 000
According to Dr. French, we mean by college efficiency that " all,
the forces of the institution are working adequately and with the
least possible waste -to accomplish its chief ends." Can this be done
when the library and laboratories are inadequately equipped and
supported, or its teachers underpaid and qverloaded with work?
These are prevalent conditions in many splendidcolleges which, how-
ever, are not efficient colleges.
The following digest; gives a sum-
marized statement of the financial needs of standard colleges with
from 200 up to 1,000 students:
A standard college of 200 students is one that has a faculty of 21, giving
It the equivalent of 17 full-time bughers and 4 till-time administrative
officers; an income of $10,800 from tuitions, $1,000 from other fees, $7,000 from
room rents or other sources, and $88,700 from endowment; an expenditure of
` $27,600 for instrucdon, $10,000 for administration, and $20,000 for maintenance;
HIGHER EDUCATION.
13
a productive endowment of $774,000 and a plant worth $50Q,000, making a total
property of $1,274,000.
A standard college of 300 students should have a -faculty of 31, giving it
the equivalent of 26 full-time teachers and 5 full-time administrative officers
an income of $20,250 for tuitions, $1.500 from other fees; $10,500 from room
rents br other sources, and $58,250 from endowment; an expenditure of $45,000
for instruction, $15,000 for administration, and $30,000 for maintenance; a
productive endowment of $1,165,000 and a plant worth $750,000, making a total
property of $1,915,000.
The standard college of 500 students calls for a faculty of 51, yielding the
equivalent of 44 full-time teachers and 7 full-time administrative officers;
an.income of $45,000 from tuitions, t2,500 from other fees, $17,500 frOni room
rents or other sources, and $111,000 from endowment; un expenditure
of
$99,000 for instruction, $27,000 for administration and *50,00 for maintenance;
a priiductive endowment of $2,=0,000 'and aplant worth $1,000,000, making a
total property of $3,290,000.
Standard colleges of 750 students will have, on these estimates, a faculty
of 74, yielding the equivalent of 64 full-time teachers -and 10 full-time admin-
istrative officers; an income of $67,500 from tuitions,. $3,250 from other fees,
from room rents or other sources, and $197,000 from endowment;
an expenditure of $174,000 for instruction. $40.000 for administration, and
$80,000 for maintenance; a productive endowment of $3,940,000 and a plant
worth $1,750,000, making a total property of $5,690,000.
The standard college, of 1,000 students requires a faculty of 97, yielding the
equivalent of &I full-time teachers and 12 full-time administrative officers; an
income of $90,000 from tuitions, $5,000 from other fees, $35,000 from room rents
or other sources, and $321,500 from endowment; an expenditure of.$262,500
for instruction, $60,000 for administration, and $120,000 for maiiknance;,a
productive endowment of $8,250,000 and a plant worth $2,400,000, making a
total property of $8,650,000.
From the standpoint of a study of 52 colleges and universities,
Dr. French has decided-that 55 per cent of the income-should go to
instruction, 30 per cent to maintenance, and 15 per cent to admin-
istration.
Only 20 per cent of the income should be obtained from
the students; the remaining SO per cent should come from endow-
/
ments.
THE ASSOCIATION OF AMI2ICAN UNIVERSITTES.
For nearly 20 years the Association of American Universities
has considered -problems relating to graduate study. Among these
problems is that of the proper classification. of universities and
' colleges with respect to their qualifications for preparing candidates
for graduate work. At the last meeting of the association held at
the State University of Iowa,' November 9 and 10, 1917, the com-
'mittee on classification of universities and colleges presented the fol-
lowing report:
The Association of American Universities approves the following revision of
the list of universities and colleges accepted in 191& It iecognizes the lnatitn
14
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
tions in this undifferentiated list as falling within the three groups described
by the association in 1914 in the following terms:
Gsour A."Institutions whose graduates should ordinarily be admitted to the
graduate schools of this association for work in Lines for which they have
,had, adequate undergraduate preparation, with a reasonable presumption that
advanced degrees may be tnken with the minimum amount of prescribed work
and in the minimum time prescribed. Students who choose work in lines for
which their undergraduate course has not prepared them adequately must ex-
pect-to take more time and do additional work.
GROUP. B. Institutions from which only those graduates of high standing
In their classes who are individually recommended by the department of under-
graduate instruction corresponding to that in which they purpose to do their
,graduate work may be admitted on the same basis as graduates from institu-
tions in Group A.
Gaon, C. Other institutions whose graduates should he admitted to graduate
schools, but, with the presumption that more than the minimum thne and
minimum amount of work will be ordinarily required for an advanced degree.
Graduates of these institutions (in the case of newer and smaller institutions
the graduates of recent classes) presumably will be eligible for admission, with
the limitations and reservations stated above to graduate citizenship or status.
but without commitment as to the equivalency of the bachelor's degree of an
individual student with that of the university admitting him, and without com-
mitment as to the time which will be required by such students to secure an
advanced degree.
DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL TEEMS.
A subcommittee of the National Conference Committee on Stand-
ards of Colleges and 'Secondary Schools, appointed some years ago
at the suggestion of Commissioner Claxton, presented on March 1,
1918 a report making certain recommendations which, after modi-
cation, were adopted, as follows:
The term "department " is restricted to the various subjects taught ; as, for
instance, department of Latin, mathematics, of physics, etc.
The term "course" Is restricted to the instructional subdivisions of a subject;
as, for instance, Course I in English.
The'term "group" is restricted to a combination of sulaeots related in con-
tent or method; as, for instance, the group of classical languages, of the bio-
logical sciences, etc.
The term "curriculum" is restricted to a combination of courses leading to
a certificate, a diploma, or a degree.
The term "division" is restricted to
units of a
college or university ; tis, for instance, the e
nsion division, the division of
agriculture, the division of arts and sciences.
The term "school," as,applied to part of a university, Is restricted to that
part the standard of admission to which is not less than the equivalent of
two years' work In the college, and which offers instruction of not less than two
years' duration, leading to a technical or professional degree.
After a long discussion as to the definition of "college," it was
voted to print the following provisional definition for criticism and
further discussion, action to lie taken by the committee next year:
A "college" is an institution requiring for admission graduation from a
standard secondary school, or the equivalent, and offering a four-year curricu-
lum leading to the first degree in arts or science, of such character as to qualify
< for admission to a graduate school of recognized standing:
I330HER EDUCATION.
15
Such an institution is indicated by the following characteristics:
A minimum requirement for admission of. 15 units of secondary work, not
more than 2 units of conditions being allowed, all special students under 21
years of age being required to meet all of the usual requirements for admission,
preparatory courses, if any, being distinct in faculty, students, and discipline.
A program of studies having a reasonable relation to the resources of the
institution.
A curriculum of 4 years of at least 32 weeks each of actual instruction.
Not less than eight-departments, each having at least one full-time professor.
A staff, two-thirds of which are of professorial rank, having had at least 4
years of study in a graduate school of good standing, receiving salaries of
approximately $2,000 a year, and teaching not more than16 hours a week.
A minimum productive endowment, beyond all Indebtedness, of at least
$250,000.
An annual income of at least $40,000 a year, at least half of which is expeided
for Instruction.
An expenditure of at least $1,000 a year for jaboratory equipment and appa-
ratus, and of at least $500 a year for books and periodicals.
An annual or biennial published report of assets, income, expenditure, faculty,
curricula, and student body.
THE NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION REPORT ON STANDARDS OF ACCREDITING COLLEGES
AND PNTTF:RSITTES.
The North Central Association at the meeting of March 21, 1918.
withdrew its membership from the National Conference Committee,
and at the same time adopted a separate report embodying standards
for accrediting American colleges and universities.
The standards
given herewith involve the definition of the "standard American
college," a definition which differs in many respects from that
adopted provisionally by the National Conference Committee:
The "standard American college" is a college with a four-year curriculum,
with a tendency to differentiate its parts In such a way that the first two years
are a continuation of. and a supplement to. the work of the secondary instruc-
tion as given in the high school, while the last two years are shaped more or less
distinctly in the direction of spelal, professional, or university instruction.
The following constitute the standards for accrediting colleges for the preeent.
year (1918) :
1. The minimum Acholastic requirement of all college teachers shall be equiva-
lent to graduation from a college belonging to th)s association, and graduate
work equal at least to that required for a master's degree. Graduate study and
training in research equivalent to that required for the Ph. D. degree are
urgently recommended, but the teacher's success is to be determined by the
efficiency of his teaching as well as by his research wprk.
2. The college shall require for admission not less than 14 secondary units, as
defined by this association.
3. The college shall require not less than 120 semester hours for graduation.
4. The college shall be provided with library and laboratory equipment suffi-
cient to develop fully and illustrate each course ifimounced.
5 The college, if a corpcitste institution, shall possess a productive endow-
ment of net less than $200,000.
'
16
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
8. The college, if a tax-supported Institution, shall receive an annual income
of nut less than $50.000.
7. The college shall maintain at least eight distinct departments In liberal
arts, each with at least one professor giving full time to the college work in
that department.
8. The location and construction of the buildings, the lighting, heating, and
ventilation of the rooms, the nature of the laboratories, corridors, closets. water
supply, school furniture, apparatus, and methods of cleaning shall be such as
to Insure hygienic conditions for both students and teachers.
9. The number of hours of work given by each teacher will vary In the differ-
ent departments.
To determine this, the amount of preparation required for
the class and the time needed for study to keep abreast of the subject, together
with the number of students, must be taken into account ; but in no case shall
more than118 hours per week be required, 15 being recommended as a maximum.
10. The college must be able to prepare its graduates to enter recognized
graduate schools as candidates for advanced degrees.
11. The college should limit the number of students In a recitation or labora-
tory class to 30.
12. The character of the curriculum, the efficiency of instruction, the scientific
spirit, the standard for regular degrees, the conservatism in granting honorary
degrees, and the tone of the Institution shall also he factors in determining
eligibility.
13. No institution shall be admitted to the approved list unless it has a total
registration of at least 50 students If it 'reports itself a junior college and of
at least 100 students If it carries course-4 beyond junior college.
14. When an institution has, in addition to the college of liberal arts, "pro-
fessional or technical schools or departments, the college of liberal arts shall
not be accepted for the approved list.of the association unless the professional
or technical departments are of an acceptable grade.
No institution shall he accredited or retained on the accredited list, unless a
regular blank has been filed with the commission, and Is flied triennially, unless
the inspectors have waived the presentation of the triennial blank.
THE JUNIOR COLLEGE.
Three types of junior colleges have recently evolved in this country.
The first type, exemplified in the junior colleges of California, is an
integral part of the State educational system. The establishment of
junior colleges in connection with the city school system tends to
keep at home in the local junior colleges large numbers of freshmen
and sophomores who otherwise would overcrowd the large universi-
ties and make difficult the prosecution of advanced collegiate and
university work.
The desire to relieve the expensive university
plants from the pressure of an undue number of immature students
Jess been an influential factor in the spread of junior colleges of
this type.
The second type is found in Missouri and in the South and South-
western States.
These junior colleges are largely the result of the
contraction of small denominational colleges whose degrees and
HIGHER EDUCATION.
17
equipment failed to meet the high standards of the leading Statti
universities of those regions.
The third type of junior college has recently appeared in Wis-
consin, the State legislature having granted the State normal schools
the privilege of reorganizing their work on the junior college plan.
DISTRIBUTION or JUNIOR COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES.
The following table gives the number and distribution by States
of the independent junior colleges:
T %nu.: 1..Vumber and distribution of junior colleges.'
Junior colleges.
Junior collem.
California____
15
Minnesota
2
Missouri
13
West Vi.rgIntit
Virginia__
10
Idaho
1
Texas
10
Iowa
1
Illinois
8
Kansas
Kentucky
4
Louisiana
1
tieorg.in
3
Oregon
1
North l'arolinn__.
3
Washington.
1
Tennessee_
3
Total
85
Alubuina_
Michigan
Not including the normal schools of Wisconsin.
STANDARDS OF ACCREDITING .JUNIOR COLLEGES.
The growth of the junior college in its varied forms has called for
the adoption of certain standards applicable to these institutions.
With this in mind the North Central Association of CAilleges and
Secondary Schools, at its 1018 meeting, adopted the following stand-
ards of accrediting junior colleges:
A " standard junior college" is en institution with a curriculum covering two
years of collegiate work (at least 60 semester hours, or the equivalent In year,
or term, or quarter credits), which is based upon and continues or supple-
ments the work of secondary instruction as given In an accredited four-year
high school.
A semester hour is defined as one period of .classroom work in
lecture or recitation extending through not less than 50 minutes net or their
equivalent per week for n period of 18 weeks, two periods of laboratory work
being counted as the equivalent of one hour of lecture or recitation.
1. The minimum scholastic requirements of nil teachers of classes in the
junior college shall he graduation from a college belonging to this association,
or an equivalent, and rn addition, graduate work in a university of recognized
standing amounting to one year.
2. The junior college shall require for registration as a juniootlege stu-
dent the completion by the student of at least 14 units of.1gb-school work
as defined by this association.
13. The work of the junior college must be organized on a collegiate as dis-
tinguished from a high-school basis.
17102V-21B0.88.-2
18
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 191V-1918.
4,, The teaching schedule of instructors teaching Junior-college classes shall be
limited to 22 hours per week; for Instructors devoting their whole time to
junior-college classes 18 hours shall be a maximum; 15 hours is recommended
as the maximum.
5. The limit of the number of students in a retltailon or laboratory class in a
junior college shall be 30.
6. Students registered in a junior college who are permitted to enroll in regu-
lar high-school classes shall not he given full junior-college credit for such
work, and in no case sloll the credit thus given exceed two-thirds of the
usual high-school credit.
No junior college will be accredited unless it has
.a registration of 25 students if it offers but a single year, and 50 students
if it offers more than a single year.
7. The Junior college shall have library and laboratory facilities sufficient,
to carry on its work the same as it would he carried on in the first two years
of an accredited standard college.
FIFTY YEARS OF TILE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES.
Perhaps no institutions +lave grown more rapidly in power. and
in the public favor than the hind-grant colleges.
These institutions
distinctly belong to the State, at the smile time they are the only
group of institutions with Federal affiliations.
Because of this dual
attachment they have played an increasingly important part in de-
veloping not only our great national resources but also a true
national spirit, The important place which the applied sciences now
hold in modern university curricula is in a large measure. due to
the progressive educational
.policies of the land-grant
colleges.
EVery State in the Union, including tho Territories of Hawaii and
Port Rico, has one or more institutions receiving the benefits of the
Federal land-grant college funds.
Alaska is the only Territory
which has not established a college of agriculture and mechanic arts.
although it has recently accepted the offer of Federal support.
Of
the 68 land-grant institutions, 51 are for whites and 17 for negroes.
The following comparative tables show the general status of these
institutions from the standpoints of attendance, teaching force, and
income:
Conspa retire statistical table of land-grant colleges at the close of nearly 60
years of eriatchee.
ENROLLMENT.
Average number of white students :
Average numbet of all land-grant college stu-
In 1918-1915
110,864
dents:
In 1915-1917
120,969
In 1913-1915
- 120,069
Increase
10,613
In 1915-1917
131,952
Per cent of increise--
9. 8
Increase-
11, 888
Average number of colored stUdeuts:
Per cent of increase
9.9
In 1913-1915
9,710
In 1915-1017
10,982
Increase
1, 272
Per cent of Increase
18
HIGHER EDUCATION.
19
Comparative 8tatixtical MIMI' of !and -grant colleges ail the elmw of nearly .50
wiprx of c.ristencePunt inned.
NUM II% Or
Average number of white teachers:
TRAcitERS,
Average nutuisr of all bull grant college
In 1913-1915_____
_ _ . -
9.380
teachers :
In 1915 i91i_
_
885
In 1913 - 11115
9,900
Increase
305
In 1915-1917
10.420
I'cr cent of Increase____
5. 3
Increase
520
Average number of cgiored teachers :
Per cent of increase__
5. 2
lh 1913-1915
520
In 1915-1917
339
Increase
19
Per cent of Inen'ase
3. II
STUDENTS F. N ROLLER iS
Average number of white st
In 1913-15)15_
27.1573
In
:12.466
1' SCIENCE.
Average nurnIsl of all students
In 1913-1915
In 1913-1917_
.411.
29.905
34,222
Increase
4, 815
Increase
4, 317
I'er rent of lncrea,e____
17
Per cent of Increase
14. 4
Average number of negro studepts :
In 1913-1915_
,2.232
In 1915-1917_ _
_ _ _
_ _
I. 732
Loss
491;
I'er cent of loss
22
.TAL 1 'COME.
Average total Income:
In 1913-1913_
$33, 333. 839
In 1915-1917_ _
$311, 000. 345
Increase
$0,200,430
I'er cent of Increase_
18.7
TIIL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
The Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experi-
went Stations (the principal collegiate association with an exclus-
iv.ely land-grant college membership) in its last two meetings has
given special attention to the quakions of internal administration.
The complex character of the land-grant college, with its diviSions
of liberal arts, agriculture, engineering, home economics, and experi-
ment stations, has raised problems somewhat difficult of solution.
The'committee on college organization and policy of the association
at its 1917 meeting made a report concerning the administrative
relationships of the agricultural college. The report, which was ac-
cepted by the association, was based upon a statement of principles
and recommendations prepared by the specialist in agricultural edu-
cation of the Bureau of Education. The recommendations contained
in the report I follow :
1. That the Individual specialist, capable of working IndependentlAshould
be regarded as the unit of organization.
.00
LAO amplification of these recommendations may be found In Maher nlucatIon Circu-
lar No. 8. U. Q. Mama of Education.
20
.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
2. That the group of working specialists on any one of the recognized sub-
jects, regardless of the kind a service, should constitute the subject-matter
department.
3. That specialists should devote their time mainly to one kind of service,
but provision should be made for exchanges for the mutual advantage of each.
4. That one member of each department should be designated us chairman,
or adminIstrat ive head.
5. That the Members of the subject-matter department should be given a
voice-in the designation of their chairman or administrative head.
6. That authority for subject matter should be- confined to the group of
specialists comprising the subject-matter department, 11341 that administrative
control should be limited to the amount and method of work.
7. That the distribution of administrative authority should he on the basis
of the kind of service.
8. That the three kinds of service, each in charge of a secondary adminis-
trative officer, 'should he coordinated under a chief executive who. in the case of
a large institution composed of several faculty groups, should be an officer
other than the president.
9. That the official designation " dean" In an agricultural college should he
applied only to the chief executive officer who is responsible for the coordi-
nation of the three phases of agricultural service, and that of "director "'
should his applied to the coordinate officers in charge of each of the three lines
of service resident instruction, research, and extension.
19. That when one individual performs the duties of two or more offices
his official designation should identify clearly the officer with the respective
offices assigned.
11. That the leaders in charge of the various phases of the extension service
should be regarded as administrative officers and shoitld not usurp the duties
of the specialists in the various subjects.
Where an individual serves both
Sts specialist and administrative leader, a dual responsibility 8134411(1 he recog-
nized.
12. That lotthe promotion of extension projects controlled by either con-
nected or cooperating colleges, the same administrative relations with the
subject-matter departments concerned should exist as with departments that
_
are organically connected.
18. That incoming correspondence, except that of an administrative nature,
shblild he referred to the subject-matter departments concerned, and where re-
ferred to the individual best qualified to supply the Information called for.
14. That specialists In whatever kind of service should be on an equal busfs
from the Standpoint of rank and official designation.
If differentiation of ex-
tension and research specialists is desirable, the prefixes " extension" and
"research." respectively, may be used in connection with the customary pro-.,
'fessorial titles.
The accompanying diagram may serve to explain the administra-
tive relationships referred to above.
`Oa
r
IL _
15s
r
1
yt
it
; L
HIGHER EDUCATION.
Ole( Inecatin Officer
(PreIdent or Dean)
Inetructional
Da rector
Teeceing-
ePegiallet
Teaching
Bpeciallet
ruching
ep.ctItt
Reeearoh
Director
iteeearch
Elger1110
iteeoareh
-ggecisliet
****** eh
Igeolallet
Tonohing
Dpeeialiet
TOchilia
Deeelallet
P.sooroh
epeoi11t
Latenion
Director
lIgten104
Opeciallt
Dirtenlon
ereciallet
Ratenlon
SpeciISt
leatneion
epee lel I t
iebeferoh
PIM 01.11.1.
lictenelon
gpeoleltt
is
-
t
a
-
-
i I
«dl
i2
_J
1
21
2ommon administrative relationships in colleges of agr'iculture.
Administrative author-
ity follows two channelsone through the directors in charge of each tied of service
and the other transversely through the several heads of departmentsfrequently result-
ing In conflict. The remedy consists in transferring administrative authority from the
heads of departments to the directors of, the three kinds of service, resulting in single
iltdministrative control.
22
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911718.
A NEW ASSOCIATION THE A NiERIcA N AssOcl.VCIoN OF UNIVERSITY TN-
SlTtUCTORS IN ACCOUNTING.
The teachers of accounting of 16 universities-, met at. Cohnbus,
Ohio, December S. lnIG, and formed an organiintion known as the
American Association of University instructors in Accounting. The
purpose of this organization is to advance the cause of education for
business through the study of accounting. to have suitable oppor-
tunities for the discussion of problems. to promote more intimate
mutual acquaintanceship, to further the standardization of courses,
and to recommend policies regarding the reception of migrating
students.
The chtrter members are front the following, universities: Cali-
fornia, Duquesne, Pittsburgh, Cornell, Yale, Ohio State, Ohio, Cin-
cinnati, Oregon, Wisconsin. Texas, ffiinnis, Minnesota. Northwestern,
Brigham Young, and New York. The association reported 154,de-
gree-granting institutions which offer courses in accounting ;n this
country.
usivEasrrr ;tatvE-Fs AND Tilt: sURVEY MOVEMENT.
Since 1915, eight States' have voluntarily sulltnitted their tax-
supported higher educational institutions to expel criticism in order
to determine their needs with more scientific precision.
These sur-
veys have been conacted under the auspices of the Bureau of Edu-
cationovith cooperation of experts of State and National reputation.
The result is that the colleges, on the whole, have been able to
strengthen their influence, in their constituencies, and correspond-
ingly, the general public and the legislatures have been led to give
a more intelligent and sympathetic support than heretofore.
The
reports of -the surveys of the State institutions of Oregon, Iowa,
Washington, North Dakota, and Nevada have been disiaissed in pre-
ceding reports.
(See Reports of the Commissiuer, 1915, pp. 145;
1916, pp. 121.)
THE SURVEY 01"111E. UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA.
During the fall of 1916 a survey of educational conditions in the
State of Arizona was begun. The study of the State university was
snade by the specialist fn higher education of the Bureau of Educa-
tion, and President. Livingston Farrand, of theUniverity of Colo-
rado.
I The following Stateshave concluded surveys of their State-supported Institutions
of higher education: Oregon, Iowa, In 1915; Washington, North Dakota, Nevada, Arizona.
In 1910; South Dakota In 1017.
The reports of the first five surveys, with the excep-
tion of the Oregon survey,. are now published as bulletins of the Bureau of Education.
The other reports are in prAis.
The University of Oregon survey is published by the
university.'
HIGHER EDUCATION.
23
The following brief4ummary includes a few of the more impor-
tant recommendations of the committee:'
u
mo ry of 'recant m da i(111R,
(a) The hotter adaptation of the college courses to the needs of the State.
IG1 The rejection by the legislature Of any proposals to separate the college
of agriculture or any other technical division from the main body of the uni-
versity, :nal to establish it at another place.
(c) The extension of the tenure of ollice of the regents frog
our to eight
years.
(d) A more definite policy respecting the tenure of the university faculty.
THE SOUTH DAKOTA SURVEY.
The South Dakota survey was conducted during the fall and winter
of 1911.
The survey committee was composed of the specialist in
rural school practice, the specialist in higher education, and the spe-
cialist in agricultural education of the Bureau of Education, in
collaboration with Prof. Alexander Inglis, of Harvard University,
and local officers appointed by the State. The following brief sum-
n1ar' of recommendations is given:
1. It was recommended that the State university. the State college, and the
State school of mines be consolidated lute a single institution, located prefer-
ably in Ino central portion of the State.
1. In case consolidation seem:: impracticable, it was recommended that the
school of mines be abolished and that the State university and the State college
readjust Olen' curricula and courses so as to avoid needless duplication. The
principle of major and service lines of workswas reimbirsed.'
3. It was also recommended that one or more junior colleges he established
as a part of the State higher educational system.
In this and other surveys the 13ureau of Education has stood for
policies which would tend to improve the mutual relations of State-
contrtelled institutions of higher education in harmony with the pecu-
liar -needs of each State.
The bureau has consistently urged the
continuance or the adoption of the principle of consolidation when
practicable.
It has also pointed out Ike distinctive fields of each
State hipitution'on the .basis of justifiable duplication when consoli-
dation was ithpracticable.
'IHE SUPREME COURT OF MASSACHUSETTS SETS ASIDE.
HARVARD-
TECHNOLOGYAGREEMENT.
For nearly three years Harvard University and Massachusetts
Institute of Technology,. have avoided expensive duplication in the
teaching of engineering by the adoption of an excellent plan of
I Fora mare extended discussion of this and other surveys See Bulletin, 1918, No. 45,
Educations1.8urveye- For report on normal schools see Bulletin, 1917, No. 48, Educa-
tional,Condlapni In Arizona.
24
BIENNIAL .suEFEF OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918..
cooperation.
Under this pla-n the university turned over to the in-
stitute three-fifths of the income of the McKay endowment (now
about $1,500,000) and agreed to use the extensive laboratories of the
institute for the training of men seeking engineering degrees. The
engineering faculties of both institutions were merged into a single
faculty, which worked under the executive control of the president
of the institute.
Each institution retained control of its own ex-
penditures and determined, its own engineering degree requirements.
According to President Maclaurin, the "agreement marked an epoch
in the history of educational progress in this country." 'The end
sought was to build up an educational machine more useful to the
conimunity aml to the Nation than anything that (mild he main-
tained by 'either the instituteor thc..-. -univer,ity act
ently." The result of the merger has proven very satisfactory, both
institutions having gained thereby in educational power.
Inasmuch as the vaWity of the agreement had been questioned, the
university asked the supreme court of the State for a decision on thy,
matter. The following. extracts front the decision mile November
27, 1917, are given herewith:
.Mr. McKay intended that not only the Investment of the sndollnt funds
but the education which his endowment was to make'possible should he under
-the control and direction Of the milkersity, its government, and administation.
In our opiniou, the intention of Gordon Mckny is not in fact carried out in
the agreement. in controversy, as we have construed' its provisions in their
practical operation.
We are onistolned to Instruct the plaintiff that it can not lawfully carry
out this agreement between it and the Institute, us far as respects the property
received by the University, under the deeds of trust and the will of Gordon
McKay.(Massachusetts Reports, 228, 1918.)
According to Prof Swain:
The decision Indicates quite clearlylhat It was not cooperation with Tech-
noiogy in itself that was considered to resider the agreement loyalist, but only
the character of that cooperation.
It had the appearance of patting tsso much
control of school and finance into the hands of Technology.
The .Technology
faculty paid practical control of the Harvard school.
V-
withstanding the adverse opinion of the court, the authorities
of M t h institutions set about to develop. a new plan which would
yield the advantages of cooperation without being contrary to the
provisions of the McKay will. A plan was recently adopted which
seems to meet the necessary requirements, having received the ap-
proval of the trustees of the McKay estate and the governing boards
of the university,.and it now awaits the approval of the court. The
new.plan
Voted to establish a school of engineering upon the following basis:
1Kberea:+, in reconstructing an engineering school in Harvard University, it
is important to lay stress upon fundamental principles; to make use of the
HIGHER EDUCATION.
25
'
courses in Harvard Coll;ge so far as is consistent with the curriculum of the
school; and to conduct the school under a faculty Of its own, the corporation
hereby adopts the following plan of organization:
I. Name. The natite.of the school shall he the Harvard Engineering School.
2. Departments. The school shall provide " all grades of histrnction from the
dtoatest to the highest," and Ow Instruction provided shall "lwkept accessible
to pupils who have hail no other opiortunites of previous education than those
which the free piddle schools aord."
3. Admission. Itulswite as the entrii)Ice examinations to Harvard College
now admit freely boys front pod high schools, 11w requirement,: for ndmisslon
to the engineering school shall he the same as for admission to Harvard Col-
lege.
Admission to advanced standing and special study shall he administered'
by the engineering faculty.
4. Fees. The fees of students in the school shall be the same as for students
in _Harvard .College, except that
1:m4,11)011Ru fee" for additional br for
laboratory courses may be ehargeil.
cb,
5. ClastriiiIIIIS and lahioratt)rles. The work of the school shall be carried on
in the classrooms and labimitoies of t ho university, but arrangementsimay he
made from time to time for the Ilse or ow filmit leg of other institutions or
any pant of the work
t In its ailvanced technical courses) when the I
5,
financial resources, and best Interests of the school so require.
Arrangements for the use of facilities of other institutions, or the inter-
change of ilistruet lot), shall he made for it period of only one year ar a time.
When there shall he income from the funds of the McKay endowment avail-
able, in the judgment of the prosidint and fellows, for the constructIon of new
buildings for the engineering school, containing offices, laborstori
, workrooms,
and classrooms, such building's are 10 be (4111Strllttl on Harvard University
grounds and law the name of thirdon McKay.
6. Faculty. The faculty of the seholil shall consist
the president of the
university and of those professors, associate professors, a ssIstnnt professors,
and instructors appointed for more than one yiar, the greater part of whose
work of iiistruction is done in Ale schOol, audit' it limited number of other
teachers of Subjects offered In the school to be appointed in the usual way.
The term of appointment of a teacher front any other lustitution.who gives
instruction in the selawl shall lie for qv year (only ; his title shall he lecturer,
instructor, or ossfstant.
The faculty shall, under the direction of the corporation, have control of
all itistructlion given in the school wherever the instruction may he given.
.
-7. Pegrees. A student
satisfactorily fulfilling the requirements of a pre-
scribed four-year program in any of the engineering fields 511511 be awarded
the degree of bachelor of science in that field.
The degree of ntstta of science, or an elpIlvitlent degree, shall he awarded
upon the successful completion of at least one additional year of study.
For
the doctors' degree the requirements shall be similar to those in the graduate
school of arts and sciences.
8. Credit for instruction elsewhere.
As
the case of every faculty, the
faculty of the engineering 'school fluty, in its discretion from time to time,
allow credit toward the degree under its
of for instruction received at
. another institution or by other instructors.
9. Courses in the school, or the services of its staff, may be made available
to qualified students of other, institutions.
.
10. This plan shall be submitted to the supreme)udicial court of Massitchu-
Setts, or a justice thereof, for approval.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
THE RHODES SCHOLAR/IMPS.
Nearly one-half of the 400 American Rhodes scholars'are now in
military or Government service, including practically all of the
'men of recent years.
Six, according to present reports, have lost
their lives in the service.
Since 1914 the regular operation of the
scholarships has been seriously interfered with by the war, .and
before the United States entered the struggle a large number of the
men had already engaged in relief work in Belgitunor in duties con-
nected with the Red Cross. the 1. M. C. A., and the ambulance serv-
ices.
Since the entry of the United States into the war no more selec-
tions of American Rhodes scholars have been made.
The appoint'
menus, however. are only postponed. and the vacancies will be filled
when conditions are again normal. New plans for giving publicity
for the scholarships and for making the selections are now being
worked out.
It seems.probable that the result of the war will be to
intensify the interest in the scholarships as one means for the unifi-
cation of the Anglo-Saxon race.
The German scholarships have been
abolished by a special act of Parliament and the fundsallotted to
various British colonies. The University of Oxford has instituted.
the degree of Ph: D. and is preparing for extensive organization of
graguate work.
In this connection .a mission from the British universities which
has just finished a tour of the United States is undertaking to arrive
at agreements with American universities for mutual recognition of
graduate work and for the exchange of students and professors. It
is expected that many American officers may be able to spend soma
time in English universities during the period of demobilization.
and to that end special short courses have been established in.mosr
English institutions for the special benefit. of these men. For ex-
ample, all American students, whether Rhodes scholars or not, will
be eligible to take degrees at Oxford under the new war regulations.
These regulations provide that any man who has been in military
service for at least a year can be admitted to the University without.
examination, excused from all intermediate examinations, and
allowed to take his degree in two years, or even in one if he has had'
the necessary. preparation.
----It-is perhaps too soon to speak of any large results of the Rhodes
scholarshiPs'on American education.
It may, however, be noted as
significant- that. the system of honors, examinations, and of tutorial
instruction has been rapidly gaining. ground, in American universi-
ties during the last half dozen.years, and in most institutions where
this is the case Rhodes .scholars are engaged in administrating the
'new plan.
.
HIGHER EDUCATION.
27
In order to facilitate the new arrangements for the selection of
Rhodes scholars; in the United States and to provide a convenient
source of information on this side of the ocean, the Rhodes trustees
have recently appointed Prof. Frank Aydelotte. of the,Massachu-
. setts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.. as American secre-
tary for the scholarships.
THE CARNEGIF, PENSION AND INSURANCE SCHEMES/
Early in 1916 President Pritchett, of the Carnegie Foundation,
proposed a new plan which, it was hoped, would gradually supplant
the pension system which has been administered by the Foundation
for the past 10 years. The plan as described by the Dartmouth com-
mittee, ithich is included in the replies of the presidents and com-
mittees of 'fife associated institutions concerning the proposal, in the
eleventh annual report of the Carnegie Foundation, contemplates
The incorporation under the laws of New York of an insurance and annuity
agency for the benefit of college -teachers.
Each teacher upon his entrance
Into servfee in the college would be required in take out with this insurance
agency a minimum amount opt -term insurance to mature at the age of 65, and
to purchase by annual contributions a minimum annuity which would begin
upon retirement front teaching and at the expiration of the insurance,
To
make the annuity provision effective, a separate savings association is to be
created which receiveS the annual contributions of the teachers and- invests
them, purchasing at the time-of retirenattit with the accumulations an annuity
from the insurance association.
It is proposed that the college shall par-
ticipate to the extent of 50 per cent of tit cost of insurance and annuity up
to an agrettd mlnimum,Aii as an alternative that the college shall contribute
only toward the iturchWof the annuity. The irtdividual is free to Increase
the amount of both insurance and annuity at will; and it is expected that he
Will Increase his contributions as his salary Increases. The details of the plan
are not fully stated.
It is Omit however, that agency expenses, a large factor
in old line insurance, would he avoided.
Administrative expenses and taxes are nppnrentlf to be, orne by the Founda-
tion, although nt one point there is a suggestkat that the administrative ex-
penses may come from tiurplus if there is any.
It is not definitely stated
what disposition would be made of surplus; should the mortality ,experience
prove to be more fayorable than the tables upon which the rates will be based,
but the inference is clear that such a condition will lead to the payment
of dividends to the polleyhOlders, The Foundation is to guarantee 44 per cent
interest on invested funds,
.
,
One unique -and distinctly favorable feature of the plan is that which pro-
vides for the return of accumulations toward an aility in case of death, dis-
ability, or withdrin
before the annuity' Is available.
Again, even after the
annuitant has come into posseasion of his minuet, income, any balance of in-
vested futds^to his accountare returned to his estate in case of death.
In case of death of the annuitant, his widow will receive half of his annuity
during her life.
The disability privileges are to be made available at' the end
of 15 years as professor instead of 25 years under the present plan. After this
period of servicv and In case of eomideie disability, the Foundation win, at its
28
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
own cost, pay the insurance premiums and a minimum pension of $1,200 a year
during the period of disability.
The plan was not well received on its first submission to the asso-
ciated institutions.
It was, however, readily conceded that the
Foundation would have to be relieved of some of its growing finan-
cial burdens.
But the institutions which are beneficiaries of the
Foundation expressed the opinion that:
The privileges and expectations which have been created under the exist-
ing rules of the Carnegie Foundation constitute moral claims against the en-
dowment on the part of such teachers and administrative officers now on the
staff of associated institutions as tinder the Present rules would receive retir-
ing allowances and that adequate provision for scrupulously satisfying all
these claims should be made before the fund Is otherwise drawn upon.'
In view of the opposition to the plan,. the matter was officially
bpiught to the attention of a joint commission including six mem-
bers of the board of trustees, two members of the American Associa-
tion of University Professors, one member of the Association of
American Universities, one member of the National Association of
State Universities, and one member of the Association of American
Colleges.
After mature consideration the commission unanimously
adopted the following resolutldns:
Voted : Referring to the resolution of the board of trustees of the Carnegie
Foundation, adopted tn NovenilTr, 1915, that "whatever plan is finally adopted
will be devised with scrupulous regard to the privileges and expectations
which have been created under existing rules," this commission expresses the
opinion that the extension to all teachers nt present in th.e associated institu-
tions of the privilege of continuini in the present system would. j
mp tely
e
meet all their reasonable expectations.
The commission assumes
the
trustees of the Carnegie Foundation will in due time announce a dnte after
which the priviltges and expectations of the present system will not be avail-
able to those newly entering upon the profession of teaching.
Voted : That the trustees of the Carnegie Foundation be requested to give
all possible consideration to the needs of the older teachers in institutions
which are not yet, but may he later, associated with the Foundation.
Voted: The conuffission does not know the extent to which assistance can
be obtained outside the present funds of the Foundation, but it is acting on
. the expectation of substantial assistance In carrying a large but 114ted load,
and With the further understanding that adequate assistance can not be
obtained to carry on the ever-increasing pension burden without calling upon
institutions and individual teachers to bear a share.
In harmony with the last recommendation the commission recom- .
mended to the trustees of the Carnegie Foundation a plan of insur-
ance and annuities. The purpose of this new organization is
to set up the machinery under which the teacher may protect himself and
his family from dependence, whether by bis own death or by old age or by
disability; t6 furnish to the teacher the security of a contract, so that the
man who cat*. upon the accumulation of an Innulty at 80 may have a
'Eleventh Annual Report of Carnegie Foundation.
HIGHER EDUCATION.
29
contract for its fulfillment at the agreed age; to afford these forms of pro-
tection in Such manner RS to leave to the teacher the utmost freedom of action
and to tna:.c his migration from one institution to another easy.
Finally,
whatever machinery is set up to accomplish these purposes should be operated
at a cost within the reasonable ability of the teacher to pay.
rs The proposed charter embodying thesR purposes is under the title
of the Teachers' Insurance and Annuity Association of America.
The incorporators who subscribed their names February 1, 1918, are
as follows: Milli] Root, Nicholas Murray Butler, Arthur Twining
Hadley, Jacob Could Schunnan, Alex. C. Humphreys, Charles
P. Stone, John Bassett Moore. Robert Weeks de Forest, George
Woodward Wickersham, Newcomb Carlton. Edward Robinson,
George Foster Peabody, and Henry S. Pritchett.
ACADEMIC FREEDOM OF SPEECH.
Up to the year 1917-18 the problem of academic freedom o
pee&
involved chiefly the expression of opinions on social and economic
questions. With the coming of the war the danger zone shifted. It
is natural in times of great national tension like the present that the
personal views of thinking men should be expressed with greater
vigor or passion than usual.
Differences of opinion on questions of
national or international policy, ventilated with heat on both sides,
easily lead to the impugnment of motives and even to the damning
charge of disloyalty.
As a, result of this surcharged condition of
the intellectual atmosphere, many doubtless well-meaning individuals
have suffered the extreme academic penalty for utterances. which
under ordinary circumstances would be passed by with scant notice
or criticism.
There has developed, therefore, a special problem of
academic freedom of speech in war time.
LEADING OPINIONS ON THE PROBLEMS OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM OF SPEECH.
One of thAliscussions oti;:this subject appeared in the joint report
of the Columbia University committee on education and the special
committee on the state of teaching.
It is of particular interest as
embodying an Ixpression of the policy of the board of trustees:
In the whole history of the university, dismissals from the university of a
member of the teaching staff have been but six In number; and the record
shows that in all of these cases but one the Judgment and opinion of representa-
tive members of the teaching staff were before the trustees as an important
element fh affecting theft* action.
In the one exceptional case the reasons for
action had! o reference to the academic work or relations of the person con-
corned.
The power of removal has been exercised by the trustees only in these very
rare instances, and then only after full investigation and (save in the one case
above mentioned) consultation with members of the faculties.
In 'each case
80
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
there had been a state of facts whlch'iu the judgment of the trustees rendered
such action imperative.
In view of these facts there can be no ground for apprehension on the part
of anyone that the charter powers of the trustees will he arbitrarily exercised.
In the whole history of Columbia University there is no instance where
the trustees have ever subjected any teacher to restraint or discipline by reason
of his classroom teaching.
Tlie trustees have more than once been urged by
other members of the university, by alumni, by parents of students, and by the
public press, to take action of this charm :cr, but they have never done so.
Yet
ultimate decision as to whether the influence of a given teacher Is injurious to
private morals or dangerous to public order and security is one which the trus-
tees may neithershlrk nor share nor delegate. We fully concur in the opinion
expressed by the president in his annual report for 1910 that aademie freedom
imposes academic responsibility, and that there are distiner limitations upon
academic freedom which should be
If-imposed, namely. " the limitations im-
posed by common morality. commo
sense, common loyalty, and, a decent re-
spect for the opinions of mankind."
. In the 1916-17 annual report
the president of Columbia Univer-
sity a more complete statement is m
e concerning the questions of
(y
academic freedom and tenure, the f
owing quotations from which
are herewith appended:
It would he little short of a calamity were it not possible for an academic
teatherto change his place of (occupation without thereby retlfting upon the
intelligence or the integrity of those with whom he had been associated. and
similarly, if it became impossible for the governing hoard of a school system
or of a school or college to substitute one teacher for another .without bringing
charges against the person displaced. Any contrary theory assumes a preOtab-
lished harmony of which Hot even Leibnitz dreamed and a preestablished
competence which would render it impossible for anyone to be appointed to
a teaching position who was not ipso facto entitled to steady promotion and
increase in compensation and to a lifelong tebure.
Security of tenure
is desirable, but competence and loyalty are more desirable still, and a secure
tenure purchased ut the price of Incompetence mid disloyalty must sound a
deathknell to every educational system or institution whore it prevails.
These
are all matters of grave impottance in the government of an educational sys-
tem or an educational institution.
They can not be dismissed with phrases or
. formulas, but must be met and decided in accordance with sound principle and-
the public interest.
There is no real reason to fear that academic freedom
is or ever
has been In the ?lightest danger in the United States.
Evidence to the contrary
is quite too ma,plfold and too abundant. What is constantly in danger, how-
ever, is a just sense,of academic obligation. When a teacher accepts an invita-
tie 'to become a member of an academic society, he thereupon loses some of
the freedom that he formerly possesied.
He remains, as before, subject to the
restrictions and the punishments of the law; but in addition he has voluntarily
accepted the restrictions put upon him by the traditions, the organization, and
'the purposes of the Institution with which he has become associated.
Try as he
may, he can no longer Write or speak In his own nine alone. Were he to
succeed In so doing, what he might *rite or say would have, in nine cases out of
ten, no significance and no hearing.
What he writes or says gains significance
and a hearing because of the prestige of the academic society to which he
HIGHER EDUCATION.
31
belongs. To that prestige, with all that that word means, the academic teacher
owes a distinct, a constant, and a compelling obligation. To maintain one's
connection with an academic society while at war with its purposes or disloyal
to its traditions and organization Is neither wise nor just.
No one Is com-
pelled to remain in an academic association which he dislikes or which makes
'him uncomfortable.
What the ancient Stole said of life itself is true of a uni-
versity : "The door is always open to'anyone who has an excuse of leaving."
on the other hand, academic obligation is reciprocal.
The academic society
of which the individual teacher is a member owes him encouragement, com-
pensation as generous as its esources will afford, and protection from unfair
attack and criticism, as well as from all avoidable hamperings andembarrass-
ments in the prosecution of his intellectual work.
Each individual member of
an academic society is in some degree a beeper of that society's conscience and
reputation. AS such, the society as a whole must give him support. assistance,
and opportunity.
The saute type of Mind which insists Veit knows no country bar humanity,
and that one should aim to be a citizen of no State but only of the world,
indulges itself in the fiction that one may be disloyal to the academic society
which lie has voluntarily joitrett in order to show devotion to something that
he conceives to be higher and of greater value.
Both elmtentions affront com-
mon sense and are the result of that muddled thinking which to-day is bold
unough to misuse the noble name of philosophy.
One 'effect of much recent
teaching of what once was ethics is to weaken all sense of obligation of every
kind except to oue's own appetites and desire for instant advantage.
That eco-
nomic determinism Wthch is confuted every time a human heart bents in sytm
peaky and whit:1111U history throws to the winds has In recent years obtained
much, influence among those who, for lack of a more accurate term, call them-
selves intellectuals.
These are for the most part men who know sa many
things which are not so, that they make ignorance apitear to be not only inter-
%sting but positively important.
They abound just now in the lower anti more
Liable forms of literary production, and they are not without representation In
academie societies.
-The time has not yet come, however, when rational persons can contemplate
with satisfaction the rule o? the literary and sentience Bolshevik' or permit
them to seize responsibility for the Intellectual life of the Nation.
-
Neglect of one's academic obligation, or l'arelessness regarding it,'gives rise
to difficult problems.
Men of mature years who have achieved reputation
enough to be Invited to occupy a post of responsibility in a nnixersity ought
not to have to be reminded that .there Is such a thing as academic obligation
and that they fall short in it.
It is humiliating and painful to find, with in-
creasing freemency and In different parts of the country, men in distinguished
academic posts, who choose to act in utter disregard of the plainest dictates
of ethics and good conduct.
It is fortune indeed that, however conspicuous
are instances of this disregard, they are in reality negligible in number when
compared with the vast body of loyal; devoted, and scholarly American
academic teachers.
It Is noticeable, too, that Instances of this lack of sense
of obligation rarely arise, if ever, in the case of those men whose intellectual
occupations bring themln contact with real things.
It is only when a man is
concerned chiefly With opinions afid views, and those opinions and views of
his own making, that he finds and yields to the temptation to make his
academic association the football of his own ambitions or emotions.
32
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, I916-1918.
.
The opinion of the committee ot academic freedom and academic
tenure, ofthe American Association of University Professors, is as
follows :1
It is a grave abuse of the power of dismissal when it Is used to deny to
members of the university faculties _the enjoyment of their fundamental con-
stitutional rights as citizens; and vi institution in which dismissal is posSible
upon such a ground as was officially put forward in this ease is one in which
adequate guaranties of academie freedom are manifestly lacking. It is in
some respects a still graver abuse of power when administrative officers or
governing Mamie attempt by their official declarations publicly to attach the
stigma of treasonable or seditious conduct to an individual teacher because
of acts of his which are in fact neither treasonable no seditious.
When charges are brought against a member of a college or university
'faculty upon tiny f.tround, the proceedings should. as a matter of course, be
strictly judicial in character, and should he in accord 'with the principle of
faculty responsibility.
In other words, the person accused should be en Wed
"10 have the charges against him stated in writing in specific terms
to
have a fair trial on those charges before either the judicial committee
the
faculty or a joint committee composed of an equal number of professors and
trustees, which should render definite finding, stating in case of a decision
adverse.to the accused the precise acts on which the decision is based.
The
importance of maintaining these procedural safeguatds against hasty or unjust
action is, If possible, even greater at a time of popular excitement and height-
._
fined passions than under normal conditions.
I
$
One of the most helpful statements made this year bearing on the
question of academic freedom is that found in President Lowell's
annual' report for 1916-17.
The following quotations are.of special
interest:
The war has brought to the front In nendemic life many questions which are
new, or present themselves to many people in a new light.
One of these is
liberty of speech on the part of the professor; and it seems a not unfitting time
to analyze the principles involved, and seek to discover their limitations.
In
so doing I shall deal only with higher education, that Is with universities and
colleges.
Experience has proved, and probably no one would now deny, that knowledge
can advance, or at least can ativatiet rapidly. only by means of an unfettered
search far truth on the part of 'those who devote their lives to seeking it in
their respective fields, and by complete. freedom in imparting to their pupils
the truth that they have found.
The teaching by the professor in his classroom on the subjects within the
scope of his chair ought to be absolutely free. Ile must teach the truth as he
has found it and seem it
This is the primary co9dition of academic freedom,
and any violation of it endangers intellectual progress.
In order to mike It
secure it is essential that the teaching in the classroom should be confidential.
This does not mean that it is secret, but that what is said there shotild not be
published.
If the remarks of the thatructor were repealed by the pupils in
the public press he would be subjected to constant criticism by people not
familiar will
.subject, who nusunderstbod his teaching; and, what Is more
important, Se would certainly be misquoted, betsuse his remarks would be
reported jot the student without their context or the qualifications that give
a See Bulletin of American Association of University Professors, April, 1018.
HIGHER EDUCATION.
33
them their accuracy.
Moreover, if the rule that retnarks in the classroom
shall not be reported for publication elsewhere is to be maintained, the professor
Iiims&f must not report them.
Lectures open to the public stand on a different
footing, but lectures ina private classroom must not be given l,, the instructor
to the newspapers.
That principle is, I believe, observed in all .eputable in-
stitutions.
Every professor must, therefore, be wholly unrestrained in publ.(hing the
results of his study In the field of his professorship.
It is needless to add that
for the dignity of his profession, for the maintenance of its privileges, as well
as for his own reputation among his fellows, whatever he writes or says on
his own subject should he uttered as a scholar, in a scholarly tone and form.
This is a matter of decorum, not of discipline; to be remedied by a suggestion,
not by a penalty.
In troublous tithes much more serious difficulty and much more confusion of
thought arises from the other half of our subject, the right of a professor to
express his views without restraint on matters lying outside the sphere of his
professorship.
This is not a question of academic freedom in Its true sense,
but of the personal liberty of the citizen.
It has nothing to do with liberty
of research and instruction in the subject for which the prd&ssor occupies the
chair that makes him a member of the university.
The university or college is under certain obligations to its students.
It
InpeIR them to attend courses of instruction, and on their ;ide they have a
right not to be compelled to listen to remarks offensive or injurious to them on
subjects of which the instructor is not a master, a right which the teacher is
bound to respect.
In spite, however, of the risk of injury to the institution, the objections to
restraint upon what professors may say as citizens seem to be far greater
than the harm (lone by leaving them free.
In the firt lace, to impose upon
tho teacher In a university restrictions to which members of other profes-
sions, lawyers, physicians, engineers, and so forth, are not subjected, would
produce a sense of irritation and humiliation.
In, accepting n chair under such conditions a man would surrender a part
of his liberty; what he might say would be submitted to the censorship of a
board of trustees, and he would not he a free citizsii.
The lawyer, physician,
or engineer may express his views RR he likes on the subject of the protective
tariff; shall the professor of astronomy not be free to do the same? Such a
policy would tend seriously to discourage some of the best men from taking
up the scholar's life.
It is not a question of academic freedom, but of personal
liberty from constraint; yet it touches the dignity of thA academic career.
It should be. noted in passing that a number of American institu-
tions have been obliged to take action on the .a,patriotic activities
and utterances of teachers of German origin or avowed German
sympathies.
The dismissals resulting in these cases have nowhere
been regarded ns breaches of academic freedom.
THE WORE OF THE COMMITTEE ON ACADEMIC FREEDOM VII) ACADEMIC TENURE Or
THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS.
During the Nit tWo years the committee on Kademic freedom and
academic tenure of the American Association o7S1lJniversity Profes-
sors has had brought to its attention over 30 cases of alleged infrac-
tion of the prindipps of academic freedom of apeecli and academic
ine2e' *-21Bun.
34
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
tenure.
The opinions and decisions of this committee and its sub-
committees, some of which have been quoted in former reports of the
Commissioner of Education, have grown in weight and importance in
the academic world. The committee, by its conservatie attitude,
has been able to eliminate from public discussion and criticism a
large proportion of the cases brought to its doors, and it has also
been able to help in the-solution of many problems by dealing
privately with the institutions and individuals concerned.
The committee has centered its attention on a limited number
of cases which led to the exposition of principletkunderlying aca-
demic freedom of speech and permanency of academic tenure.
It
has in no sense sought publicity.
The rulin& . of the committee have
been largely based on the principles stated in the 1915 report of the
association.
Taken together, the decisions of the cominiV,ee, already°
covering a large variety of cases, lay the foundation of a iiew type of
educational law which should prove to be of great value in solving
equitably the complex problems of academic freedom of speech and
academic tenure.
During the period under review two deports involving questions of
academic tenure not relating to freedom of speeclt have been made
by committees of the American Association of University Professors.
The first of these was an investigation into the reasons for the dis-
missal of Miss Winona A. Hughes, dean of women at the College of
Wooster, and the methods used by the board of trustees in severing
her connection with the college. The committee found the action
of -the president and the board to be arbitrary, unjustifiable, and
such as to jeopardize seriously the stamding of the college among
American higher institutions.
It declared that "the methods of the
present administration have not been such as to appeal to the loyalty
of a conscientious and self-respecting faculty, and it is equally
obvious that they are not the methods Which gain for a college the
confidence and respect of the academic world."
On June 7, 1917, the State board of education of the State of Mon-
tana decided not to retain as president 1:4 the State university- Dr.
E. B. Craigheadwho had acted in that capacity for three years.
The State board also decided not to reemploy three professors of the
university.
The matter having been brought before the committee
on academic freedom and academic tenure, it-was the opinion of the
committee after careful investigation that the dismissal of President
Craighead and the three professors was not justified.
The procedure
of the board was criticized by the committee as being unsound in
method and disastrous in its results to the interests of the university.
(See Bulletin of the American Association of University Professots,
May, 1917.)-
HIGHER EDUCATION.
TWO STATE I N STITUTION fi ATTA
THE AI AGSACIII7SETTR AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
35
During October, 1916, the Massachusetts Agricultural College was
criticized at a public hearing held by a commission appointed by the
governor of the State to investigate the institution and to see whether
its present policies should be continued.
The college was charged
with inefficiency because it did not turn out more practical farmers,
and because it devoted more time than necessary to classical and '
olnmanistic studies, while neglecting the practical phases of farm
life.
In answer to these objections President Butterfield and his sup-
porters informed the commission that 65 per cent of the college
graduates for the past 5(1 years were engaged in agricultural pur-
suits, the percentage having increased considerably during the past
10 years.
About 80 per cent of the recent graduates are in agricul-
tural vocations. The agricultni-al college aims to give a broad
grasp of farm problems, combined with sufficient practical training.
As to the 'elation between the humanistic and the agricultural sub-
jects, the practice of the college is well stated in the published report
of the commission, as follows:
-
The land-grant colleges were primarily established to promote the study of
agriculture by the most advanced and scientific methods of instruction.
In
their courses of study one na'furally expects that science will occupy the most
Imminent place, and that it should he taught by men well qualified for their
work.
The Massachusetts iNgriculturmil College meets this expectation.
There are at present 22,8 courses in agriculture and the cognate sciences,
mind only 96 courses in mathematics and the so-called humanitlem. In the first
year 48 courses are given in agriculture and mathematics, and only 18 in the
humanities.
In the second year 6 courses are required In the humanities, and
54 in agriculture and cognate sciences.
After the second year a nui)or course
can be elected in one of the 17 Repartiments; during the last year4 per cent of
the students elected major courses IC agriculture and horticulture.
There is
no major course in the humanities, and only one-quarter of the students' time
is required in these studies.
Three-quarters of the students are giving three-
fourths of their time to distinctively agricultural subjects. Ten times as many
courses are given In junior and senior years in agriculture as were given 10
yeimre ago, and more 'agricultural studies have been introduced in the first
and second years than ever before.
There has been no corresponding Increase in humanistic studies.
Of the
faculty, 54 teachers are engaged in instruction-in agriculture and the cognate
sciences, and 14 teachers in the humanities and mathematics. Members of
the facility and representative students alike testify that there is a prevailing
tendency among the undergraduates to elect studies according to their sup-
posed commercial values and to neglect..148e studies which aim to strengthen
and cultivate the,mind.
While there is a fair showing of humanistic electives
in the curriculum; most of them are not required, as they are in the Mass-
achusetts Institute of Technology and in other colleges, and only a few of-:
t
36
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
the students elect them. Not only Is there to be considered the number of
courses. but account must be made of the order in which the courses are
offered. The commission recommends that the college authorities consider
readjustment of the courses so as to give larger place to practical work In the
first two years; also certain courses, us, fur example, that in rural journalism,
might becarefully scrutinized to see whether they are really desirable and
essential offerings of the college.
While the State in its acceptance of the provisions of the Morrill Act is
bound to give special instruction In agriculture, it is no less bound by the
language of the act to give a liberal education as an Integral part of its dis-
tinctive work, and not to. neglect or relegate to subordinate places those
studies which experience has shown are best fitted to nourish and strengthen
the faculties of the mind and which will enable men to do better work,
whatever that work may be.
The college has been severely" ,criticized because no larger proportion of
its graduates become practical farmers, owing it is said to the lack of practical
Instruction which they receive.
An examination of the curriculum shows that
this criticism is no longer merited.
Practical farm work is now given during
the first two years, and Is required of every student. -Of the total hours as-
signed to Instruction in the division of agriculture and horticulture, 32 per
cent are given to classroom work, and CS per cent to laboratory and field
work. The field work should be considered as Indispensable as Is laboratory
work In any science, so that students may apply practically the instruction
which they
receive theoretically.. A summer session has also been recently
Introduced whereby such work can be carried on more readily.
The lack of
practical farmers, therefore. among the graduates does not appear to he due
to a lack of practical work in agricultural instruction, and can be more readily
explained from other causes.
Practical farmers the. college does educate.
They are found In
1111 parts
of the State, and are conducting farms which are profitable to themselves,
and are profitable as object lessons.
ATTACK UN THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS BY GOV. FERGUSON.
During the early part of the summer` of 1917, a serious controversy
arose between Gov. Ferguson, of Texas, and I'resident Vinson, of the
State university.
The cause of the trouble was due largely- to Pres-.
ident Vinson's refusal to dismiss certain college teachers to whom
the governor objected. The latter, by.Avay of retaliation, vetoed the
appropriation for the State university, and consequently aroused a
great storm of protest from all parts of the State.
Inasmuch as
the governor had acted unlawfully in the matter, and seriously.
threatened the financial resources of the universit,rtire legislature
in special session passed the neces.kary aPpropriation"bill for the
support of the university.
-
In August the governor wa4 impeached and removed .from office.
The articles of .impeachment included counts for alleged misap-
propriation of funds and the abuse of authority in his dealings with
the regents and the president of the university.
HIGHER EDUCATION.
SPECIAL LEGISLATION TOUCHING HIGHER 'EDUCATION.
THE SMITHEIUGHE13 ACT.
By the enactment of the Smith-Hughes law, a large fund has been
made available Tor the training of teachers in industrial and agri-
cultural subjects. . This fund, which is administered by the Federal
Board for Vocational Education, amounts to $546,000 for 1917-18
and increases yearly to a maximum of $1,090,000 for the yeti'. of
190-1:1, the latter sum being the annual appropriation thereafter.
The maximum amount of the teacher-training fund to be used in
any fiscal year in any one of the three following linestrades and
industries, home economics; and agricultureis 60 per cent of the
total amount allotted to the State for that year for teacher training.
The training of these teachers will be directly under the State
board for vocational education, subject to certain Federal regulations.
In order to qualify for this special type of training, the teacher-
candidate should be 'a graduate of a four-year high-school.
Vo-
cational experience is also required.
THITEWLANDS BILL
During the year 1916, Senator Newlands introduced a bill authoriz-
ing the appropriation of Federal funds for the establishment of engi-
neering experiment stations in the different States. The bill provides
that these stations are to be placed under a board of control, consist-
ing of the Secretaries of the Interior, Conunerce, and Agriculture.
The approval of the governor of the State is neAssary before an ex-
periment station can be established in any State.
Although the bill did not obtain a vote, it has more than usual-sig-
nificance.
It contemplates the subsidialion of engineering research
by a plan similar to that by which agricultural research is now
subsidized in the agricultural experiment stations.
The bill, fur-
thermore, has the indorsement of the National Association of the
State Universities and tof other important educational bodies inter-
ested in engineering research.
AMERICANIZATION.
The new and important Americanization movement has necessitated-
the training of teachers to look after the large number of immigrants
that annually come to our shores.
During the past year thf; New York Legislature has appropriated
$20,000 to provide for the training.of teachers of adult immigrants,
training courses being gin during the summer of 1917, in Albany,
Buffalo, Nei" York, Rochester, Syracuse, and Nassau County, L. I.
At- present -there are 14 universities and colleges conducting _teacher
38
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
training classes for teachers of immigrants. These institutions are
as follows: University of Ciilifornia; &tax Normal School, Los An-
geles; University of Colorado; State Normal School, flabury,
Conn.; State Teachers' College,lreeley, Colo.; State Normal School,
I Iyannis, Mass.; American University, Springfield, Mass.; Columbia
University and Teachers' College, New fork; State College \for
Teachers, Albany, N. V.; State 'Normal School, I3uffalo, N. Y. ;-Syra-
cuss University, Syracuse, N. Y.; University of Pittsburgh ;.Univer-
sity of Wyoming: University of Wisconsin.
Teacher training clases are also being conducted by various-boards
of Education, as in Hoboken, N. J., Detri)it, Mich., Rochester, N. Y.,
Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Philadelphia.
PART H. THE COLLEGES AND THE WAR.
Universities anti colleges have been temporarily transformed by the
War. It is still too early to say whether any of the changes wrought
will be permanent.
Certain principles and methods, however, have
been developed by the war experience _which apparently commend
themselves to large numbers of university and college officers. These
are treated in some detail at the end of this chapter.
The contributiont of the higher institutions to the war are definite
and easily recorded. They are Also noteworthy.' Indeed, it is prob-
able that no other class or group in the population of the United
States contributed so large a proportion of its membership to the
fighting forces of the country or participated so directly in the lead-
ership of noncombatant war activities.. It ha often been remarked
that the intellectual classes were responsible for the United States
joining the Allies. The extent to which-public opinion was molded
'by college officers and college stndents before the declaration of war
is of course diffic'ult to ascertain. It is beyond question; however, that
the influence of collegiate communities upon public thought was very
great. In spite of the consistent attempts of college officers-to foster
an open mind and to offer a. free forum for discussion of the issues
involved during the first threelears of the World War, the trend
of sentiment in college communities was from the beginning strongly
in favor of the allied cause. Many presidents and professors also con-
stituted themselves,the spokesmen of this cause before the country.
Reflections of the strength of studEnt sentiment are to be found in
the overwhelming support given to allied charities by collegiate Com-
munities. When the declaration of war came, it found the. college
world mentally prepazed,knd eager to .take its part in what it re-
gar d as a great mond
HIGHER EDUCATION.
39
PROBLEMS RAISED BY THE WAR.
It has been stated that the officers of higher institutions furnished
a large part of the intellectual leadership in the actual conduct of
the war.
This leadership began to make itself felt at once.
The
colleges perceived at the outset the problems which they as institu-
tions would have to meet. They perceived these problems in relation
to the war enterprise as a whole.
In fact, university and college
officers seem to have been the only considerable group of individuals
who did see in the beginning what were the fundamental human ele-
ments in preparation for war and in the successful prosecution of
the war.
Others, to 'be sure, grasped the need for deploying the -
Nation's material strength. The colleges saw first that this would be
ineffective unless- backed by the complete mobilization of the Nation's
resources in knowledge and skill and intention. The colleges iterated
and reiterated these truths until appropriate national policies were
adopted.
Aiid the adoption came regrettably late. Both the suc-
cesses and the failures of America's war experience demonstrate that
the colleges were right.
.
,
War is an exceedingly practical business. Many have been sur-
prised that college men, reputed to be a cloistered and unpractical
lot.,
able to lead in anything so concrete and matter-of-fact.
But is it surprising?
Besides'being a practical business, war is also
perennially a new business.
Fighting is. old, but °every war is
more moderfi than its age.
The latest devices of science and in-
vention are put to work. Under the tremendous mental tension of
veer, new devices ere produced at a rate unknown in peace. It is the
business of university and collegeinsttuctori to follow the progress
of the world in every field of intellectual endeavor. The open mind,
adaptability to new conditions, are what they aim to produce in their
students also.
The double aspdet of thei,present war has often been
noted. On the one hand, it has been a war of science, of e.Igineering,
nf medicine, of agriculture, of transportation; on the other hand, it
has been a great moral struggle, in which two divergent concepts of
human relationships have collided.
University staffs contain men
who are expert in, each Qf the
elds of science, and men also *hose
task it is to interpret ,the ethical
pects of every social movenient.
T : t these men should have read both the material and spiritual les,
developed in the three years of war in Europe, and should have
their import for the. United States in 1917, is not to be
tijo
w.
. :
: i at. It would, in fact, have been surpriAg if theyhad not:.
At
, .; to they were more ready than any other .group with sugges-
tio s r the practice solution of the difficallties*hich confronted the
G ernment in A
1917.
4.
40
BIENNIAL SURVEY OP EDUCATION, .1916-1918.
What were the concrete problems in which colleges and universi-
ties were primarily concerned and toward the solution of which they
contributed?
These were of a threefold nature.
They related (a)
to training andithe proper organization of training agencies, (b)
to the mobilization of science, and (c) to the development of public
morale. These problems merged into one another to some extent.
A consistent classification is not always possible.
For the sake of
convenience, however, the grouping that has been suggested will be
used in the following discussion.
TRAINING AND THE EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING AGENCIES FOR --
NATIONAL SERVICE.
The declaration of war by the United States was not unforeseen in
the university world.
Several institutions immediately on the rup-
ture of diplomatic relations made plans to meet the emergency which
was certain to arise. Two especially noteworthy acts may be
mentioned.
Columbia University developed a plan of registration and mobili-
zation which would make possible the participation of any member
or group of the faculty, alumni, or student body in the national
service, with a minimum of delay.
The very- effective registration
blanks devised by the university for this purpose were- circulated
with comment by the Bureau of Education among all the colleges.
Many institutions adopted similar forms and organized in a similar
way for service.
Harvard University, which had been conducting intensive military
training for, a number of months, approached the French Govern-
ment for the assignment of invalided French officers to take charge
of the instruction of the Harvard regiment.
The preliminary nego-
tiations were completed during February and March, 1917, and the
officers arrived on the heels of the declaration of war.
With the actual declaration, of war the exodus of students, chiefly
from the upper classes, to enter the service as volunteers began. At
the same time the presidents and boards of trUstees of many institu-
tions addressed the President, and Secretary of War, or the Core
missioner of Education, offering the services of their plants and
equipment to the Government.
Back of these formal offers was a
profound convictiqn that higher institutions had a .uniquely vallmble
contribution to make, both as Centers of training and as focal points..
for scientific etperimentation,
Presidenti and faculties viewed the
daily. increasing enlistments bf upper-class men with mixed feelings.
On the one hand they were glad and pioud of the response of the
,student bodies; on the other, they realiied that if de scientific and
technical training agencies were broken up and the supply of 'trained
,
men diminished, the consequence would be very serious in the event
HIGI1 Ea EDUCATION.
41
of a long war.
It early became clear that, without checking the
patriotic impulses of students, steps must be taken to retain a con-
siderable percentage in .college.
.
The colleges naturally looked for central directiok
The conduct
of the war was the businass of the Government..
The Government
shod say what colleges were expected to do.
For a number of
weeks no governinental direction was forthcoming.
The Govern-
ment's educational activities are distributed among some 20 separate
departments and bureaus, no one of whit -h was in a position to speak
authoritatively to the institutions on a matter involving the military
and economic policy of the Nation.
e
uNivEasrry COMMITTEE OF THE ADVISORY COMMISSION OF TIM COUNCIL
OF NATIONAL DEFENSE.
In the autumn of 1916 Congress had created the Council of
National Defense.
The council consists of the Secretaries of War,
Navy, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor. Associated with
it is an advisory commission composed of seven civilians expert in
the fields of transportation, munitions, supplies, raw materials, en-
gineering, la,bor, and medicine.
The function of the council is to
investigate the resources of the country with a view to their utiliza
tion in the event of war. The members of the advisory commission
-associated with themselves committees of experts to assist in these
investigations and in the formulation of pi:1E6es to be recommended
to the executive departments and to Congress. The council is there-
fore designed in part as a coordinating agency to relate the adtiii,ities
of the executive department~ concerned in national defense and to
brink to bear civilian opinion upon the problems of the Governinent.
Education was not originally included in the Lphere of the council's
lii
vities. 'Shortly after the declaration of war, however, the Corn-
ioner for Engineering of the advisory commission was charged
th the task of investigating and 'reporting upon educational
problems related to the war.
01/..
`The Commi4sioner for Engineering end Education therefore ins
mediately appointed the nucleus of a committee on educational
problems and called a meeting of representatives of the principal as-
sociations of colleges-and universities, to formulate a comprehensive
policy for cooperation between the higher institutions and the Gov-
ernment. The conference. was held at Washington May 5.
It was
attended by the official representatives of the National Association
of State Universities, the Association of American Agricultural Col-,
loges and Experiment Stations, the Association of American ITni-
versifies, the Association-of American Colleges, the Society for the
Promotion of Engineqing Education, and by officers of 187 higher . 7'
I
institutions.
The foil-owing preamble and statement of principles
.
.
.
.
.
.
42
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
were adopted by the meeting. They indicate very clearly both the
exalted spirit of service which animated the universities and colleges
and the accuracy of their forecast of the educational needs of the
country duriig the war.
PREAMBLE.
In the supreme crisis that confronts the Nation the colleges and universities
of America have the single-minded thought and desire to summon to the
country's service every resource at their,cottunand, to offer to the Nation their
full strength without reservation, and to consecrate their every power to the
.
high task of securing for all mankind those ideas and ideals that gave them
birth and out of which have grown their most precious traditions.
In order that such service may be most Intelligently developed and applied,
the following declaration of principles is respectfully suggested.
STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES,
It is our judgment that our colleges and universities should so organize their
work that in all directions they may he of the greatest possible usefulness to
the country in its present crisis.
We therefore believe, first, that all young men below the age of
to
the selective draft' and those not recommended for special service, who can
avail themselveS of the opportunities offered by our colleges. should be urged
so to do in order that they may be able to render the most effective service, both
during the full period of the war and in the trying times which, %till follow
its close.
We believe, second, that all colleges and universities should so modify their
calendars and curricula as will most fully subserve the present needs of the
Nation and utilize most profitably the time of the students and the institutional
plant, force, and equipment. With this end in view, we suggest ;hat, as an
emergency measure, the colleges consider the advisability of deciding the college'
year into four quarters of approximately 12 weeks each, and that, where neces-
sary, courses be repeated at least once a year so that the college course may be
best adapted to the needs of food production.
We believe, third, that In view of the supreme importance of applied science
in the present war.'students pursuing technietkl courses. such as medicine.
agriculture, and engineering are rendering, or are to render, through the con-
tinuance of their training, services more valuable and efficient than if they were
to enroll in military or naval service at once.
We believe, fourth, that the Government should provide or encourage military
training for all young men in college by retired officers of the Army and.
.National Guard or by other persons competent to give 'military instruction,
and that the colleges should include as a part of their course of study teaching
In military science. in accordance with the provisions of the national' defense
act of June, 1916.
We believe, fifth, that the Bureau of Education of the Department of the
Interior and the States Relations Service of the Department of Agriculture,
with the cooperation of the committee on science, engineering, and education
of the advisory commission of the Council of National Defense, should be the
medium of cornmunrcailon between the Federal departments and the higher
educational institutions of the country.
will be recalled that the Selective Service Act was parsed almost
taneotudy
.
With this meeting of May ft,
,
HIGHER EDUCATION.
48
Finally; we believe that an educational responsibility rests on the institutions
of higher ,learning to disseminate correct information concerning the Issues
involved in the war and to interpret its meaning.
The meeting was addressed by the Secretary of War. In the course
of .his remarks he made the following significant statements:
I think this, though, is more or less clear to those of us who look at it from,
the outside: First, that the country needs officers.
There is no preference of
college men for officers, but because a man has had academic opportunities he
has to start with. presumptively at least. a better foundation upon which to
build the imirning which an officer must hove; and therefore
t
a very sub-
stantial extent the country desires its college graduates and its college-bred
men of suitable age in the training camps in 'order that they may be rapidly
matured into officers and used In the training of the new forces.
To the extent that the men in college are physically disqualified, or to the
extent that they are too young to meet the requirements of the department,
it seems quite clear that in the present state of the emergency their major use-
fulness lies in remaining in the college, going forward with their academic
work ; and the colleges can. I think. lend some color of patriotic endenyor to
their so doing by such simple tnodifications of their courses and curricula a
will show the boys who stay that they are being directly equipped for sub
quent usefulness if the emergency lasts until their call comes.sss
The meeting left behind it -a permanent committee attached to the
advisory commission of* the Council of National Defense. Thesper-
sonnel of this committee follows:
Hollis. Godfrey, Sc. D., member of the advisory commission of the Council of
Na
Defense, president. Drexel Institute, chairman.
Henry.
PE Crampton, Ph. D.. professor, (7olutahla University, vice chairman:
'Frederick C. Ferry, Ph. I)., dean, Williams College, secretary.
Samuel P. Capen, Ph. D., specialist in higher educationin the United States
Bureau of Education, executive secretor/.
Edwin A. Alderman. LL. D., president. University of Virginia.
Guy Potter Benton, LL. D., president, University of Vermont.
Kenyon L. Butterfield, LL.D., president, Massachusetts Agricultural College.
Augustus S, Downing, LL. D., assistant commissioner for higher education,
University of the State of New York.
Wilson Fart-and. M. A.. headmaster. Newark Academy.
Guy S. Ford, Ph. D., director of the division on Civic and educational co-
operation of the Committee on Public Information.
Frank J. Goodnow, LL. D.. president, Johns Hopkins University.
.Edward K. Graham, LL, D., president, University of North Carolina.
Charles S, Howe, Ph. D., president, Case School of Applied Science.
Harry Pratt Judson, LL. D., President, University of Chicago.
A. Lawrence Lowell, LL. D president, .Harvard University.
Frank L. McVey, I.L. D., president, State University of North Dakota.
Alexander Meikeljobn, LL. D., preSident, Amherst College.
Joseph A. Mulry, Ph. IX, president, Fordham University.
John S. Nolien, LL. D., president, ,Lake Forest College.
Raymond A. Pearson, LL. D., president, Iowa State College of Agriculture
and Mechanic Arts. .
Winthrop E. Stone, LL. D., president, Purdue UniveaZto
Henry aguallo, Pb. D., president, University of W
n.
44
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
William 0. Thompson, LL. D., president, Ohio State University.
Robert E. Vinson, LL1 D., president, University of Texas.
With recognition of education by the Council of National Defense
and the establishment. of this committee, higher institutions believed
that they had at last located the Government agency which was pre-
, pared to give them competent and authoritative direction.
Their
expectations were only in part fulfilled.
The Council of National
Defense is not an executive, but purely an advisory body.
During
the war, .moreover, it was equipped with such small financial re-
sources that its facilities even for educational investigation were
limited.
However, through the agency of the university committee
and the committee on the relation of engineering schools to the Gov-
ernment, mentioned below, it was able to bring to the attention of
/tlieI;erating departments some of the major problems of the col-
.
leges and to assist in the development of an effective national policy
for the utilization of these training facilities.
INDEPENDENT A CTIONT BY COLLEGES IN PREPARATION FOR WAR SERVICE.
MILITARY TRAINING.
The statement of principles just quoted received wide circulation
among colleges and exercised a steadying effect.
A large percentage
of the institutions acted upon the advice contained in this statement.
The one activity of foremoot importance, as it -seemed, in which
college students could engage at once was military training.
Almost
without exception the colleges provided military training.
In many
cases a large amount of time'was devoted to it each week, and aca-
demic credit given.
Under the national-defense act of June 2, 1916,
the establishment of units of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps in
all colleges mustering 100 able-bodied male students for the purpose
was authorized. Up to the outbreak of hostilities something less
than a hundred units of the corps had been established.
The great
pressure upon the War Department for officers, rifles, and other
equipment prevented the extension of the corps (except to the in-
stitutions that had already been promised units) during the war.
Asthis was the only form of military training under Government
supervision and receiving Government recognition, colleges which
did not have the Reserve Officers' Training Corps were obliged to
provide such training on their own responsibility.
Retired Iffieers
of the Regular Army and National Guard were hired as instructors,
as fil'r as they were available. Some institutions secured invalided
officers of the allied armies. Military training thus made ,,great
progress in the spring of 1917. By the opening of the fall term the
provision of military training was recognized as the sine qua non of
.college's existence.
HIGHER EDUCATION.
45
The opinion of American college officers with respect to the de-
siral;ility of the general introduction of military 'training was re-
inforced by the testimony of representatives of Canadian universi-
ties.
The university committee of, the Council of National Defense
held a conference with representatives of Canadian universities on
July 3 and 4, 1917. The following gentlemen represented the Cana-
dian universities:
Sir Robert A. Falconer, president of the University of Toronto.
Dr. A. Stanley Mackenzie. president of Dalhousie University.
Dr. H. M. Tory, president of the University of Alberta.
Dr. Frank D. Adams, dean of the faeully of applied science, Magill University.
Capt. William H. Alexander. University of Alberta.
These gentlemen reported the. establisment in Canada early in the
war of officers' training corps in the universities, the training consti-
tuting a part of the regular university work for a period of two years.
The training was limited to two years because few physically fit
upper clansmen remained in Canadian universities.
(Students in'
arts courses proved excellent candidates for commissions in the
Army after having received this training.
Officers' training corps
ufiits were parts of the militia of the Dominion of Canada. The
instruction was regularly given by members of the teaching force
of the universities, because it had been found in general that univer-
sity teachers proved more effective instructors for university men
than Army officers.
The results of this conference were reported both to the colleges
and to the War Department.
The War Department expressed its
conviction of the soundness of the contention of college officers that
students should be given regular military instruction under the aus-
pices of the department, but regretted that the shortage of men and
material prevented the adoption of this policy at once.
SFECI AL COURSES Volt REDMAN STUOV.NTS INTRODUCED AS A RESULT OF THE WAR.
Before the end of the academic year 1916.-17 the majority of insti-
tutions had introduced a variety of special.emergency courses.
The
great problem of conservation, especially the conservation of food;
received attention not only in agricultural colleges but in colleges 'of
arts and sciences, and especially in colleges for women. Nearly every
college with women students offered Red Cross work or home nurs-
ing, or both.
Engineering schools inaugurated courses in such mili-
tary applications of engineering subjects as map making. military
surveying, bridge building, telegraphy, radio operation, etc. Courses
in spoken French and courses in economics, government, and history,
designed to illuminate the background and causes of the war, were
introduced in a number of institutions.
46
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
NEW SCHOOLS ASO COURSES.
As early as the spring of 1917 the various branches of the military
departments began to recognize the contributions to training for
special service which could be made by the organized civilian insti-
tutions.
The Signal Corps established eight aviation schools in
connection with universities. The Quartermaster's and Ordnance De-
partments contracted with colleges for the piovision of storekeepers'
courses. The Navy trained ensigns and technical specialists at sev-
eral large universities lying near the coast. Each of these types of
training was managed by the branch of the service in which the
candidates were to serve. As yet neither the Army nor the Navy
was prepared to develop ft comprehensive policy of cooperation with
the colleges in the -work of trttining.
CHANGES IN cOLLEGE cALENDARs.
A considerable number of institutions adopted the suggestion
made in the statement of principles quoted above and reiterated by
the Secretary of
r regarding the modificatiiin of college calen-
dars. The fours
ter year had been debated in educational meet-
ings fora long time. Few institutions had found themseltes able to
adopt it.
The principal obstacle was a financial one, although there
were others also. In the enthusiasm of the first months of the war a
considerable number of institutions made this change and accepted the
financial loss which it entailed as a part of their contribution to the
national service.
STUDENTS AND THE DRAFT.
Reference has already been made to the serious military conse-
quences involved in the withdrawal of a large percentage of students
undergoing general and technical training before the completion of
their courses. The experience of the allied countries in this regard
pointed an unmistakable lesson.
In the beginning of the war Great
4Britain and Canada allowed hundreds of scientific experts to go to
the trenches as privates or officers of the line. Their higher institu-
tions were decimated.
Later, when imperative demand for the
peculiar services of these technically trained men came, the men
were no longer available. The supply ordinarily furnished by the
higher institutions had also been temporarily cut off.
Both Great
Britain and Canada realized that their failure to use technical men
in technical service and to keep a constant flow of scientifically
trained students and men of advanced general education issuing
from their institutions was a mistake. Military and jndustrial ad-
visers from both countries warned the United States in the early
days of our participation in the war not to repeat this error.
The- activities of the medical section of the Council of National.
Defense were responsible. for the protection of medical and dental
HIGHER EDUCATION.
47
students from the draft by special legislation at the time of the pas-
sge of the selective-service law.
But no similar measures were
taken to defer the military service of students in other technical
lines and in colleges of arts and sciences.
The reason was evidently
twofold.
In the first place, few people realized that there was dan-
ger of serious shortage either of engineers or of arts-college gradu-
ates.
In the second plactit it was regarded as unwise public policy
to p,rotect from military service a class of persons which was enjoy-,
ing already special advantages.
The draft must appear absolutely
democratic in its operation; otherwise it could not command the sup-
port and confidence of the entire country.
College officers appre:
Mated the cogency of this argument. They were reluctant to put
themselves in a position of asking special favors.
Particularly did
they hesitate because their motives might seem open to suspicion, a
shortage of students having a depressing effect upon the financial
status of their institutions.
The draining of the trained and educated resources of the coun-
try came not alone from the operation of the draft. College and uni-
versity students were among the first to volunteer. Until enlistments
were entirely barred, colleges were the happy hunting grounds for
recruiting officers of every branch of the military service. The senti-
ment grew that to wait, for the draft was the mark of a slacker.
Uollege officers were therefore faced with an exceedingly difficult
and delicate problem.
It would have been disastrous for the morale
of the institutions to discountenance volunteering.
Without taking
this step, the arguments in favor of delay and of a wise, long-distance
patriotism were not very effective.
The way in which educational leaders and other public-men went
about solving the difficulty is of special interest. Indeed, one of the
striking aspects of America's first y6ar in the war is the long series
of efforts to conserve the supply of men of higher training and to
'tender the selective-service ltecv truly selective in its operation. The
history of these efforts is worth recording briefly.
line first public pronouncement appeared in the statement of prin-
ciples adopted at the meeting of May 5, quoted above. This was
followed by a circular issued May 22 by the Commissioner of Edu-
cation, entitled "Suggestions for the conduct of educational' insti-
tutions during the continuance of the war, to the end that their
educational efficiency may not be lowered and that they may render
the largest amount of service both for the present and for the future."
In the section addressed to colleges, universities, and technical schools
the commissioner made the following statement:
All students should be made to understand that it is their duty to give to
their country and to the world the best and iullest possible measure of service,
and that botIPwill need more than they will get: of that high type of service
4t5
BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-19118.
which only men and women of the best education and training can give.
Patriotism and the,desire to serve humanity may 'require, of these young men
and women the exercise of that very high type of self-restraint that will keep
them to their tasks of preparation until 'the time comes when they can render
service which can. not be rendered by others.
On July 19 the Secretary of the Interior'brought to the attention
of the President the serious falling off in the number of students in
higher institutions.
The President, replied on July 20, as follows:
MY DEAR MR. SECRETARY : The question which you have brought to my atten-
tion is of the very greatest moment.
It would. as you suggest, seriously impair
America's prospects of success In this war if the supply of highly trained men
were unnecessarily diminished.
There will be need for a Vger number of
persons expert in the various fields of applied science O,' ever before. Such
persons will he needed both during the war and after its close.
I therefore
have no hesitation in urging collegts and technical schools to endeavor to main-
tain their courses as far as possible on the usual basis.
There will be many
,young men from these Institutions who will serve In the armed fooces of the
country. Those who fall below the age of selective conscription and who do
not enlist may feel that by pursuing their courses with earneetuess and diligence
they also are preparing themselvesfor valuable service to the Nation.
I would
particularly urge upon the young people who are. leaving our high schools that
as many of them as can do so avail themselves this year of the opportunities
offered by the colleges and technical schools, to the end that the country majr
not lack an adequate supply of trained men and women.
Cordially and sincerely, yours.
WOODROW WILSON.
In spite of this advice and similar counsel from many other influ-
ential persons all over the country; the exodus from higher institu-
tions continued. The actual effect of the war on student enrollment
at the beginning of the acade* year 1917 -18 id shown in the follow-
ing tables compiled by the Bur&tu of Education from a questionnaire
issued October 1,1917:
Effect of the war on Si 3 colleges of liLeral arts.
Classe3.
Fall of
1916.
Fall of
1917.
Gain or loss.
Per cent.
Freshman class:
Gain.
Lou.
Gain.
Lou.
Men
22,531 . Is, 560
3,671
16.3
Women..,
17,442
17,556
114
'
0.8
Sophomore class:
Men
14,613
12,806
2,113
14.4
Women
11,013
11,882
269
2.3
Junior class:
Men
Women
s,
10,692
5,961
8,157
9,911
130
2,535
1.4
23.7
Senior class:
Men
5,712
6,149
2,503
29.4
Women
7,94
7,897
611
8.4
Special and graduate students:
Men
,...
4,043'
2,119
1,624
40.1
Women
9,273
2,919
354
10.8
Total men..
.
60,596
48,000
12,506
20.6
Total women
48, 676
49,346
,
770
1.6
Total students
109,171
97,435
11,736
10.8
3
HIGHER EDUCATION.
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49
50
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, I916-1918.
Other figur6s compiled by the Bureau of Education during the
summer of 1917 with regard to the total available supply of en-
gineers and engineering students, revealed a particularly serious Fall-
ation with respect to this group of persons, It became evident that
the only hope of a satisfactory solution of the difficulty lay in action
by the War Department, giving a special military status to engin-
eering students.
T:.e university committee of the Council of Na-
tional Defense, therefore. brought the facts in its possession to the
attention of the following bodies: The Association of American Uni-
versities, the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Ex-
periment Stations, the National Research Council, the Society for
the Promotion of Engineering Education, the Council of the Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers, the Council of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, and the Council of the United Engineer-
.
ing Societies. Most of these-agencies memorialized the Secretary of
War, urging in effect that engineering students be placed upon the
same military status as students in medicine.
On December 8 the Secretary of War authorized the issuance of
regulations which pertinitted students in schools of engineering to
finish their courses before being called upon for active military serv-
ice. This ruling was embodied in the Revised Selective Service Reg-
ulations and read as follows:
Under such regulations as the Chief of Engineers may preScrlhe, a propor-
tion of the students pursuing an engineering course in one of the approved
technical engineering schools listed flti the War Department as named hy the
school faculty may enlist in the Enlisted Reserve Corps of the Engineering
Department and thereafter, upon presentation by the registrant to his local
board of a certificate of enlistment, such certificate shall be filed with the
questionnaire and the registrant shall be placed in Class V, on the ground that
he is in the military service of the United States.
The status.of engineering students thus established persisted until
the abolition of the Enlisted Reserve Corps in 1918, and the este));
lishment of the Students Army Training Corps. By later regula-
tion of the Secretary of War, students in applied sciences were also
allowed to enter the Enlisted Reserve Corps of the Quartermaster's
Department, the Signal Corps, and the Ordnance Department.
FURTHER EFFORTS TO SECURE FEDERAL DIRECTION OF CIVILIAN TRAINING
AGENCIES.
The measures just mentioned resulted in only a partial and inade-
quate utilization of college resources in the great task of- training
for war service. They did not furnish the colleen with the authori-
tative and intelligent direction which was mgassry.
Neither were
they sufficiently definite and drastic to conserve the supply of experts
and of officer material. The colleges recognized these defects. From
HIGHER EDUCATION.
51
May 1917, to February, 1918, a series of efforts were. made to induce
the Goverrunent.to coordinate civilian training agencies and to carry
out through them a training prOgrain appropriate to the immediate
needs of the Nation.
Since Congress had placed in the hands of the
War Department the destinies of young men of college, age; it was
clear that the responsibility for such coordination rested in the first
instance with that department. In fact, the cause of most of the
difficulties which colleges faced was the lack of any agency in the
War Department itself to consider the question of training in a com-
prehensive way and to make use of the vast training facilities
afforded by civilian institutions.
Whatever the opinion of the Sec-
retary of War and the heads of the staff 'corps with regard to the
greater serviceableness of men who had finished their technical train-
ing, the inexorabre machinery of the selective-gervice law nevertheless
operated to drive technical students as well as others into the Army
prematurely.. Numerous plans were proposed to the War Depart-
ment both by individuals and by educational associations looking
toward the establishment of such an agency.
Indeed, the full ultili-
zation of the civilian educational Plant by the Government was the
principal topic of discussion at nearly every higher educational
gathering ciring this period.
Limitations of space do not permit the complete enumeration of
these efforts.
The cumulative effect was doubtless influential in se-
curing the action eventually taken.
Naturally the governmental
agencies for education, especially the educational committees of the
Council of National Defense and the Bureau of Education, were in
a strategical position to reinforce these efforts and to exert a con-
stant pressure toward the same end.
In fact, these two bodies served
as foci through which the opinions of the leaders in the university
world were brought to bear upon the persons in charge of training
for military operations. This whole movement can therefore best
be followed by recording the-Acts of the two bodies mentioned.
COMMITTEE ON THE RELATION OF ENGINEERING SCHOOLS TO THE
GOVERNMENT.
In July, 1917, the Commissioner for'Engineering and Education of
the Advisory Commiksion of the. Council of National Defense ap-
pointed a committee to studrithe relation of engineering schools to the
Government, this committee functioning as 'a subcommittee of the uni-
versity committee noted above.
Its members were Dean Pr L. Bishop,
of the Engineering School of the University of Pittsburgh (chair-
man); Dr. S. P. Capen, of the United States Bureau of Education
(secretary); President C. S. Howe, of the Case School of Applied
52
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Science; Dean M. S. Ketchum, of the College of Engineering at the
University of Colorado; Dr. C. R. Mann, special investigator for the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Throughout the month of August the committee was in nearly
continuous session.
It held occasional meetings also up to January,
1918. It was throughout its lifetime in touch with the Society for
the Promotion of Vngineering Education, the National Engineering
Societies. the Assoiat ion of American Vniversities, the Association
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, and
the National Association of State Universities.
The committee's first task was to consult with the beads of various
biireaus, divisions, and departments of the Department, of War and
the Department of the Navy, with regard to the probable needs for
scientific and technically trained men in connection with the military
operations.
The mobilization plans for the- Army were not then
complete. It was, in fact,, impossible to tell either how many spe-
cially trained experts would be needed or what relation the probalA
demand for such persons b9re to the available, supply among the
civilian population.. Army authorities were not even certain of the
proportionate number of specially trained individuals needed in each
type of military. unit.
Convinced of the urgency of securing, this
information and relating it to a definite program for the use of
educational jnstitutions, the committee presented to the Secretary of
War, on August 17, 1917, the folowing recommendation : "That. an
engineer fiimiliar with the equipment and capacity of the higher
technical institutions of the country be commissioned in the Army
and assigned to the task of coordinating the needs of the Army' for
technically trained men with existing educational facilities."
On
August 31 the Secretary of War detailed an officer of the General
Staff to study the needs of the War Department for technically
trained men and the methods of secuci4lhe cooperation of educa-
tional institutions toward meeting these needs.
The committee at,
o a e
ter
into a series of conferences with this officer which led
to the form lation of certain unexpected conclusions.
It appeared that far greater than the need for highly trained
experts was the need for men with lower grades of technical skill.
It writhe original assumption that a sufficient number e persons
4
qualified to serve the Army as carpenters, outomobile mechanics,
electricians, blacksmiths, etc., might be secured from the civilian
population by. means of the selective-service law. Indeed; it wa at
first Nought that sufficient:numbers of artisans and technicians
would turn up' in the ordinary process of the draft to meet these
needs.
In the summer of .1917 the committee on classification of
personnel in' the Arniy began to prepare a census of the drafted
HIGHER ED17CA7ION.
men with reference to their previous occupations, experience, and
education. The committee gad not. completed its work before it/13e-
came aliparerit that the draft ivas failing by a very large per,Lent
to bring int9.the service the technicians required* for ordinary mili-
tary operations. Indeed, the calls for specialists filth the American
Expeditionary Force were operatin-r to strip the units in home camps
of, the skilled personnel absolutely esSential to the effective mainte-
nance of these units.
illoreover, the increasing pressure upon tech-
nical industries for the pod.Ectin of war materials rendered it
unwise to draft larger numbers of technically trained men. It was
4 clear, tirrefore, that emergency training devices must' ar,oncebe
!!stablished, if the Army program were, to .be a success.
The General Staff ollicer hssigned to the study of this problem
and the connnittee, on the relation Qf engineering schools to the dsv-
ernment worked out a tentative plan for tie creation, of machinery
in the War Department which should supervise the trftining of both
the lower and
. higher gradec)of technical (wefts and should enlist
the cooperation of civilian institutions in the task of training.
With the relic! of this officer and the assignment of anyther to
the same task, the tentative plan was temporarilyshelved. The Fed-
eral Board for Vocat loud .Education, which had been established in
July, 1917,
&bred its services to the General Staff for the training
of technicians and trade specialists for the Army.
The Adjutant
General, therefore, issued an order on November 15, 1917, directing
the heads of the staff corps to apply. to the Federal Board for the
nutters of technically trained men needed by each corps. The Fed-
eral Board established at once emergency courses in several of the
Army ocTupat ions for th6, training of men awaiting the draft. These
measures served as only a partial remedy for the. difficulty.
Their
principal defect lay in the fact that the Federal Board had no means
of controlling the numbers of men in training. It wi}s also bunch:-
capped in administering an extensive training program, owing to
the fact that most of the men in its courses were following their
regular occupationstIt was evident that no accurate correlation of
training with the Army needs could be secured without a change of
policy.
-
The Federal Board for Vocational Education consequently'brought
together the representatives of secondary and higher technical train-
ing at two conferences in Washington, and secured their indorsement
for a 'proposal to tie Secretary of War sub.stantially similar to that
made by the committee on the relation of engineering schools to the
Government. The principal feature of both plans was that the War
Department' should create a special board or committee to have
charge of the Army training enterprise other than military, and
.
r
54
BIENNIAL SURVEY OP-EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
should rely upon civilian institutions for the provision of training
facilities.
EMERGENCY (AMERICAN) COUNCIL ON EDUCATION.
College and university Officers had been growing more and more
impatient at the delay in the formulation of the Government polity
toward higher institutions. The feeling that there should beat the
seat of the Government an independent body without governmental
connections which could present the views and the situation of the
colleges, gradually crystallized at meetings of the Association of
American Colleges and the National Association of State Universi-
ties held in Chicago in January, 1918. Delegates from these associa-
tions, from the Association of Urban Universities, the Catholic Edu-
cational Association, the Arneritan Association of University Pro-
fessors, the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, the
Association of American Medical Colleges, and the various branches
of the National Education Association met in Washington during the
last week in January. under the chairmanship of the specialist in
higher education in the Bureau of Education. The meeting resulted
in the formation of the Emergency Council on Education, the de-
clared puipose of which was:
To place the educational resources of the country more completely at the
service of the National Government and its departments, to the end that
through an understanding cooperation :
The patriotic services of the public schools, professional schools, and colleges
and universities may be augmented;
A continuous supply of educatea men may be maintained; and
Greater effectiveness in meeting educational problems arising during and
following the War may be secured.
The Emergency Council elected the following officers:
President Donald J. Cowling, Carleton College, president.
President P. L. Campbell, University of Oregon, secretary.
Dr. Robert 14' Kelly, executive secretary.
Executive council.
The president and secretary.
Dean Herman V. Ames, of the University of Pennsylvania.
President Homer H. Seerley, Iowa State Teachers' College.
Right ReV. Thomas J. Shahan, Catholic University of America.
The council changed its name after the first meeting to the Ameri-
can, Council. on Education.
It established headquarters in Wash-
ington, and through the active efforts of its executive officers it served
as a valuable mediating agent between the- Government departments,
particularly the War Department, and educational institutions.
It
interpreted the measures later adopted by the War Department to
the colleges.
It 'was especially effective in keeping the operating de-
partments constantly informed of the views and desires of the educa-
tional leaders of the country.
HIGBEE EDUCATION.
66
COMMFFTEE ON EDUCATION AND SPECIAL TRAINING OF THE WAR DEPART-
MENT.
The preceding discussion has shown the development of a strong
body of opinion, botfi inside and outside the War Department, as to
the necessity for formal action by the department in the matter of its
educational program.
The Secretary of War and his advisers had
before them in the latter part of January the plans suggested by
various individuals, by several educational associations, by the com-
mittee on the relation of engineering schools of the Council of Na-
tional Defense, and by the Federal Board for Vocational Education.
All were in agreement as to the fundamental ends to be attained.
There were indeed only minor differences in the various solutions
proposed. On the 10th of February, 1818, the Secretary of War
created the committee on education and special training. The. order
authorizing this committee and defining its functions follows:
1. There is hereby created within the War Department the committee on
education and special training.
This committee of three members shall con-
sist of Col. Hugh S. Johnson, Deputy Provost Marshal General; Lieut. Col.
Robert I. Rees, General Staff, and Maj. Grenville Clark, Adjutant General's De-
partment.
2. L'nder the direction of the Chief of Staff, Oa:, functions of the committee
shall be: To study the needs of the various branches of the service for skilled
men and technicians; to determine how such needs shall be met, whether by
selective draft, special training in educational institutions, or oNerwtse ; to
secure the cooper,otion of the educational institutions of the country and to
represent the War Department in its relations with such institutions; to ad,-
minister such planof special training in colleges and schools as may be
adopted.
32The committee on education and special training shall have associated.with
It Lai advisory civilian board appointed by the Secretary of War, composed of
representatives of educational institutions.
An °dicer shall be detailed by*the
chief of each staff corps and department to consult with the committee con-
cerning the needs of his corps or depaftrfient.
4. The committee. will be given such assistance, commissioned and civilian,
as may be necessary to fully execute its duties, with office room in the War
Department )luild Mg.
The Secretary of War appointed the fo'lowing gentlemen to serve
as Members of the advisory board, regre.senting civilian educational
interests:
,
Dr. C. R. Mann, of the Carnegie Foundation for the 'Advancement of Teach-
ing, representing engineering education (chairman).
,Dean James K. Angell, of the University of Chicago, representing university
'education.
Mr. S.
Dlet7., educational manager of the Western Electric Co., represent-
ing vocational education.
Mr. J.P. Monroe, member of the Federal Board for Vocational Education.
Dr. S. P. Caper', specialist in higher education do the Bureau of Education.
56
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Later President R. A. Pearson, of Iowa State College, was ap-
pointed to represent agricultural education, and Mr. Hugh Frayne
to represent labor interests. On the resignation of Mr. Monroe, his
place was filled by Dean Herman Schneider, of the engineering
school of the tniversity of Cincinnati.
NATIONAL ARMY TRAINING DETACHMENTS.
Immediately upon its organization the committee and its advisory
board proceeded to secure estimates from the staff corps as to the
needs of the different brancles of the Army for technically trained
men.
These needs -were calculated as accurately as possible and
compared with the estimated number of practitioners of various
trades that could be expected from the operation of the draft. It
appeared that there would be a shortage of approximately 100,000
mechanics by September 1. unless special training courses were set
in operation. The committee regarded the provision of these 100,000
mechanics as its first task.
Ordinarily the trade schools and technical high schools would
have been enlisted to provide the necessary training. The character
of the present emergency, however, made this course of procedure
impractical. The committee was engaged in training soldiers.
The
men over whom it had jurisdiction were already enrolled in the
Army, either by voluntary induction or draft. They must therefore
be under military discipline and control while receiving their tech-
nical training. To insure the effectiveness of this control, they must
be housed and fed under military conditions. It was not sufficient
that adequate training facilities should be provided by institutions
which undertook to train these men. Living quarters and a common
mess were likewise essential. Moreover, the requirements of the
Army service demanded that all technical specialists should have
had contact with practical operations identical with those which they
would have to perform with the military forces.
Few trade schools and technical high schools possessed either the
housing facilities or the large shops necessary to meet these condi-
tions.
The committee therefore turned first to the engineering
schools of the country, in therbelief that they would be willing to
depart from, their usual procedure to the extent of accepting and
training these groups of tradesmen. With very few exceptions, the
engineering schools enthusiastically volunteered for the task.
Alto-
gether the committee established 147 training centers for technicians.
Of these, 123 were at engineering schools.
Some 47 of the principal
Army occupations were taught.
by April 1 the first 6,000 men
were under instruction. At the time of the signing of the armistice
180,000 had been trained; 92,000 had been assigned to military units;
mann Entbenox.
57
and more than 70,000 had been sent to France. The General Staff
had authorized the committee to train 226,000 more before the sum-
mer of 1919.
Certain brief comments on the principles underlying the training
of these technicians in the so-called National Army Training De-
tachments and the methods employed may be in order.
It was neces-
sary that the training should be brief and intensive.
If the requisite
number of men were to be produced by the- autumn of 1918, the train-
ing courses could not exceed two months in length (except for a few
trades in which the numbers were small). At the outset it seemed
absurd to suppose that inexperienced men could be taught a mechani-
cal vocation in two months.
But, to the surprise of the committee
and of the school officers, the majority turned out to be competent
mechanics on the completion of the courses.
In fact, the reports
of the officers of active field units to which they were assigned for
special duty showed that they were entirely satisfactory and that
they saved the situation.
The reasons for this unexpected -and truly extraordinary result
are not far to seek.
They may be summarized under three heads:
(a) Adequate motivation, (b) an intensive and practical method,
and (e) Army discipline.
(a) The experience of the committee, like that of other war-train-
ing agencies, appears to demonstrate that the educational processeS
of peace have used but a portion of the individual's capacity.
They
have not supplied a compelling motive.
With a motive and a method
of instruction Nyhich is at once practical and.interesting, the progress
of the learner in any practical pursuit is astonishing.
In these
courses for technicians the moijve. for a supreme effort on the part
of the student soldier was of course patent.
Every man expected
that proficiency in the trade which- he was learning would improve
his military status.
Nearly every man also was animated by a high
spirit of patriotism.
(b) The training melkoda were as practical as possible. A theo-
retical or scientific background was not regarded as important.
The
vital object was to inculcate a knowledge of the job and to develop
resourcefulness. Men were consequently put to work at once on
practical industrial problems;.
Automobile mechanics were set to
taking down and re-assembling cars; carpenters were given simple
building to do. The necessary theory was interwoven with this
practical work in greater or less measure. The committee's guide,
however, was not any preconception of the pedagogical advantages
of one or another mode of presentation.
It was rather the specific
definition of the job each specialist would have to perform as a
member of an Army unit.
because the courses were established on -
short notice, it was impossible to fotmulate teaching material to
58
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
help the schools.
School officers were therefore given the definition
of the finished product.
For example, a tire repairer would have
such and such specific things to do.
The committee furnished the
men and a statement of the goal; it left the school officers to work
out the method whereby the goal might be reached, insisting only
upon a maximum amount of actual practice.
This resulted in the
development of a multiplicity of teaching devices and a wholesome
pedagogical rivalry among the different institutions.
(c) The whole training enterprise was galvanized and systematized
by military discipline.
Moreover, all the men in training were under
military instruction for several hours a day, and were consequently
in splendid physical condition.
Although the vocational training in the National Army Training
Detachments, as they were called, was not higher education, a dis-
cussion of it properly belongs in this section, both because it repre-
sents an educational contribution made by higher institutions and
because of its influence upon the normal educational processes of
many institutions.
The inclusion of a group of men devoting them-
selves to a less advanced grade of technical training was, in the be-
ginning, regarded with disfavor and alarm by college officers.
After
eight months' experience, many of these same officers came to two
unexpected conclusions, namely, (1) that the methods employed in
the vocational courses might profitably be applied to some extent
in the higher grades of professional training, and (2) that the
presence of a body of men engaged in practical processes, with an
immediate vocational goal in view, strengthens rather than weakens
the academic morale.
There is still another aspect of the training offered the National
Army Training Detachments which bids fair to have lasting influ-
ence, not only on vocational training, but on higher education. It
was-noted above that the men under special training in these detach-
ments were considered by the Army primarily as soldiers. An ideal
soldier, from the point of view of the General Staff, is a resourceful,
adaptable man, with initiative and conviction of the righteousness
of his cause.
The narrowly trained specialist may fail to be a suc-
cessful soldier.
From the beginning, therefore, the committee held
that other elements than purely trade instruction should be included
in the training.
It sought to solve the problem by introducing
weakly discussions on the war aims of the United° States. These 4,A3-
eussions were designed to cover the historical background of the war,
the economic and social development, and the types of government
of the belligerent countries; and toacquaint the soldier with the ex-
pression of different national purposes and philosophies, as these
have found their way into literature.
No attempt was made to
1
HIGHER EDUCATION.
59
create official propaganda. The discussions were intended rather to
assist soldiers to answer the questions which naturally arose in their
own minds.
'his war-aims course later cVyeloped into the war-
issues course for the Students Army Training Corps.
THE STUDENTS' ARMY TRAINING CORPN.
Having inaugurated the units of the National Army Training De-
tachments, the committee and its advisory board proceeded to study
the more complicated question of the proper development of the po-
tential officer material contained in colleges and universities. The
committee was convinced that the measures already taken to enroll
technical students in the Enlisted Reserve Corps were a wholly in-
adequate solution of the problem. The majority of the students were
not satisfied with this status and could not be convinced that they
were serving their country in.the most useful manner by entering
the Enlisted Reserve Corps. Something more definite was demanded,
not merely to preserve the supply of prospective technical specialists,
but to keep the colleges front being stripped of students. Such a re-
sult would have been very unfortunate, from a'military as well as an
educational point of view, in the event of ,long war. The solution
which the committee proposed was finally embodied in a letter ad-
dressed by the Secretary of War to presidents of colleges, on May
6, 1918:
In order to provide military instruction for the college students of the
country during the present emergency, a comprehensive plan will be put in
effect by the Wur Department, beginning with the next collegedear, in Septem-
ber, 1918. The details remain to be worked out, but in general the plan will
be as follows:
Military instruction under officers and noncommissioned officers of the Army
will be provided In every institution of college grade which enrolls for the
instruction 100 or more able-bodied students over the age of 18.
The necessary
military equipment will, so far as possible, be provided by the Government.
There will be created a military training unit in each institution.
Enlistment
will be purely voluntary, but all students over the age of 18 will be encouraged
,to enlist.
The enlistment will constitute the student a member of the Army
of the United States, liable to active duty at the call of the President. It will,
however, be the policy of the Government not to call the members of the train-
ing unite to active duty until they have reached the age of. 21, unless urgent
military necessity compels an earlier call.
Students under 18 and therefore
not legally eligible for enlistment, will be encouraged to enroll in the training
units.
Provision will be made for coordinating the Reserye Officers' Training
Corps system, which exists in about one-third of the collegiate Institutions,
with this broader plan.
This new policy aims to accomplish a twofold object: First, to develop as
a great military asset the large body of young men In the colleges; an,d second,
to prevent unnecessary and wasteful depletion of the. colleges throuigh Indio-
criminate volunteering, by offering to the students a definite and immediate
military status..
60
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Later announcement will he made of the details of the new system.
In
the meantime, presidents of collegiate institutions are requested to call this
mutter to the attention of all their students. Those who do not graduate this
spring should be urged to continue their education and take advantage of
this new opportunity to serve the Nation.
This letter was the first announcement of the Students' Army
Training Corps.
It was followed by a more definite and detailed
statement in the latter part of June.
It was the original intention
of the War Department to interfere as little as possible with the
freedom and independence of colleges.
While providing facilities
for military training and furnishing young men a strong incentive
to attend college, the department expected to leave full liberty of
action to college officers, in the development of courses and in the
conduct of the institutions.
Plans were made during the summer
by the committee to put the Students' Army Training .Corps into
operation on this basis.
The committee also indorsed a campaign
for collegiate enrollments; which was undertaken by the American
Council on Education and the Bureau of Education.
While these arrangements were being made, the military situation
changed.
It became imperative to deploy America's forces on a
vastly greater scale. On recommendation of the Secretary of War
and the Chief of Staff, therefore, Congress passed the man-power
bill August 30.
This action necessitated two radical modifications
of the Students' Army Training Corps plan.
First, there was no
possibility of keeping a large nuieber of men in college for two or
three years prior to their attainment of draft age.
The new draft
ages were from 18 to 45.
Second, a very greatly increased number
of officers were demanded for the new armies of the autumn of 1918
and the spring of 1919.
The central officers' schoolscould not be
relied upon to furnish all of these.. Colleges must be regarded as one
of the principal sources of officer material.
Authorization foi the creation of the Students' Army Training
Corps as an active military unit was therefore secured from the
President, and the following General Orders No. 79 issued 'on August
24, 1918:
Under the authority conferred by sections 1, 2, 8, and 9 of the act of Con-
gress authorizing the President to increase temporarily the Military Estab-
lishment of the United States, approved May 18, 1917, the President directs
that for the-period of the existing emergency there shall be raised and main-
tained by voluntary induction and draft a Students' Army Training Corps.
Unita of this corps will be authorized by the Secretary of War at educational
institutions that meet the re9uirements laid down in the regulations.
The fundamental difference between the student soldier under the
first plan for the Students' Army Training Corps and the member
of that corps under the revised plan was that now he became a soldier,
on active duty.
This meant that he must be constantly under mil
HIGHER EDUCATION.
61
itary control; that lie must. be housed, clothed, and subsisted by the
Government.
The relations ot the War Department to the colleges,
therefore, were radically changed overnight.
Colleges which had
been approved for units of the Students' Army Training Corps un-
der the first plan were now asked to contract with the War Depart-
ment for the housing, feeding, and instruction of student soldiers,
who thould be at all times under military authority. It is a striking
testimony of the patriotism of the colleges that practically all of
them consented to enter this arrangement.
Five hundred and seven-
teen higher institutions were authorized to maintain units of the
Students' Army Training Corps.
On the administrative side difficulties at once arose, which the
committee indeed foresaW but could not remedy.
The members of
the corps were theoreticallx at all times under military control.
College officers, relieved of discipline and deposed from their ordi-
nary authority, were nevertheless in a measure responsible for the
academic progress of members of the corps.
There was divided re-
sponsibility therefore, and an unfortunate dualism of authority
which was never remedied before the demobilization of the Students'
Army Training Corps.
The Students' Army Training Corps had a brief six weeks of life.
Part of this period, moreover, was rendered useless in many institu-
tions by the influenza epidemic which swept the country in the
months of October and November, 1.919.
Indeed, the Students' Army
.Training Corps ran just long enough to develop all the possible
centers of friction and to expose all its serious defects.
The orders
for its demobilization came before these defects could be remedied.
Nevertheless, there were certain educational concepts involved in the
plans for the corps which are worth recording.
These have been
recognized and appreciated by many college officers.
1. Needs. Like the trade training in the. National Army Training
Detachments, the officers' kwining carried forward in the Students'
Army Training Corps wirto have been predicated upon a careful
estimate of the needs of the Army for various kinds of officers.
For example, the committee discovered that the Infantry service
would require from the colleges 3,000 officers a month from October,
1918, and that the Field Artillery would require 2,000 a month. It
analyzed the work which each of these types of officers would .liave
to perform and the problems which they would have to meet.
It
then proceeded to organize courses to fit men directly for these
tasks. The courses were originally outlined in consultation with
officers from the various services.
They, were being modified and
elaborated at the time of the demobilization of the Students' Army
Training Corps. A system was also about.to be inaugurated to as7
62
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1B18.
sign to each course a number of men corresponding to the number
required in that branch of the service for which the particular eourse
was designed to train.
It was the committee's purpose to integrate
training with Army needs, precisely as it had done in the case of
mechanics and artisans.
The first prescribed courses issued to the units of the corps carried
out in a tentative way this theory.
It was understood that mem-
bers of the Students' Army Training Corps would be called to active
service at the time of the summoning of the age groups to which
they severally belonged.
Thus it was assumed that 20-year-old
registrants would be called by January 1, 1919, that 19-year-old
registrants would be called by April 1, 1919, and that the 18-year-
old group would be summoned in July or August, 1919.
The com-
mittee therefore required that the college year be divided into
quarters.
It assumed that 20-year-old students could remain in col-
lege three months, 19-year-old students six months, and 18-year-old
students nine months.
Exceptions were to be made in the case of
students of unusual proficiency in specialized curricula, such as en-
gineering, chemistry, medicine, etc.
Former college class alignments
were abandoned.
Curricula were organized leading to each of the
principal line and staff services, and divided into quarr. Each
curriculum contained certain prescribed subjects.
Military
drill
and a course on the issues of the war were prescribed in every cur-
riculum&
In the case of the three months' student the prescriptions
were so numerous that there was practically no elective opportunity.
A greater amount of freedom of choice was granted to the six
months' student; the nine months' student, being allowed to dis-
tribute his prescribed work over three quarters, had a considerable
amount of academic liberty.
2. New organization of humanistic training.The course on the
issues of the war which wag prescribed in every curriculum was the
direct result of the committee's satisfactory experience with the war-
aims courses given to members of the National Army Training
Detachments.
Indeed, the outline for Lids course was evolved very
largely from the questions asked by members of the National Army
Training Detachments. The course on the issue's of the war com-
bined history, economics, government, literature, and philosophy.
It
paid no attention to the artificial divisions which have separated these
subjects in the past.
It aimed rather to bring about a fusion of the
essential elements of these and other subjects.
The design was to
furnish the student soldier with facts, criteria, and inspiration which
would enable him to understand his world and to relate his conduct to
the major issues of his _life. Incidentally the committee's action
resulted in breaking downlemporarily the illogical barriers between
departments which have sOlong been traditional in academic organi-
41%
1
HIGHER EDUCATION.
68
zation.
The courses on the issues of the war could not be fairly
tested in practice within a period of six weeks.
In many institu-
tions, however, the principle upon which they were based so fag
commended itself to college officers that these courses are to serve as
the model for organizing the fundamental elements of peace-time
litmianistic training.
Commenting upon the permanent valtle of the
war-issues course, Dean Woodbridge, of Columbia, says:
In the past, education was liberalized by means of the classical tradition.
It
afforded for educated men a common background of Ideas and commonly under-
stood standards of judgment.
For the present that tradition no longer suffices.
If education Is to be liberalized again, If our youth are to be freed from the
confusion of ideas and standards, no other means looks so attractive asp-com-
mon knowledge of what the present world of human affairs really is. The war
has revealed that world with the impelling clearness which tragedy alone seems
able to attain. That our student soldiers may see the issuesIs of iminediate
consequence; but the war and Its issues wilt be the absorbing theme of genera-
tions to come. To the thoughtful, therefore, the course affords the opportunity
to Introduce into pur education a liberalizing force, which will give to the gen-
..
eradiate to come a common background of ideas and commonly understood
standards of judgment.
3. 0,bjectire testa. Inductions into the Students' Army Training
Corps were originally based upon bona fide college membership.
Colleges were expected to enforce their ordinary admission require-
ments.
A. larger number of new students than usual were drawn into
the colleges, because the Government assumed their expenses and plaid
them soldiers' pay.
The large and continuous supply of officer mate-
rial which would be demanded, however, could not be produced with
certainty if the old formal admission requirements must be absolved
by every student soldier.
The Students' Army Training Corps would
have to' be recruited from that much larger stratum of the popula-
tion which possessed the capacity to pursue work of college grade
but could not meet the fornial entrance requirements.
Hence a
system of .recruitment for the corps was devised which combined
three elements: (a) A personal interview with every candidate, the
purpbse of 'which would be to determine the character of his school-
ing and experience and his general qualifications for college work;
(b) the Army intelligence test; (c) in the case of candidates for
courses which by their professional nature demanded special prepa-
ration in one or more subjects, such examinations as.AttAd be neces-
sary to test the candidate's proficiency in these subjects.
This
recruitment plan was never issued, because demobilization of the
corps was ordered and recruitment ceased.
It is undoubtedly cause for
regret that a comprehensive experiment with psychological and other
objective tests of fitness for college work could. not have been made.
The material prepared by the committee has, however, interested
numerous college officers and his apparently stimulated discussion
64
BIENNIAL sunny OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
and careful consideration of its possible application in college
entrance procedure.
Reference has been made to the brief life of the Students' Army
Training Corps. To complete the record, it should perhaps here be
stated that the corps enrolled some 142,000 men.
The 'signing of
the armistice on the 11th of November did away with the need for
continuing it as the source of supply for officers.
It was, ordered
demobilized by December 21.
It is, of course, still too early to say what, if any, effects the Stu-
dents' Army Training Corps may have had upon college methods and
organization.
There has been, as might be expected, a period of
sharp reaction?:
College officers, smarting under the humiliations im-
posed by the system of .military control, are not disposed to find
many virtues ih the scheme. On the other hand, aside from the possi-
ble influence of the educational policies described above, the influence
of military training and discipline upon the student body may have
some permanent results.
Both faculties and students have recog-
nized the greater efficiency of a student body subject to a military
rt5gime. The by-prodticts in the way V physical fitness, deyelopment
of courtesy, and the spread of a democratic spirit :are also too de-
sirable to be lost.
Colleges now have before them the task of de-
vising means to retain these tangible advantages of the period o
war training.
They are also faced with the problem of transfor
ing the spirit of self-sacrifice engendered by the national emergency
into a spirit of service to the community and to the Nation in peace.
The solution of this problem is admittedly difficult; but unless it is
solved America will have lost.the best fruits ot the war.
It is worth while to point out one fundamental aspect of the
Students' Army Training Corps wjiich has not always been recog=
nized.
For the first time in history the higher .institutions of the
country were united in a common purpose. By offering themselves
voluntarily to the War Department they created a single tiaining
plant for the production of specialists and officers for the Army.
In other words, there was reated for a brief period a national sys-,,,
tem of higher education. _Further, the whole training program car-
ried out in this system was based on an accurate forecast of national
needs. The condition's were of course abnormal. They could never
occur in times of peace; nor is it desirable that higher education
should be controlled from the center.
Nevettheless, this temporary
organization contains important implications upon which the
colleges themselves may profitably act.
The Students' Army Training Corps saved colleges from virtual
extinction.
In the letter announcing the plan quoted above) the
Secretary of War alludes to the preservation of higher education as
HIGHER EDUCATION.
65
one of the two important purposes to be attained. In spite of the
difficulties of readjustment toa peace basis and in spite of the
financial losses (in case of some institutions very great), the higher
educational machinery of the United States emerges from the war
in more nearly normal condition than that of any other country.
The 15 nronths of effort to secure an adequate recognition of the
importance of civilian training agencie culminated in the Students'
army Training Corps. With the establishment of this agency the
Government accepted in its totality the contention of, university and
college authorities that higher institutions should be formally in-
corporated into the training plant of the military departments.
THE MOBILIZATION OF SCIENCE.
It was stated at the beginning of this section that the second great
problem to the solution of which colleges contributed was the inobili-
zat-ion of science.
It was generally recognized when the United
States entered the war that the country possessed in its university,
laboratories, and staffs of trained research workers an immense
scientific capital which could be made immediately productive.
Vari-
ous agencies were at once established to facilitate the use of these
resources by the Government and to designate problems for invesli-
gation which possessed special military importance.
THE INTEKOLLEGIATE INTELLIGENCE BUREAU.
One of the earliest of these agencies was the Intercollegiate In-
telligence Bureau, established by the voluntary action of a group
of universities and colleges, under the direction of Dean William
McClellan, of the University of Pennsylvania. This bureau set itself
the task of furnishing to Government departments, on request,
the si rvices of experts needed for highly specialized scientific and
administrative taskS. Under its direction the scores of higher insti-
tutions Which' joined it prepared personnel, records of those members
of their student and alumni bodies and ,faculties who might be
available for such services.
Throughout 1917 the.bureau furnished
effective help to many Government agencies in buildiyig up an expert
personnel.
THE NATIONAL jtESEARCH COUNCIL.
The National Research Council, created by the National Academy
of Sciences and affiliated with the Council of National Defense,
served as the central agency for determining the research problems
connected with the war, allocating them to different scientific agen-
cies for solution and coordinating the results.
Under its general
direction the great centers of research throughout the country were
17102W-21Bulk 88 5
66
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
kept occupied with Government work.
In some 25 of the leading
educational institutions the study of problems relating to military
optics, to ordnance, munitions, topography, and food conservation
were carried on.
The council was also concerned in investigations
relating to gas defense, dyes, devices for the Navy, high explosives,
electrical problems connected with wireless, smoke screens, fuel sub-
stitutes, detection of submarines, various pathological and medical
problems, the testing of materials, etc. Associated with it also were
the group of psychologists, whose contributions revolutionized the
methods of organizing Army and Navy personnel.
TILE WAR SERVICE OF PROFESSORS.
Large numbers of academic experts in pure and applied science
were summoned from their regular university duties and entered the
Government service. /They became expert advisers and administrators
for the Army, the Navy, the War Industries Board, the Food Adminis-
tration, the Fuel Administration, and nearly every other branch of
the Government engaged in preparing for and waging war. A com-
plete census of college and university teachers so employed has not
been, perhaps will never be, made. They were numbered literally
by hundreds. They rendered services which none hilt men so trained
could render.
They were indispensable.
Doubtless the effect of
this service on the status of the university professor in the public
mind will be revolutionary.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC MORALE.
The third problem relating to preparation for war, in which from
the outset the higher institutions were concerned, was the develop-
ment of public morale. Reference to the statement of principles on
page 40 shoWs that college officers early recognized their resRonsi-
Nay in the dissemination of Correct information concerning the issues -
of the war and the interpretation of its meaning. This task had been
assumed by the higher' institutions of Canada and carried forward by
them for three years with extraordinary success. In greater or less
measure probably nearly every institution in the United States at-
tempted to perform this service. Two or three especially interesting
examples may be mentioned.
The University of Washington, whose president, Henry Suzzallo,
was also chairman.of the State Council of Defense,.organized a group
-
of college and university teachers and teachers in-secondary schools,
which rendered. most effective service in explaining the issues of the
war to laborers engaged in war industries.
Numerous threatened
labor disturbance- in the Northwest were thus averted.
`
HIGHER EDUCATION.
67
The University of North Carolina, which had before the war an
especially well organized extension bureau, developed immediatiply
upon the entry of the United States into the war a war-information
service. Reports from that State indicate that this was a very effec-
tive factor in the development', of an intelligent comprehension of
America's. part in the struggle. The following quotation, from a
leaflet issued by the university, gives an outline of this service:
1. EETENRION CENTERS.Centers may he established in any community upon
the application of a properly organized group of students.
From one
course to six courses given at each center, each course requiring a
month for its completion.
A member of the university faculty to be
sent to the center at the beginning of the 'course and the remainder
of the group meetings directed q him through a local, well - qualified
man. The work to be guided by a syllabus, by Outlines, and testedby
an examination. The courses to form a consistent whole; The courses
(by way of example):
a. Theories of the State.
b. Europe since 1815.
o. South American. Relations.
d..Political Idealism in British and American Literature.
e. Economic and Social Aspects of the War.
/. The War as Reflected In Recent Literature.
2. GROUP LECTURER.Four or five or rnoreof these lectures or similar lectures
.
more popularly treated and without intensive class study may be ar-
ranged as a series by any community (e. g., one a month by a Young
Men's Christian Association, or similar organizations).
3. CORRESPONDENCE COURSES (with college credit) and READING COURSES (with-
out credit) on the subject matter of these extension center courses,
using the same syllabus and other material, but in more popular form.
A textbook (326 pages). "American Ideals" (Houghton Mifflin;& Co.),
prepared by two of the profeksors, is a source book of selections shoe
Mg through state papers, speethes4 etc., the development of American
thought, political Ideals. etc.
4. SINGLE LFATURES on a wide variety -f subjects related to the war will be
furnished to communities as a part of any °OA* lecture plan they may
have for special occasions. A list of lecture subjects and lecturers fur-
nished on application.
5. READERS' SERVICE.This service undertakes to furnish through the univer-
sity library, the Paellay cooperating, information ap to books, articles.
on special- subjects relating to the war, furnishing small package if- .
braries of pamphlets on half a dozen important phages of the war and
In-so far as possible lending books and acting as a' distributing agency
for putting Government and other publications In the hands of Inter-
,
ested readers.
13. DIRECT PUBLICITY ON WHY WE ARE AT WAR AND WRY THIS Is Otis
a. Special articles by members of the faculty in journals of education
and the like, and special leaflets to be issued by the Extension
Service and sent to public school teachers.
b. Special editions'of the University News Letter (a weekly clip sheet
published by,-the university) devoted to these. subjects and sent
68
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
to a special list of people influential in their beat communities,
but not for the most part readers of the daily press,
o. Debate subjects and outlines, composition
subjects
and patriotic
programs, for school exercises and celebrations, community gather-
ings, etc..
7. THE LAFAYErrs ASSOCIATI(iN.An associationState-wide and Nation-wide,
If possiblecomposed of high-school and grammar-school st4dents, parents.
and others interested, called the Lafayette Agsoclation
to symbblize
the ideals to which Lafayette devoted his life and for the purpose
of "realizing the Infinite power of the public school as the center of
the community life of the Nation in the essential task of nourishing,
developing, and crystallizing, through expression, the nntiorfal spirit of
present and future America." A full explanation of the LufayettO Asso-
ciation is given in another leaflet.
It soon became apparent, however,' that a central officialegency
was needed,, not only to furnish reliable data to these local institu-
tions, but.als'o to give consistency and point to the scattered efforts
of individual bodies. The task fen almost by force of gravity to the
Committee on Public Information.
This committee recruited the
services of the best scholars in the fields of history,seconornics, and
government, and under the leadership of Dean Guy Stanton Ford,
of the University of Minn "As, prepared the Red, White and Blue
Series of popular monoaphs on the background and issues of the
war.
THE NATIONAL BOARD FOR IIISIVRICAL SERVICE.
The activities of the National Boaid for Historical. Service may
appropriately be 'counted as one of the contributions made by the
univetsities to the war. The board was organizedon April 29, 1917,
and established headquarters i'n Washington.
Under the chairman-
ship 1of Prof. Evarts B. Greene,of the University of Illinois, it
sought to direct the activities of historical scholars into lines of na-
tional service.
It furnished advice concerning university courses,
public lectures, popular Articles, and research.
Cooperating with
the History *Teachers' Magazine, it contributed rinumber of supple-
ments, including documents illustrating the German occupation of
Belgium, a selected and annotated bibliography of the war, and a
notable topical outline entitled "A Study of the Great War," pre-
-.
pared by Dr. S. B. Harding. The board was also in close and. active
cooperation with the.Committee on Public Information, especially
in the preparation of the War Information Series and the Red,
White and Blue Series.
4.. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION.
The war has brought about in the United States a great enhance-
ment of interest in every phase of civilization in the allied countries.
Especially have the friendly relations which have existed so long
1
HIGHER EDUCATION.
69
between the universities of this country and those of Frande and Eng-
land received added stimulus. In January, 1918, the commissioner
for'engineering and education of the Advisory Commission of the
Council of National Defense issued, with the indorsement of the
council, an invitation to university officers of the allied countries to
send groups of representatives to America to confer with and To ad-
vise the officers of Americaninstitutions. The first natioi to respond
to this invitation was Great Britaii). A distinguished mission, repre-
senting British universities, landed in New York on the 8th. of Octo-
.ber.
The members of the mission were as follows:
Dr. Arthur Everett Shipley, vice chancellor of the rnivenalty .of Cambridge.
Sir Henry :diem vice chancellor of the University of Manchester.
Rev. Edward Mewburn Walker, ilbrurbut of Queen's College, Oxford.
Sir Henry Jones, professor of moral philosophy, University of Glasgow.
Dr: John Joly, professor of geology urrljnineralogy, Trinity College, Dublin.
Miss Caroline Spurgeon, professor of English literature, University of London.
Miss Rose Sidgwick, lecturer on history, University of Birmingham.
Arrangements for their entertainment were made by the American
Council on Education. After a visit to Washington, where they were
received by the Present and by the Council of National Defense,
they made a tour of a considerable nunibtr of universities and col-
leges east of the Mississippi River. Conferences on important
of the question of educational exchanges between the United States
and, Great Britain were held in Philadelphia, New York, Chicago,
Minneapolis, Houston, and Boston:
Definite arrangements were
made for the mutual recognition of academic credentials,
and,
tentative plans were proposed for the interchange of students and
professors.
1
CHAPTER II.
MEDICAL EDUCATION.
By N. P.COLWELT., M. D.
Secretary of the Co Unfit on Medical Education of the American Medical Association,
Chicago.
CONTENTS.EntrAnce requirements of medical colleges
Coeducation In medicineMedi-
cal education and the warMedical education and the selective serviceA national
control of medical educationImproved standards of licensing boardsState require-
ments of preliminary education Confusion from multiple boardsSimplifying medi-
cal licensurePrattical and clinical examinationsNational Board of Medical Ek-
aminersPremedical college workNeed of a list of approved colleges of arts and
ecieucesItems concerning medical educationDeveloping medical education In
China.
In'previous reports attention was called to the rapid improvements
in medical education in the United States, secured through a cam-
paign which was begun by th'e American Medical, Association in-
1904:
At the beginning of the campaign, the number of medical
schools in this country 'exceeded this total in all the rest of the world.
There was clearly an oversupply pf medical schools. Many of them
were poorly equipped and adhered only to low entrance require-
ments,'while some were conducted for profit and required-for admis-
sion little or nothing in the way of educational qualifications. It was
shown that in 1904 only four medical colleges were requiring any
college work for admission, and only from 20 per cent to 25 per cent
were actually requiring a four-year high-school education.
Under
the methods pursued, it is not surprising, therefore, that in 1904 the
number of medical students reached the amazing total of 28,142,.
and that in, that year 5,747 physicians were graduated.
The campaign for improvement successfully urged the merging
of two or more medical colleges in each of our various cities or
States.
This resulted in a rapid reduction in the total number, but
a material strengthening of the quality of the. institutions remaining.
At the same time higher standards of preliminary education were
urged consisting, first, of the four-year high-school education, then
.
one year, and finally two years of premedical college education. In
1916 the two-year entrance standard was made- an essential for any'
medical school to be considered as acceptable by the American Medi-
cal Association. In that year 48 colleges had already put into effect
71
72
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
the higher requirement and also 16 State boards had made it the
minimum essential of preliminary education of graduates who might
seek licenses in those States.
Attention was also called to the great
improvements in the way of full-time salaried teachers, greatly im-
proved laboratories, the closer relations with teaching hospitalq, and
the securing of greater endowments.
At the present time there are 90 medical colleges; the number of
students during 1917-18 was 13,630. and the number of graduatts. in
1918 was 2,670.1
These lower figures represent the normal decrease
that was expected under the increased entrance requirements, and are
not due to the Ivan The following tabulation shows the decided in-
crease since 1904 in the number of colleges which have enforced
higher entrance requirements and in the number of students and
graduates who have held the higher entrance qualifications:
Entrance requiremepts.
Colleges.
1904
1918
Num
her.
Per
cent. Num-
ber.
Per
cent.
Four-year high-school
education or leas
158
97.5
'r
7.
One year of college work
34
37.8
Two years of college
work
4
2.5
49
54. 4
Totals
162
90
Students.
I
Graduates.
1904
1918
I
1904
1
1918
I
Num-
Per Num- Per
1
I
Num- Per
I Num- I Per
I
her.
cent, ! her.
cent.
her.
' cent.
ber.
, cent.
28, 391
93.8 1
631
5,378 1 93.6
1,761
28,142
5,944
6.21 7,055
113,630
4.6
43.6
51.8
389
5, 747
258,
9.7
1,147
'
43.0
8.4
1,265
1
47.3
2,670
1 It Is not probable that In 1904 more than about 30 colleges (20 percent) were actually requiring a four-yew
high-school education as a rnlntmum or admission.
Instead of 4 (2.5 per cent) medical schools which in 1904 required
ny college work for admission, for the session of 1917--18 83 (92.2
r cent) medical schools required one or two years of such work;
ihstead of only 1,761 (6.2 per cent) students enrolled in the higher
stiMdard colleges in 1904, during last year 12,999 (95.3 per cent) stu-
den,ts were enrolled in the higher standard colleges; and instead of
onl 3*(6.4 per cent) graduates who were turned out by the higher
star
rd colleges in 1904, at the end of last session 2,412 (90.3 per
cent)
aduated from those institutions.
The 7 medical schools
which
ill require only a high-school education or less for admission
are also nterior in other respects, and are reported as not recognized
by from ,7 to 38 State' licensing boards. The ptogress in medical
education ;In respect to preliminary requirements is graphically
shown in Chart 1.
This general adoption by medical schools of the
I Altogether 2,807 students successfully completed the courses of the senior pear.
From 187, however, in the Universities of California and Minnesota and In Rush Medi-
cal College, the degrees have been withheld pending the completion of a hospital in.
terneship.
MEDICAL
IliCATION,1916-1918.
73
two-year standard of preliminary education and the other improve-
ments' made have brought medical education in this country to a
par with that of leading countries of Europe and elsewhere.
(CatAar.1.Medical schools and entrance requirements.)
This chart shows (heavy line at the top) the total number of medical
schools existing In the various years.
The chart also shows the number
of medical schools requiring for admission (horizontal shading, indefinite,
estimated) a four-year high-school education; (vertical shading) one year
of premedical college work and (heaVy shading) two years of premedical
college work.
100
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
-80
70
03
to
40
10
0
1900'01 WWWUW'07 '06 '00 10 '11 1! 11 '14 '15 16 '17 18.
M AMME
WIMMEMISOMMEMMINIMM
MMOEI
MINIMMEMEMMOMMINIMMINI
MMEEME
MEEM
IEIMMO
111MMEMEMMIMME
MIME=
II -7.---
1111
MMINEEE
life
100
150
140
110
120
110
100
to
70
CO
eo
10
0
Totals
Totals (1)
Total* (b)
Totals (e)
1900'01
160 140
458..
.
2
'01
100
128..
3
'05
160
167..
11
'04
100
116..
4
'05 TO '07 VS '09
158 142 121151-140
152 156 148 125 116
..
1
2
5
3
6
5
9 11
16
'10
131
91
13
27
'51
132
SO
14
28
11 I1
118 107
72 60
16 16
30 11
'11
106Ua
14
16
96
12
44
40
'16
96
10
15
47
17
515
9
11
64
'15
94
9
6
79
work; (c) two
more years of college work.
Requiring firdmitsion (a) a high school education or less; (b) one year of college
ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS OF MEDICAL COLLEGES.
-t
Eighty-bne medical schools are now requiring, as a minimum for
entrance, two years or more of work in a college of liberal arts in
addition to a four-year high-school education. The years, respec-
tively, when for each collegie the one-year and the two-year require-
ments became effectii'e, and the rating of each college, are as follows:
ALABAMA.
One
Two
College
year. years,
rating.
University of Alabama School of Medicine
1914
1915
.g
ARKANSAS.
University of Arkansas Medical Department
1915
1918
B
74
BIENNIV. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
fir
CALIFORNIA.
One
Two
College
year.
years.
rating.
College of Medical EVangelists_
1914
1915
B
University of Southern California Medical Department____ 1914
1916
B
Leland Stanford Junior University School of Medicine
1909
A
University of California Medical School
1905
A
COLORADO.
University of Colorado School of Medicine
1910
A
CONNECTICUT.
Tale University School of Medicine
1909
A
DISTIIICT OF COLUMBIA.
Georgetown University School of Medicine
1912
A
George Washington University Medical School
1914
1918
A
Howard University School of Medicine
1910
1914
A
GEORGIA.
Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta
1914
1918
A
University of Georgia Medical Department
1914
1918
A
ILLINOIS.
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery School of Med-
icine of Loyola University
1915
1918
B
Hahnemann Medical Cdiiege and Hospital
1914
1916
B
Northwestern University Medical School
1908
1911
A
Rush Medical College (University of Chicago)
1904
A
University of Illinois College of Medicine
1913
1914
A
INDIANA.
Indiana University School of Medicine
1909
1910
A
IOWA.
-
I
State University of Iowa College of Medicine
1909
1910
A
State University of Iowa College.of Homeopathic Medicine_______
1910
A
KANSAS.
4
University of Kansas School of Medicine
19(19
A
KENTUCKY.
University of Louisville Medical Department
1914
1918
A
LOUISIANA.
Tulane University of Louisiana School of Medicine________ 1910
1918
A .
MAINE.
Bowdoin Medical School
1912
1918
MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
75
MARYLAND.
One
Two College
year. years. rating.
Johns Hopkins University Medical Department_
1893
A
University of Maryland School of Medicine and College of
Physicians and Surgeons
1914
1918
A
MASSACHUSETTS.
Boston University School of Medicine
1914
1916
A
Medical School of Harvard University
1900
A
Tufts College Medical Schubl
1914
1918
A
MICHIGAN.
Detroit College of Medicine and Sur,ery
1914
1918
A
Univergity of Michigan Medical School
1909
A
University of Michigan Homeopathic Medical School
1912
1916
A
MINNESOT'A.
University of Minnesota Medical School
1907
A
University of Mississippi School of Medicine
1914
1918.
A
MISSOURI.
St. Louis University School of Medicine
1910
1918
University of Missouri School of Medicine
1906
1910
A
Washington University Medical School
1910
1912
A
NEBRASKA.
John A. Creighton Medical College
1914
1918
A
-University of Nebraska College of Medicine
1908
1909
A
NEW HAMPSHIRE,
Dartmouth Medical School
1910
A
NEW YORK.
Albany Medical College
1914
1918
A
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons
1910'
A
Cornell University Medical College
1908
A
Fordham University School of Medicine
1911
1918
A
Long Island College Hospital
1914
1918
A
New York Borneo. Med. Coll. and Flower Hospital
1915
1919
B
Syracuiie University College of Medicine
1909
1910 3 A
University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College
1912
1918
A
University of Buffalo Department of Medicine
1914
1918
A
NORTH CAROLINA.
Leonard Medical School
1914
B
'Wake Forest College, School of Medicine
1908
A
University of North Carolina School. of Medicine
1910
1917'
A
NORTH DAKOTA.
University of North Da4ota School of Medicine
1907
A
76
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
ve'
opno.
One
Two
College
year.
years.
rating.
Electric Medical College_
1915
1918
B
Ohio State University College of Medicine
1914
1915
A
Ohio State Univ. Coll. of Homeopathic Medicine
1915
1916
B
Vniversity of Cincinnati College of Medicine
1910
1913
A
Western Reserve University School of Medicine
1901
A
OKLAHOMA.
University of Oklahoma School of Medicine.
1914
1917
B
OREGON.
University of Oregon Department of Medicine
1910
1915
A
PENNSYLVANIA.
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital
1914
1917
A
Jefferson Medical College
1914
1917
A
Temple University Department of Medicine
1914
)918.
B
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine
1909
1910
A
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
1911
1913
A
Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania
1914
1915
A
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Medical College of the State of South Carolina
1914
1916
A
SOUTH DAKOTA.
University of South Dakota College of Medicine_
1908
1909
A
TENNESSEE.
Meharry Medical College'
1914
1918
B
Vanderbilt University Medical Department
1914
1918
University of Tennessee College of Medicine
1914
1918
A
TE.AS.
Baylor University College of Medicine
1913
1918
A
University of Texas Department of Medicine
1910
1917
A
UTAH.
University,df Utah School of Medicine
1909
1910
A
VERMONT.
University of Vermont College of Medicine
VIRGINIA..
1912
1918
A
ddv
C
Medical College of Virginia
1914
1915
A
University of Virginia Department of Medicine
1910
1917
A
WEST VIRGINIA.
West Virginia University School of Medicine______
1911
1917
A
WISCONSIN.
Marquette University School of Medicine
1913
1915
University of Wiaconbin Medical School
1907
A
1
MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
77
COEDUCATION IN MEDICINE.
The world war has given added impetus to the tendency on the
part of medical colleges to throw their doors open to women students.
During the last three or four yeais this action has been tAken by
several of the largest medical schools in the United States and Can-
ada : In 1914 by the Medical School of the University of Pennsyl-
vania; in 1915 by the Tulane University of Louisiana win 1916 by the
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons; in 1917 by
the University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College,. by the Uni-
versity of Maryland, and the Medical College.of Virginia; and in the
present year by Harvard University Medical School and by the Medi-
cal Faculty of McGill University. The idea of granting equal op-
portunities for the two sexes in medical schools, however, had already
made rapid advancement before the world war. Over 40 years ago
the University of Michigan made its courses in medicine coeduFa-
tional and practically all State universities have followed the exam-
ple. From the time of its organization in 1893, the Medical Depart-
ment of Johns Hopkins University has admitted women students.
In New York City the Women's Medical College of the New York
Infirmary closed its doors only after Cornell University in 1898 had
established its medical school and admitted' women students. In 1902
Rush Medical College, which had formed a close affiliation with the
University of Chicago, became coeducational.
At the present time,
#
therefore, of the 90 colleges existing in the United States 60 admit
both sexes.
MEDICAL EDUCATION AND THE WAR.
The reforms in American medical education were largely .com-
pleted before this country was drawn into the World war. For the
past six or-sevn years the majority of medical schools have not only
been enforcing the higher entrance standards but also have been
operating under greatly improved conditions in other respects. The
majority of students graduating in the past several years, therefore,
have received a medical training equal to that obtainable anywhere
Furthermore, it is these recent graduates who, in larger proportions,\
.gave entered the Government medical services and who will be largely
responsible for the medical care of our American soldiers and sail-
ors.
It is evident, therefore, that tkose fighting for the preseriation
of America and American ideals now have as skilled medical care as
is obtainable anywhere. That thisian be said, is due to the energetic,
campaign to improve medical education that has been carried on
during the past 15 years..
The war has affected the supply of physicians for civilian needs,
even as it has reduced the supply of those in other technical occu-
Lamm."'--.
78
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
potions. Statistics show that this country has one physician to every
739 people, as compared with one to every 1,500 to 2,500 people in the
countries of Europe just before .the war began.
In recent years,
however, the demand for medical graduates' to fill .positions as hos-
pital internes, health of
medical inspectors,- medical teachers,
and other positions of responsibility has been greatly increased.
This increased demand is due, not to any scarcity of medical gradu-
ates, but to the improved qualifications of those now graduating from
our medical schools.
In earlier years this.denumd was not so great
because few of the graduates then turned out were sufficiently
qualified, educationally or professionally, to occupy the positions
now open to them. The increase in the demand has been in direct
proportion to the improvements in preliminary and medical educa-
tion.
Even for the army there, is a greater demand than in previous
times for those of highly technical and special training. Educators
are ogre'', therefore, that present conditions call for the mainte-
nance of the present entrance requirement of two years of college
work; for further improvements in laboratory and clinical equip-
ment; and, particularly, for improved methods of teaching in all
medical schools.
It is only by maintaining these fair standards that
the demand will 4 supplied, since in the better medical schools, the
number ,of graduates has steadily increased each year for the past
five years,. and the decrease in the total has been at the expense.of
the lower-grade colleges.
MEDICAL .EDUCATION AND THE SEL'ECTIVE SERVICE.
When the selective-service law was "passed in May, 1917, it made
no provision for the exemption of medical, students. A study of the
effect the draft Would have on the enrollnienta of medical schools
showed that from 50 to 65 per cent of the students would 'be taken
in the first three calls, which would force the majority of me4ical
schools to suspend.
If the war lasted. any considerable time, the
result would be to seriously diminish or cut uff the annual supply
of medical graduates; hospitals would be without internes, and there
would soon develop a serious shortage of physicians for both mili-
tary and civilian needs.
.The solution to the problem was found in the National Defense
Act of 1915, which provided for the Medical-!Reserve Corps of the
Army. Under the proVisions of this law midi* students were
permitted to eficoll in the Medical Enlisted Res#ve Corps.
This
Made them subject to call at any time should "tie:me emergency
require it.
It was the stated policy of the Government, however,
to leave these students on an inactive status until, they should corn-
,
MEDICAL EDUCATION, 19.16-1018.
79
plete their medical course and secure their hospital training. It was
believed that they could render' the country a better service by fin-
ishing their training and becoming efficient medical officers than by
entering at once on active service without that training.
The pro-
vision for the Medical Enlisted Reserve Corps relieved the uncer-
tainty in regard to the enrollment of medical students, so that med-
ical classes have been retained at'a normal statusthe only loss being
of those students who voluntarily enlisted' for military service.
Provision was still necessary,. however, for the students in the
premedical classes who would arrive at draft. age before becoming
bona fide medical students.
The calling into service of such stu-
dents would prevent the medical schools from obtaining medical
students and would eventually be as serious as if the medical students
themselves were called to service. There also arose a serious problem
as to medical teachers.
Those in the draft age were being called into
active 'service and others were vulunteering, even though strong
efforts were made to induce them'th remain at their teaching duties.
It appeared that many of the colleges would have to suspend because
of the depletion of.the ranks of their teachers.
In an effort to solve these problems, at the call of the Siirgeon
General. a conference Of representatives of medical schools was held
in Chicago June 11, 1918.
At this conference an advisory com-
mittee on medical schools,' made up of representatives of medical
colleges and licensing boards, was chosen to cooperate with the
standing committee On medical education of the Medical Department
of the Army, for the prompt, solution of such problems as might arise
in connection w'th medical education.
At tt.meeting of the two com-
mittees on
lay following the Chicago conference, attention 'was
called to th
sion made for the Student Army. Training Corps,
suggesting a solution for the exemption of premedical students. It
was also urged that premedical 'and medical. students _as well as
medical teachers be given Government recognition bw being placed
in uniform and that the teachers be granted suitable rank.
Another conference of the two committees was held in. Washing-
ton, July 21, 1918. The arrangements for the Student Army Ti'aining.
Corps had made progiless under the War Department's committee on
education and special training. Through the Student Arm Train-
ing Corps it. was provided khat all students enlisting be retained in
p
I This committee consisted of Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur. president of Leland Stanford
University, chairman, De William J. Means, president of the Association of American
Medical Colleges; Dr. Samuel W. Lambert, dean of Columbia University College of
Physicians and Surgeons; Dr. J. Whitridge Williams. dean of Johns RoptIns Uni-
versity Medical Department ; Dr. Theodore Rough, dean of the University of Virginia
Department cif Medicine; Dr. John M. Baldy, president of the Pebusylvania Bureau of
Medical Education and Licensure; and Dr. N. P. Colwell, secretary of the Council on
Medical Education of the American Medical Association, secretary.
80
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-018.
the colleges until their special training be completed. On arriving
at draft age, the student would be required to register under the se-
lective service law. When called by his local board, each- student's
record would be examined and it would be determined whether he
would be called in active service. she stated policy of the Govern-
ment, however, was that students 'who were making satisfactory head;'
way in their studies would be retained in college until their training
had been completed.
The Students' Army Training Corps clearly
provided for the training of medical officers as well as of. engineers
and officers in other special lines.
As to the threatened dearth of
medical tep.hers due'to losses by enlistment., a solution of theprob-
lern was fouivi i.n.the rule providing for the exemption of those en:
gaged in." essential industries."
Each college was requested by the
Surgeon General to furnish a list of its essential teachers who, it was
planned, would not be called to active duty even though they should
enlist, but should be left at their teaching duties on the ground that
they were engaged in an " essential industry."
A NATIONAL coNTRaL soF MEDICAL EDUCATION.
Through the Medical Enlisted Reserve COrps, a large majority of
the medical student enrollment throughoutibthe United States has
come under tl}e control ofthe,Surgeon General of the United States
Army. This eontrol of the student body, coupled with the measures
made necessary to retain in each college an adequate. corps of medical
instructors, brought the medical schools also to a large extent under
the same national. control.
It became, necessary, therefore, soon after
a state of war. was recognized, for the Surgeon General to designate
what Medical schools were worthy of 'recognition and to establish
rules for.thct satisfactory conduct of such colleges.
Since the legal
control of medical education had previously rested
with State
medical licensing boards, it was determined to consider as " well
recognized medical schools" those which were recognized by the
majority of State licensing boards. Of die 90 medical colleges now
existing, 81 are well recogniied.
.
- The unusual demand for physicians as medical officers_for the
tremendous armies being organized made it necessary carefully to
ascertain the present supply of physicians, the future annual output
which should be maintained from the medical schools, and the edu-
cational standards and other measures which should be enforced, at
the some time guaranteeing an adeqbate supply of physicians for
civil and military needs.
One of the earliest, decisions rendered,
which has since been adhered to, was that the present reagThable
standards of preliminary education, namely, two years Of 'work in .
an approved college of arts and sciences or its 'actual equivalent,
MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
81
should be maintained.' 'In fact, this standard of premedical Tub-
fications was considered sufficiently important that all " well recog-
nized " medical schools were instructed to enforce that requirement
.of all'students admitted on and after October 15, 1918.
Nieful consideration has also been given to the question of requir-
ing -continuous sessions in medical schools so they- might propiptly
and intelligently be put into effect should the emergency demand it.
Looking toward this possibilityda feiv of-the medical schools which
were properly equipped to do so, have already put that measure into.
effect.
.
IMPROVED STANDARDS OF LICENSING BOARDS.
In previous reports reference has been made to the adoption by
State licensing boards of higher requirements of preliminary educa-
tion. A. review of the various Medical practice acts, published during
the present year, shows when any requirement of.preliminary educe.
tion 'was established in each State, and when, mspectively, a four-
year high school education or higher standards were adoptbd.
The
accompanying chart (Chart 24- shows the progress made d*ing
past 18 years.
In 1900, it uppears.thatonly six States had made pro-
vision for preliminary educattoli in their practice mks, and in only
one of these was the standard fixed at a four-year high school edu-
cation or its equivalent.
Since 1900, however, progress has indeed
been rapid, following closely the progres in entrance requirements
of medical,colleges.
At the beginning-of...its campaign in 1904, the
Council on Medical Education advocitted two standards, one for im.
'mediate adoption which recommended a four-year high school course
and another, the " ideal standard "which suggested one year of,
college.work including physics, chemistry: and biology.
The latter
was urged for adoption' by January 1, 1908, but the time was ex-
tended till January,l',.1910, and was rhade a requirement for the Class
A rating Januaryl, 1914. The harts show more marked 'changes in
these- than in other years.
By 1E 0 the number of States providing
for prelimindr,y education had increased to 36, in 28 of which a four-.
year high/school course was required. By 1910 when the Carnegie
Foundation -for the Advancement of Teaching published its report
on medical education, marked improvements had already been made
both by medical schoola and by State licensing boards, but that report
did much to.arouse public interest in the campaign fOr impiovement
provide against a resulting shortage of medical officers. en intensive course of in-
struction for admission to the study of medicine was promulgated in October, 1018, by
the committee on education and special training of the War Department.
This course
crowded Into fpur quartets of three months each, or a total of twelve months, a quantity
of work equal to that usually stqt,rtitsda quarters of three months each.
The continua.
Don of this course was made min
ry by the signing of the armistice.
17.1020*-21Bull. 88-8
6
52
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
to.
'lle.light and heavy dotted lines indicate the number of boards each
successive year wliic.h have adopted respectively one and two years of
collegiate work in addition to a four-year high-school education as
the minimum preliminary qualification for the license in those States.
The increase in the number of States adopting the higher prelimi-
_4.7-4.;,,i.
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lazy standards, as indica
by Mlle dotted lines, corresponds quite
closely with the inc
in the number' of medical colleges (see
Chart 1) which had put those standards into effect.
The dotted
lines'show when the requirements affected students matriculating in
Medical colleges; the increased requirements did not become effective
for griduates until four years lateli- hence the portions of the clout
.
.
d h0
0 0
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ay
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.
1 ...b.
MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-1218,
shown by the vertical and the heavy shading indicate for each year.
the number of States in which, respectively, one year and two years
of college work were required of all applicants 'seeking licenses to
practice in those States.
83
STATE REQUIREMENTS OF PRELIMINARY EDUCATION.
There are DOW 40 States which have adopted requirements of pre- .
liminary -education in addition to a standard four-year high-school
education. These States, the number of college years required, and
the time the higher requirements became or become effective are as
follows:
State requirements of pretim inert, education.
State examining board of
One year of *begs work.
Two years of college wait.
Affects
students
ukatricaleting.
Affects
an
graduates.
Affects
students
matriculating.
Affects
'ail
Irraduate.
Alabama.
415-16
1919
Alaska
1914-15
1918
1918719
1923
Arizona
1914-15
1918
1918-19
Arkansas_
1915 =16
1919
1918-19
1922
California
1915-16
1919
Colorado
1908-00
- 1912
1910-ll
1914
Connecticut
1911-12
1915
Delaware
Diurict of Columbia
Florida..
1914-15
1918
1918-19
1922
Georgi a
1918-19
1922
Idaho
Illinois
1915-16
1919
1918-19
1922
Indiana
1910-11
1914
1911-12
1915
Iowa
1911-12
1915
Klima&
1910-11
1914
1918-19
1979
Kentucky
1914-1Z
1918
Louisiana
1915-16
1919
1918-19
1922
Maine
1915-16
1919
Maryland
1914-15 ,
1918
1918-19
1922
Massachusetts f
Michinn-
1914-15
1918
19165I9
1922
Minnesota.
19081-02
1912
=1
1915 -16
1919
1919-20 .
1923
Montana
1914-15
1918
1918-19
1922
Nehrukai
Nevadi 2.
.......
New Hanwhire
1914-15
1918
-1915-16
1919
New Jersey
New MegJou
1915-16
1914 -15
1919
1916-17-1918-19.
1920
1921
New York .
1917-18
1951
19119
'WU
North Carolina.
1914-15
1918
018-6-19
North Dakota.
...
........ .
1908-02
1912
Ohio
Oklahoma.
1914-15
1918
1917-n
1921
1=y;vanir
1914 -15
1918
Rhoda Island
1914,15
1918
1911-19
Booth Carolina
South Dakota.
twe-oi
911 1
1916-11
1911-11
Tanneseer.
1916-17
1910
1918119
1921
A'axas
1914-15
191 8
Utah.
1111-14.
1917
Vermont
1911-14
1917
1918 -19
Virginia.
1919-15
1918
1917-111
1914-18
2911919
1$92
Vilit
Wlsoondn.
1917-18
MI
1915 -16
1919
Wyoming a
Mem** a tordioeu bleb-mad edualtlois arils aquhskat,
I.
.114.
tieflied stadsrd.
84
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
CONFUSION FROM MULTIPLE BOARDS.
Besides the increase inthe standards of-preliminary education al-
ready referred to, much progress has been made-by medical licensing
boad-S---aiiing the last 18 years.
In 'regulating the practice of the
healing art, however, much confusion exists in some States because
the authority to license those who 'are to treat the sick has beef di-
vided_between two or more'separate and independent.boards. After
excellent practice acts have been adopted, providing fir fair stand-
ards of preliminary and medical education in Wiese States, other
laws are passed allowing certain groups of practitioners to secure
licenses on lower educational standards. Some of these laws were
secured through the misapprehension on the part of legislators re-
garding the first essential for the practice of the healing art, namely,
the necessity of making a diagnosis, which implies a thorough train-
ing in the fundamentals of medicine.
It is evident that unless a
practitioner knows the difference between normal and abnormal con-
ditions and unless he knows whit particular disorder the patient is
suffering from he is not in popitign to apply any kind of treatment.
The plea of certain healers that they were "not practicing medicine"
led to the adoption of special laws 'providing for the licensing of
such practitioners under lower educational'qualifications than were
required of physicians, although in some States thecy were granted
full authority to practice as physicians. Some of These laws pro-
vided for special boards without mentioning educational standards;
others provided for lower educational requirements, while still other
laws. (or amendments) merely exempted these practitioners from the
requirements of the medical practice act. So many different boards
have been established that at present in the 50 States, including
feltiska and the District of Columbia, there are 94 separate, and dis-
tinct boards having to do with licensing those who are to treat the
sick!
Th#re are 20 States which are fortunakte in having only
onp board eachthe State medical board. Including both medical
boards and boards representing various " systems " of heating, there
are 19 States having 2 boards, each; 7 hiving 3 boards; 2 having 4
boards, each, and 1 StateArkansas--having 6 different boards. It
can be seen at once that with the authority so divided it is impossible
to provide efficient protection of the public against uneducated and
incompetent practitiqners oi the healing art..
0
SIMPLIFYING MEDICAL LICSNSURE.
.
State governments, however, are now trying to avoid multiplicity
of.boards and at the same time to guarantee that all who atoto treat
the sick shall hays secured an adequate education.
Several States,
4.0
.
.
.
....
MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
85
by legislation, during the past few years, have placed the licensing of
all practitioners under a single medical board. Some States demand
that all practitioners alike be required to possess the minimum edu- .
rational qualifications, after which they are given a physician's li-
cense and may practice as they please.
The most recent scheme in
the licensing of Chose who are to treat the sick is that adopted in
Illinois, through the new consolidation law.
The Department of
Registration and Education in Illinois has in charge not only the
licensing of physicians and other practitioners of the healing art, but
also dentists, pharmacists, midwives, and those in other licensed oc-
cupations.
More encouraging, however, is the fact that the enforce -
ent of the new law in Illinois has been placed in the hands of edu-
l'cators of unquestioned ability:
It is noteworthy that even poor laws
adMinistered by able men bring better results than the best laws ad- ,
ministered by inefficient men. The chief point to be considered in
measures similar to that adopted in Illinois is to see that, to enftarce
the laws, those are appointed whO will keep in close touch with the
progress and needs of general and medical education.
PRACTICAL AND CLINICAL EXAMINATIONS.
There has been much improvement in the character of the licens-
ing examination in some States. A larger number of States have es-
tdblish:ed an efficient examination (including practical laboratory
and clinical tests) of those who are to practice the healing art, and in
this way they are better protecting the public from ignorance and
incompetence. Educational and technical efficiency can not be ac-
curately measured by a written examination alone. A student's fit-
ne& to intelligently diagnose and treat human disorders can be
brought out only by testing his ability to differentiate between
normal awl abnormal conditions, in the lltboratory as well as at the
bedside.
,
An agency haS-reeently been establislieathe National Board of
Medical Examinerswhich has been demonstrating how these prac-,
tical and.clinical examinations should be condtidted.
This board is
now holding its examinations,. at freqdent intervals in prominent
hospitals in various large cities throughout the country, and members
of State boards have been incited to attend them. The spirit and
purpose of the examinations, as well as the ease and facility with
,
whiCh they are conducted, age so. evident, that State board members
will doubtless be encouraged la adopt theni in the regular examine-
tion for licensing physicians.
86
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
NATIONAL BOARD OF MEDICAL EXAMINERS.
The National Board of Medical Examiners, just referred to, was
organized in 1915.
It consists of 15 members, including the Surgeon
Generals of the Army, Navy, and Public Health Services, and one
other representative of each of those services; three representatives°
of the State medical licensing-boards., and six members appointed at
large.
Its establishment on a high plane was made possible by the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, which made
an appropriation of $15,000 per year to cover the expenses of the
board until such 'time as it might be placed on a sklf-supporting
basis.
Six examinations have been held by the board, the first and second
at Washington, respectively, in Octolier, 1916, and in June, 1917;
the third at Chicago in October, 1917; the fourth at New York City
in January, 1918; and the fifth at Fort Oglethorpe, Ga., and Fort
Riley, Kans., in April, 148. At these five examinations altogether
93 applicants were examined, of whom 72 passed and 21 failed, the
percentage of failures being 22.6 per cent.
Date of examination.
Where held.
Total
examined.
Passed.
ercentage
Failed.
P
failed.
October, 1916
Washington
10
5
S
50
June, 1917
WashIngtca
12
9
3
33.8
October, 1917
Chleago
28
23
6
21.5
January, 1918
New York
20
18
2
10
Aptil, 1918
Port Oglethorpe
1Fort Alley
}
IS
5
21.7
Total
93
72
21
22.6
The educational requirements of applicants are : (a) A four-year
high-school course; (b) two years of acceptable college work, in-
cluding courses in physics, chemistry, biology, and a modein lan-
guage; (c) graduation from a medical schoOl rated in Class A by
the. American Medical Association; and, (d) a yeai- spent in an ac-
ceptable hospital as an interne or in laboratory.
These require-
ments apply to graduates of medical schools 'in 1912 and thereafter.
The board may accept equivalent credentials of applicants who
graduated prior to 1912.
Credentials must be presented to the board
prior to the examination sufficiently early to permit investigation.
The only fee is $5 for registration.
There is no examination fee.
. This board is a voluntary organization, its object being to conduct
examinations of physicians so thorough as to prove without a doubt
their qualiflcitions for the practiett of medicine. The iklue of its
certificate, aside from being a quialification of merit, depends on the
recognttion give to it by State medical licensing boards.
Such rec-
ogiiition'has aThAdy been given, or assured, by the licensing boards
of the 12 folloitg States: Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Ken -
t-
MEDICAL EDUCATION,'
16-1918.
87
tucky, Maryland, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont.
When the permanency of the national board ins established and the
high character of its examinations is more generally .recognized,
.,
certificates will doubtless be recognized by the licensing boards of a
larger number, if not all States.
It will also furnish tt credential
by which reciprocity in medical licensure with other countries may
be established. A successful applicant inay enter the regular medi-
cal corps of either the Army or Navy without further professional
examinations if his papers are passed and are satisfactory to a board
of examiners of those services.
PREMEDICAL COLLEGE WORK.
Since, in 1916, two years of work in an " approved" college had
been so generally adopted as a minimum educational requirement for
admission to medical schools in the 'United States, it became impor-
tant to prepare a schedule of the subjects taught in the first two
years of recognized colleges which would best prepare the student
for his subsequent medical work. A circular letter was sent out by
the Council on Mddical Edbcation to presidents of one hundred or
more of the leading universities, as well as to registrars and univer-
sity examiners: who were skilled in the evaluation of credentials of
work done in various eilucational institutions.
In thig way an abun-
dance of data was collected. A special commit* was appoirited to
study the problem and to develop a schedule of required and elective
subjects which make up the GO semester hours required, and to have
this schedule conform as nearly as possible with the regular curricula
of colleges of arts and sciences.
The committe* which was selected
and began the work in 1916 and was ratified by the council in Felpu-
ary, 1917, is as follows:
Dr.- Kendrick C. Babfack.. Urbana, Ill., chairman, formerly specialist in
higher education of the United States Bureau of Education; now dean of the
college of liberal arts mid sciences of the University of Illinois And intimately
identified with the work of the North Central Associatimi of Colleges and Sec-
ondary Schools and tlie ,-lossocitition of American Universities In standardizing
colleges of arts and sciences.
.
Prof. George Galley Chambers, director of admissions, University of Pennsyl-
vania, Philadelphia, representing the Associltion of American Universities.
Dr. NV. F. It. Phillips, professor of anatomy of the Medical College of the
State of South Carolina. Charltston, representing the Association of American
Medical Colleges.
Dr. Theodore Hough, dean of tile University of Virglhia Department of Medi-
cine, Charlottesville.
Dr. N. P. Cohvell, secretary of
Council' on Medlciil Education of the
American Medical Association, Chicago.
A preliminary report of this committee was prepared and pub-
lished in August, 1917. It was presented for discussion at the annual
.
88.
RI NNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19113-I9IR,
congress -on medical education and licensure which was held in Chi-
cago in February, 1918, following which the committee ttompleted.
this report which, as'finally adopted, is as follows:
4
I. HIGH-SCHOOL REQVIREMENTs,
(a) For admission to the two-year premedical college course, students shall
have.completed a four-year course of i)t least 14 units (15 after Jan. 1,020)
In a standard accredited high school or other institution of standard secondary
school glade, or have the equivalent as demonstrated by examinations con-
ducted by the College Entrance Examination Board, or by the authorized ex-
aminer of a standard college or university which has been approved by the
Council on Medical Education.
Unless all the entrance units are obtained by
examination, a detailed statement of attendance at the secondary school, and a
tradscript of the student's work. should be kept on file by the college authorities.
This evidence of actual attendance at the secondary schools Mould be obtained,
no matter whether the student is admitted to the freshman or to higher classes.
(b) Credits for admission to the premedical college course may be granted
for the subjects shown in the following list and for any other subject counted
by a standard accredited high school as a part of thl requirements for Its
diplOma, provided that tit least 11 units must Is offered In Groups I-V:
Schedule of eubjects required or accepted for entrance to th.c premedical
college course.
Subjects.
GROUP I, ENGLISH
Units.
Required.
Literature and composition
3-4
3
Geom. H, FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Latin
..
1-4
Greek
French or German
1 -3
1-4
2
Other foreign languages_
1-4
GROUP HI, MATHEMATICS--
Elementary algebra_
I
Advanced algebra
1/2-1
Plane geometry
1
1
Solid geometry
L
%
Trigonometry
%
GROUP IV, HISTORY
.
.
Ancient history
1/2-1
Medieval and modern history
1/2-1
.
English- history
0-
1/2-1
1
1
American history
%-1
Civil government
%-1
Glom- V,'Scartcs--
Botany
1/4-1
Zoology
41-
,
1/2-1
Chetoretry
1
Physics
t
1
Physiography
,
.
%-1-
Physiology
%-1,
Astronomy
r
%
GeOlogy _
,.
1/4-1
o
MEDIcAI. EDUCATION, 1910 -1918.
*1°
Subjects.
GROUP VI, MISCELLANEOUS--
Agriculture
Bookkeeping_
Business law
Commercial geography
Domestic science
Drawing, freehand and inechanialid
Economics and economic history__
Manual training
Music: Appreciation or harmony_
89
Units.
Required.
1-2
NOTE.A unit is he credit value of at least 36 weeks' work of four or five
recitation periods per week, each recitation period to be not less than 40 min-
utes.
In other words. a unit represents a year's study In any subject In a
- secondary school constituting approximately a quarter (f a full year's work.
A satisfactory year's work in any subject can not be accomplished under ordi-
nary circumstances in less than 120 sixty-minute hours or their equivalent.
Both of the required units of foreign language must be of the same language,
but the two units may be presented in any one of the languages specified.
Of the 14 units of high-school work (15 after Jan. 1, 1920), 8 units are re
quired, as indicated in the foregoing schedule: the balance may °be Made up'
from Shy of the other subjects in the schedule.
IT. PREMEDICAL COT.I.EGE COURSE.
(c) Beginning January 1, 1918, the minimum requirement for ad-
mission to acceptable.medical schools, in addition to the high-school
work specified above, will be 60 semester hours of collegiate work,
extending through two years, of 32 weeks each, exclusive of holidays,
in a college approved by the council on medical education. The sub-
jects included in the two years of college work should be in Record-
juice with the following schedule :
Schedule of subjects of the two-year premedfealepe course.
(Sixty semester hours required.)
Semester
hours.
Required subjects:
Chemistry (a)
12
Physics (b)
_ .
8
biology (c)
8-
English composition and literature (d)
e
Other nonecience subjects (e)
12
Subjects strongly urged:
French or Gernian (f)
4d
6-12
Ir
Advanced botany oradvanced zoology
.
3- 0
Psychology
3- 6
Advanced mathematics, including algebra and trigonometry
3- 6
Additional courses in chemistry___
8- 8
90
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Other suggested electives:
English (additional), economics, history, sociology, political science,
logic, mathematics, Latin, Greek, drawing.
Nara. A semester hour is the credit value of 16 weeks' work consisting of
one 4.ture or recitation period per week, each period to be not less than 50
minutA.: --wet, At least 2 hours of laboratory work to be considered as the
equivalent of one lecture or recitation period.
SUGGERTIOVS REOARUI NO INDIVIDUAL SUBJECTS.
(a) Chemistry.Twelve semester hours required' (eight until January 1,
1920) of which at least eight semester hours must be In general inorganic chem-
1017, Including four semester hours of laboratory work.
In the interpretation*
of this rule work in qualitative analysis may be counted as general inorganic
chemistry.
The' remaining four semester hours (required after January 1,
1920).may Cbasist of additional work in general henkistry or of work in analytic
or organic cheMistry.
t
(b) Physics.Eight semester hours required, of which at least two must be
laboratory work.
It is urged that this course be preceded by a course in trigo-
nometry.
This requirement may
satisfied by six semester hours of college
physics, of which two must be laboratory work, if preceded by a 'year (one
unit) of high-school physics.
(c) Biology. Eight semester hours required, of which flu. must consist of
laboratory work. This requirement may be satisfied by a ourse of eight semes-
ter hours in either general biology or zoology, or by courses of four semester
hours each' in zoology and botany. but not by botaity atone.
The requirement
may also be satisfied by six semester hours of college biology or zoology, of
which three should. be devoted to laboratory work if preceded by a year (one
unit) of high-school biology or zoology.
(d), English composition and literature. The usual introductory college
course of six semester hours, or Its equivalent, is required.
(e) Nonscicnce subjects.Of the 60 semester hours required as the measure-
ment of 2 y
rs of college work, at least 18, including the 6 semester hours in
English, sho ld be in subjects other than the physical, chemical, or biologic
sciences.
(0 French or German.A reading's knowledge of one of these Ilinguages is
strongly Urged. If the reading knowledge is Ma' of these languaes is ob-
tained on the basis of high-school'wok, the student is urged to take'llie
language in his college course.
It Is not considered advisable, however, to
spend more than 12 of the required 60 semester hours on foreign languages.
In case a reaping knowledge of one language is obtained by 6 semester hours
of college 'work another 6 seawater hours may be well spent in taking the
beginner's course in the other language.
If this is followed up by a systematie
reading of scientific prose a reading knowledge of the second language may be
readily acquired.. When a student spends more than two years in college he
may well spend 12,semester hours of his allege work in the second language.
NEED.OF A LIST OF APPROVED COLLEGPS OF ARTrAND
SCIENCES.
The most imperative present need .in medical education in the
United States is' a reliable list of colleges of arts and sciences which
has been approved by some competent standardizing, agency. This
,
or.
MEDICAL EDUcATION, 1916-1918.
91
ise
isvecally needed if the present standards of education preliminary
.
to the study of medicine are to be properly enforced.
There are a
thousand or more institutions in this country bearing the name of
"college" or a university" which vary widely in their entrance stand-
ards; in the number and character OY their teachers; and in the quan-
tity and quality of their instruction.
They range from the highest
educational institutions to be found in any country down to the
institutions which are entirely lacking in educational merit or which
may be actually engaged in the sale of diplomas.
Prospective Lol-
lege students at present have no reliable list to guide them in the
selection of a college.
The 17 are frequently at the mercy of those who
insert pretentious advertisements in popular magazines or flood the
mails with circulars settiig forth in' glowing terms the merits of
their respective schools w en, as a matter of facts such schools may
have no moral right to be referred to as educational institutions.
Lists of approved colleges have been established by two prominent
educational organizations the Association of American Universities
and the North Central Association of Colleges and 'Preparatory
Schools which ate fairly reliable so far as they go. The former asso-
ciation, however, has, not taken into consideration a large number of
colleges and " junior colleges" which are in position to furnish a
satisfactory training in the subjects included in the first two years
of college Work. The latter does include such institutions, but, un-
fortunately, its jurisdiction covers Only 17 States. The 'Association
of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Southern states, Which
covers 14 otter States, requires a minimum standard of the colleges
in membership and is about to establish a list of approved colleges
similar. to that of the North Central Association.
Then its list of ap-
proved colleges will doubtless include a much larger number than
are at present indicated in its membership.
There is need of reliable
standardizing agencies which will establish lists of approved col-
leges in 7 Western States and in 10 NM* Atlantic' and New Eng-
land States. It is hoped that such agengesill soots be inaugurated;
that all the agencies will be affiliated or merged so as tq. establish
Uniformity of standards, and that a nation-wide list of approved
colleges may be established.
In the investigations to be made here-
. after by all these standardizing agencies, in the interesV of abetter
medical educatiori. it is hoped that special attention will be given to
the equipment an& facilities available for the teaching of the essen-.
tial premedical sciences, physics, chemistry, and biology, inclUding
both didactic and laboratory.instruction.
.
it Is 'announced that the Association of Colleges and Preparitory Schools of the
Middle States and Maryland has decided to establish a list of the' approved colleges and
Ander colleges located In that district.
92
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
ITEMS CONCERNING MEDICAL EDUCATION.
Arkansa.8.The new,Isaac Folsom Clinic, clinical building of the
University of Arkansas,.Medical Department, hits been completed at.
a cost. of $35,000. The old medical. school building is being equipped
as an isolation hospital tit a cost of $6,000, this sum having been ap-
propriated for the purpoe by the State.
Cali forma.
e College of Physicians and Surgeons, Medical, De-
partment of the' niversity of Southern California, Los Angeles, will
.
require the hos ital interne year for all students entering during
.1918 -19 and thereafter.
The College of Medical Evangelists during the last 12 months
has established its clinical department in Los Angeles. A city 12locic
has been purchased on wilich five buildings including a 75-bed hos-
pital, -a dispensary, two dormitories, and a .hydrotherapy buiJ ling
Shave been completed at a cost of approximately $100,000:
A school for the intensive training of medical officers for the
United States Army was established in San Francisco, March 15,
1918, under the direction of the medical faculties of the University of
California and Stanford University.
Colorado.The Colorado Legislature voted a special appropria-
tion of $150,000 a year for the next 10 years to be used on buildings
for the University of Colorado. The school of medicine will secure
new buildings from this fund.
Contecticut.During the past year Yale University has secured
an endowment of $2,500,000 for placing the departnientsof medicine,
surgery, obstetrics, and gynecology on a full-time clinical tlasis. A
contract with the New Haven General Hospital gives the medical
school complete control of the public wards.
gale University School of Medicine is gloing its part in solving
problems connected with the war.
Its departments of physiology,
pathologic chemistry and 'pathology, particularly, have been aiding
the Government in providing gas. masks far the American troops and
in conducting experiments leading to the reduction of fatalities from
gas warfare.
Georgia.Emory Univefsity .School of Medicine has received
$5,000 by Pie will of J. B. White, Augusta, to establish a camp for
the treatment of tuberculosis..
/ainoi.4.University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, has
adOptedWiFiiiitidiamester system by which each 12 monthm is di-
vided into terms of four months each. Under this arrangement stu-
dents may begin the study Of medicine at the beginning of any one
of the three tern*
Indiana. --=The Indiana University School of Medicine is erecting
a new medical building on the property adjoining the Robert W.
NIEDIZ'AL EDVCATION, 1916-1918.
. 93
Long IIovital, Indianapolis, at attppproximate cost of $400,000.
The new building will consist of four or five stories and be of mate-
rial harmonizing with the hospital buildings.
About $150,000 of this
sum will be realized from the sale of the old medical building.
Maryland.The Maryland Legislature, at its recent session, ap-
propriated $25,000 annually for two years for the University of
Maryland Medical School. The medical .school has received as a
gift the medical library and surgical instruments of the late Dr.
Charles I'. Bevan.
The medical icliool has also voted to admit
women students.
Johns Hopkins hospital has received $100,000 from the will of
Jennie Gil lender and $300,000 from the estate of .Tames .Buchanan
Brady.
.
Ma.sachusett8.-1-larvard Medical School
has voted to admit
women students.
This has been due to the heavy draft of the war
on the medical profession.
Boston University School of Medicine announces that it has be-
comenonsectaria'n and will offer courses in regular materia medica,
thApeutics, and practice.
Michigan.The Detroit. College of Medicine and Surgery has been
taken over by the city of Detroit and placed under the control of the
board of education. It will hereafter be maintained as a municipal
institution.
.11Innelota.A Navy Hospital Corps Training Schbol has been
established in connection with the University of Minnesota Medical
School.
It was formerly opened on October429. 1917, with an initial
attendance of 100 men,
Nebraska.The University llespittil, erected on the campus of
the College of Medicine of the University of Nebraska, was formerly
opened in October, 1017.
It consists of 120 beds and was erected at
a total cost, for the building and equipment, of $210,000: A new
library building, an exact duplicate of the present library unit, is
being erected en the medical campus which will house the department
of physiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry.
The funds were
provided by the legislature which also appropriated $100,000 for
maintenance for two years.
New Fork. Columbia University College of Physicians and Sur-
geons has added a fifth clinical year to the medical ,Course to be
required of all students matriculating in and after September, 1914
The college has also opened' its doors to women students.
This was
made possible by a gift a $50,000 from George W. Brecjtenridge,
San Antohio, Tex., and a gift of $5,000 from an association of women
physicians, and $18,000 from other doriations.
A new building for
the use of women students will be erected and additiinal laboratories
provided.
.
94
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-i918,
Corhell University Medical College has established a clinic fon' the
functional reeducation of disabled soldiers, sailors, and civilians.
This constitutes practically a new branch of medicine.
Long Island College Hospital, Brooklyn, has received $265,000
from the estate. of Charles W. West.
University of Buffalo Medical Department has begun a campaign
for funds for a new medical building and- laboratories. A gift of
$10,000 has been obtained to go toward current expenses for the year.
Ohio.
University of Cintrinnati :college of Medicine formally
dedicated its new medical-eon
ilding on March 25, 1918 Sub-
scriptions were raised for this 1f1lTlRing aggregating' $555,000.
On January 1, 1918, under the new charter for Cincinnati, all of
the medical and scientific nursing work of the Cincinnati General;.
Hospital was placed under the direction of the University of Cincirke
nati.
The staff Will be made up of members of the medical' gtchool
faculty and secures for teaching purposes the facilities of the hos-
pital.
alalionbi.The legislature appropriated $200,000 ) a State hos-
pital at Oklahoma City, to be .under she come .'. of t o Oklahoma
University School of Medicine. The building is rapidly approach-
ing completion. The school of medicine has completed a new chem-
istry building at Norman, which has now been completed at a cost of
$33,000.
Oregon. The University' of 'Orem Medical School dedicated
Mackenzie Hall, the first unitof the new group of medical buildings,
on May 1;1918. The building was erected at a cola of $117,000. It
is on the new campus of 21acres which provides space not only for
other medical school building's, but also for hospital sites.
Pennotvanict.-4The University of Pennsylvania has received
$50,000 from the will of Dr. William C. Goodell. The board of re-
view has awarded damages of $714,000 to the University of Penn-
sylvania. for the old Medico-Chirurgical College and Hospital prop-
erty taken by the city. The Medico-Chirurgical property-had been
fl'ansferrdd to the University of Pennsylvania with the merger. two
years ago.4 ,
The Unfversity of PittsbUrgh Sctool of Medicine is receiving $100
annually from the Pennsylvania Association for the Blind to be
used as a prise to the member of the senidr class who writes the best
lessay on the 'prevention of tlindness.
'Tennessee.--LMehltrry Me 'cal College dedicated the new Anderson
Anatomical Hall on October 19, 1917.
The $10,000 used
its
erktiop was the gift of Dr. John W. Andwon, of Dallas.'Tex.
Tezds.During 1917 an attempt by Gov. Ferugson to secure' polit-
. jail. control of the University of Texas and its medical department
MEDICAL EDUCATION, 1916-NOR.
95
aroused a vigorons protest. ,A special session of/the legislature was
calltd; Gov: Ferguson was
impeaelled;. an appropriation
of
$1,629,4137.17 for the university, including $197,500 for the medical
depaytment, which tit 4v. Ferguson had vetoed, was again passed; and
three regents of the university named by Gov. Ferguson were replaced
by those selected in the interests of the university.
Virginia.--The Medical College of Virginia has voted to admit
women students. A new three-storyhospital building is to be erected
as a part of the new group, of buildings for the Memorial 'Hospital,
This first building will cost about $40,000 and will be used for con-
tagious diseases. The money was donated by Maj. James FL Dooley.
ll'iwomin.---The University of Wisconsin has
received gifts
amounting to $100.000, which, with an appropriation of $50,000 from
the legislature of 1917, will be used to construct a new infirmary for
the medical school.
Marquette University School of Medicine is conducting a cam-
paign to raise $1,000,000 for endowment.
Andrew Carnegie has
,agreed to give one-third of this sum provided he university raises
the balance. The first evening of the campaign $175,000 was raised.
A gift of 1,000 volumes to be added to the libriry has been received
from the late Jo lth L. C. Cronyn, of Buffalo.
DEVELOPING MEDICAL EDUCATION IN CHINA.
In the spring of 1914, the China Medical Commis sion, represent-
ing the Rockefeller Foundation, was sent to China "to inquire into
the condition of medical education, hospitals, Irnd public health in
China."
This commission recommended Peking as the place where
the first medical educational work should bt: organized. The China
Medical board was then organized, which took over the property of
the Peking Union Medical College.. The terms of the transfer pro-
vided for a board of trustees consisting of 13 members, one to be ap-
pointed by each of the six Missionary organizations previously main-
taining the college, and seven by the China Medical Board. Full
support of the college was assumed by the China Medical Board on
July 1, 1915.
. The Peking Union Medical College was founded early in 1906
by various American and English boards of missions, following 'the
Boxer outbreak. Substantial contributions toward the building fund
were obtained from the Empress Dowager of China., The Chinese
language was-the medium of instruction.
The college rendered val-
uable service in 1910-11 in connection with the serious outbreak of
pneumonia And the epidemic of the plague.
As a result of their
work three members of the 'college staff were decorated with the
Order of the Double Dragon. The college staff also rendered vain-
i.
96
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
able military surgical work with the Imperial forces during the revo-
lution of 1911.
The announcerneht of the new 'Peking Union Medical College,
Peking, China, for the session of 1918-19, has recently been sent out.
It contains a perspective view of the new medical school and its
group of hospital buildings.
These, .when completed. will consist
of 17 buildings, connected by covered corridors, and will occupy the
space of about four city blocks.
All but four of these buildings and
two prospective wings of the medical school have already been com-
pleted.
A premedical school was opened in September, 1917, and
the medical gehool will be open for students in September, 1919.
Graduation from an approved middle school of China, or its equiva-
lent, in addition to 108 credit (semester) hours of college work, is
required for admission.
The premedical work includes courses in
English, Chinese language and literature, algebra through quadra-
tics, plane geometry, biology, chemistry, physics, Chiritse and uni-
versal history, and drawing. The teaching year begins September
17 and will end June 20 of the following year.
The announcement
contains floor plans of the various college and hospital buildings.
M
CHAPTER III.
ENGINEERING EDUCATION.
BY F. L. Btititm,,
Dean, School of Engineering, Unirersity of Pittsburgh.
Engineering schools in common with other educational institutions
have been confronted with many unique problems since the outbreak
of the European War in 1914.
Previouto that time an increasing
number of men who entered colleges and universities elected subjects
pertaining to commerce, business management, finances, etc.
The
growth of the schools of commerce, both as regards the number of
such schools and the attendance in them, is a striking proof of this
tendency.
During the same period the attendance at engineering
schools had in most cases decreased with the resulting decrease in
new equipment, faculties, etc.
This is partly accounted for by the
financial crisis of 1907 but is undoubtedly due largely to the fact that
the opportunities offered college graduates in purely cosmercial
pursuits were greater than those in purely industrial work where the
demand is for.men having a high degree of engineering skill and a wide
knowledge of applied science.
With the demand on American manufacturers for war supplies for
the Allies, there developed a need for a very large number of scien-
tifically and technically trained men for use in designing new machin-
ery, developing new processes, etc.
It was then the country realized
that the number of men who had been trained in applied science was
woefully small in comparison with the population of the country and
the magnitude of its industries.
Even before this.time the engineer-
ing graduate received numerous bids for his services.
In spite of this
. the idea was prevalent that the supply of engineering graduates ex-
ceeded the demand.
The increasing number of mechanical appliances developed as a
result of the European War, necessitating an increased number of
trained men in applied sciences, immediately reacted upon the en-
gineering schools in two ways,first, the number of men entering
engineering schools increased materially, and second, the professors
and instructors in these schools
were in demand by the indus-
tries at salaries which it was impossible for educational, institutions
to meet.
For the latter cause many of the teachers left the engineer-
ing schools and their places had to be taken in mostcases by inexpe-
171029°,-217-sus. 88-7.
97
98
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION. 1916-1918.
rienced teachers and almost without exception by men with less
technical ability than those who had left.
This movement of engineering teachers was further accelerated
when the United States declared war on Germany, due to the fact
that many members of engineering faculties were called into-active
service as members of the Officers' Reserve Corps and the Enlisted
Reserve Corps of the United States Army.
No better tribute can be paid the personnel of the teachers in
engineering schools than their immediate response to their country's
call.
The entrance of the United States into the war affected the student
body in two waysfirst, an increased attendance in the freshman
class; the second and Most striking was the large number of students
who immediately volunteered in the various branches of the service.
This depletion of the student body of engineering schools through
its members volunteering for active service in various branches of- the
Army and Navy was a matter of grave concern not only in educational
institutions and the industries, but also to the War Department.
It had been recognized from the very beginning of the war, not
only by the Secretary of War but by other officials in Washington,
that the successful outcome of the war for the Allies was dependent
upon the services of technically trained men.
If the war were to last
a year or perhaps two, all were agreed that gsery student should do
his part by dropping his school work temporkiily, but if the war was
to be of longer duration, then it would become absolutely necessary
for engineering students to continue in school to complete their
courses in order that an adequate supply of such men should be avail-
able during the war and for the reconstruction period which must of
necessity follow.
The matter became so pressing that it was taken up by the Council
of National Defense and a committee on engineering education was
appointed by Dr. Hollis Godfrey, a member of the advisory com-
mission of the Council of National Defense ender whose general
direction came all matters pertaining to education.
The members
of this committee were Charles S. Howe, president, Case School of
Applied Soience; Milo S. Ketchum, dean of the-college of engineering,
University of Colorado; C. R: Mann, Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching;'S. P. Capon, specialist in higher education,
United States Bureau of Education; and F. L. Bishop, dean, school
of engineering, University of Pittsburgh.
This committee, cooperating with the national engineering socie-
ties, the special war committee of the Society for the Promotion of
Engineering Education and other qrganizations, presented the
matter tp the Secretary of War, who modified the Selective Service
ENGINEERING EDUCATION.
99
Regulations.
On December
19,
1917, the a following regulation
became effeotive:
Under such regulations as the Chief of Engineers may prescribe, a proportion of
the students, as named by the school faculty, pursuing an engineering course in one
of the approved technical engineering schools listed in the War Department may
enlist in the enlisted reserve corps of the Engineer Department, and thereafter, upon
presentation by the registrant to his local board of a certificate of enlistment, such
certiticate shall be filed with the questionnaire and the registrant shall be placed in
Class V, on the ground that he is in the military service of the United States.
This regulation permitted students to enlist in the Engineers'
Enlisted Reserve Corps and to remain in school until they completed
their courses.
It remained in force until superseded by the estab-
lishment of section A, Student Army Training Corps, and tended
very materially to stabilize the student body in eng
ering schools,
thus providing properly trained men not only for the
Depart-
ment, tut also for the industries.
.
The war also had a decided effect upon the curricula of eng
er-.
ing schools.
While educational institutions, as a rule, are very
conservative and slow in making changes in material and methods
of instruction,* the engineering schools responded quickly to the
many new factors which were developed by the war, and important
changes in the cu'rriculum v.cre put in force.
Most of these changes
had to do with methods of instruction of specific subjects, such as
matheAuttics, thermodynamics,
etc.
There were, however, two
general changes which might well be mentioned at this time.
These
---"ere the applications of economic principles to the industries and
some form of. cooperative system- by which the student secures
aotual engineering experience before graduation.
The most universal of these is the greater attention which is given
to the application of economio principles to industries, engineering
research, and the discussion of the problems of sociology sometimes
placed under the broad title of human engineering.
Formerly the
engineer was supposed to deal only with the material and forces of
nature, but recently an entirely new factor has enteredi. e., the
human factor,and, in many oases, this isithe all-controlling element
with which the engineer must deal.
Hence it becomes increasingly
important to teach the prospective engineer as much as possible
conoerning the fundamental problems of psychology, sociology, etc.
It has also been demonstrated that the engineering student must
during his course secure the fundamental knowledge of the engineer--
ing profession through actuta practice in engineering work in the
industries if ho is to grasp properly the instructional work as given
in the school.
This has led to the adoption of the so-called coopers-
'live system 11,y which the student spends a portion of his time in
the industries under the supervision of the faculty of the school in
100
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
which he is enrolled.
This differs very decidedly from the old
process in which the student worked summers at any kind of a, job
whioh he might select in any place without supervision.
This
cooperative work was discussed by Dr. Mann in the annual report of
the commissioner off Education for 1916.
Ab a result of the war courses, some teachers discovered for the
firstAime that students will study and work if tliey are interested.
The tendency for the engineering student to become so absorbed in
his work as to neglect the college social and athletic activities has
been of long standing, and during the past few years has been much
discussed with beneficial results.
When this tendency is properly
controlled and directed it provides the incentive by which a young
man may be trained mentally without detriment to his social develop-
ment while in college.
Scholarship is not incompatible with breadth
of view or a desire to take a normal part in college activities.
In
fact, the latter ought to be so regulated that sound scholarship
would be essential to participation in them. 'Those who had the
opportunity of becoming acquainted with the kind of men who were
required to fill the responsible positions in the world war were alole to
appreciate the fact that sound scholarship was an essential prerequi-
site for their participation in the war work.
The discussion of the.changes in curriculum brought about by the
war tended to emphasize the different criticisms which have been
expressed in regard to engineerink education and engineering schools
for a considerable period of time.
It is felt by many that these
schools were producing well-trained men for certain highly technical
phases lof engineering, but were failing to produce an all-round
engineer required for the proper development of the resources of the
country.
This discussion lead even as far back as 1907 to the
appointment of a joint committee on engineering education.
The
report of this committee, which has become available during the past
year, is the result of several years of investigation of engineering
schools by Dr. C. R. Mann, of the Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching.
The report undoubtedly marks an
epoch in engineering education because it embodies not only the
investigation of a single able investigator, but the result of Dr. Mann's
1nvestion has been discussed repeatedly as the work progressed
before agineering societies, especially the Society for the Promotion
of Engineering Education.
Thus the report represents to a .con-
siderable extent a composite idea of the present standing of engineer-
ing education together with an outline of the probable future
developments.
While the report does not advocate any specific change in the
curriculum, it does in a broad way indicate the most probable form
of development which engineering schools must take if they are to
4*
ENGINEERING EDUCATION.
101
meet the requirements of the industries and produce technically
trained men who will compete with those from other countries.
The report emphasizes the fact that we can find a proper type of
training for men for the industries only through long continued
experimentation in different types of schools.
It calls attention
specifically to the experiment in engineerilig education which has to
do with the introduction of cooperative work and the elimination of
the practice shop from schools.
That greater emphasis must be laid
on the correlation of industry with the schools is one of the funda-
mental conclusions of the report.
Given the results of this long
investigation and its discussion, the question immediately arises as
to what type of experiment in education will be most fruitful in the
development of the proper type of men for the industries.
A survey
of the situation by any one familiar with industrial needs seems to
point clearly to the necessity in this country of developing two
different types of men for use in the industries.
First., a man who may be called a technician, who is highly trained
in science and mathematics, who possesses the instinct of the research
man and who can devote his entire time to highly technical research
problems, either in the research labor
Ties which are now rapidly
being developed in the large industries,tr by applying the results of
his research to engineering science.
For the training of this type of
men, there is needed the best of scientific equipment, the members
of the faculty must be those who are intimately interested in research
problems, and the student himself must have what is sometimes
called a mathematical mind. It is doubtful if this type of a man
can be developed in a four-year course under existing conditions.
In fact, it is probable that such a man can be developed only in a
school which has a thorough graduate department devoting its
energies primarily to research but giving instruction in the funda-
mentals of science and mathematics.
The second type which seems to be demanded by the industries
is the man who has a broad general knowledge of engineering subjects
and can apply that knowledge in an effective way in present engineer-
ing problems. .H9 must have ability to command men, a knowledge
of the app cations of economic pi.inciples t9 industries, and a broad
training in the so-called humanities, since he is the man in contact
with men of other types in other fields of human activities.
He
should not be a research man; his training in mathematics need not
be of necessity so extensive as that of the research technician, but
his understanding of engineering problems should be extensive.
Such
a man can not be trained in the ordinary schools because of the
artificial conditions which of necessity cxist in academics institutions.
He must become familiar with the industries while yet a student in
order that he may undeptand thdloughly the applications of his'
.1
102
BIENNIAL SURAT' OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
theoretical courses in school and their application to industries and-
also that he may become familiar in the formative period of life with
the problems of labor and the human factor in engineering.
It is in
the development of this type of man, who is to become the manager
and operating head of our large manufacturing industries, who needs
more than any other the advantages to he derived from the coopera-
tive system.
It is unfortunate that in this country we have no institutions with
sufficient funds to develop a complete school of applied science,
(1) having as its .foundkitien a modified standard four-year course of
instruction, (2) accepting young men for the course upon gradua-
tion from the high schools, (3) coordinating with this a proper
cooperative system, and (4) having a graduate school devoted to
instruction of graduates from a four-year course not only in the
applications of science, but also of economic:principles to industries.
This graduate school should be in close coordination with the
research department, corresponding in many ways to the Mellon
Institute of Industrial Research at the University of Pittsburgh,
where problems in the application ofscience to industries are studied
at first hand under ideal co,n(litions, and later the results of these
investigations are applied directly to the solution of problems of
industry. ,The graduate student. would thus have the opportunity
of taking his science and mathematics in an atmosphere that would
+be oonducive to the development of the best type of man for research.
The Civil War was the crystallizing process which brought forth
the type of engineering schools which are now common in this
country. The result of the world war, in the same manner, vill be
the crystallization of the ideas now prevalent in regard to technical
and scientific training.
We shall have in the near future an engineer-
ing school of a type quite distinct from that in existence at the
present time.
It is only necessary to mention it to bring to mind the failure of
this country to provide for a school of engineering which has a faculty,
buildings, equipment, and resources comparable with similar insti-
tutions in Europe.
In this c
try we have schools of engineering which offer excellent
courses fo undergraduates. We have one or two schools like Colum-
bia University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology which
offer graduate courses to some exteilit.
We have certain other schools
like the University of Illinois,. the `Ohio State University, etc., that
conduct research and engineering experiment stations supported by
the State.
There is, however, no single school which combines in
an effective way all throe factors which go to make a complete
engineering school, namely, undergraduate courses, graduate courses,
and research both pure and applied.
I propose to outline briefly
ENGINEERING EDiTCATION.
108
some d the factors which must be taken - into consideration in estab-
lishing such a school.
The engineer must be a man of culture and broad training such as
can best be secured in the atmosphere of a large university.
Also
it is only at a university that there are available libraries and labora-
tories especially of science and economics, which are essential to the
student of engineering and especially to graduate and research men.
The university which has such a scItool as a part of it must be located
at the center of a great industrial district where all types of engineer
ing are available for study at first hand by the students.
In its undergraduate department the functions of such a school
would be to train young men to enter engineering industries in which
t
esent graduates from our best 4ngineering schools now enter.
In i
graduate department the function would be to train men to
enter the research division of engineering industries and to supply
the ever increasing demands made by the National and State Gov-
ernments for trained investigators.
In its research department the function would be two-fold: First,
to develop through 'pure research the fundamental principles upon
which all engineering is based and to obtain standard data pertain-
ing to the various materials employed in engineering work; second,
the investigations of specific problems, solutions of which are de-
manded by individuals, firms, or corporation.
An estimate of the faculty, buildings, equipment, and resources
which would be required for such an institution shows that an
endowment of $20,000,000 would be needed. Such a school should
operate in close connection with the municipal, State, and National
Governments in addition to its close cooperation with the industries
of the country.
Since it seems at the present time impossible to seem* adequate
funds for such an institution it is highly desirable that different
institutions in the country should devote themselves to the solution
of specific problems and thus each one become an experimental
laboratory-tor the benefit of engineering education.
r.
CHAPTER- IV.
'COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.
By- FRANK V. THOMPSON:
Superintendent of ON School., Bolton, Vass.
t.
CotelTerrs.Development of commercial education in public schools Federal !loud for VoeritIon al
Education: Provision for commercial education--Reportof the Comm it tee on lizismc,s Education:
s
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary EducatiunSchool surveys and commercial
education
Conclusion.
0
The influence of industrial vocational education is having its
effect upon practices and methods of commercial education.. The
practice of industrial education of analyzing a curriculum of subjects
containing values of vocational work, related vocational, ant non-
vocational subjects_ is causing us to examine commercial education
with a view to a more careful practice with respect to like items.
We are accustomed to note a large proportion of our high-school
pupils as pursuing commercial education.
More strictly speaking,
however, commercial pupils in our high schools are those pursuing
general academic education with one or two commercial subjects,
usually of clerical character. There has been little related com-
mercial work required of our so-called commensal pupils and the
nonvocational or general academic subjects have been taught with
complete disregard for the special needs of. commercial pupils.
A review of the historical development of. commercial education
easily explains the present situation.
In the early days before the period of vocational education, no
prevision was made in educational curriculums for the training of
bp and girls for office work or other commercial occupations.
The private business school was first to see the need of a new train-
ing and to effect an organization to meet this need.
These institu-
tions offered short intensive courses in bookkeeping and later in
typewiiting 'and shorthand.
The history of the private commercial
school is well known.
This type of school rendered a real service
at a time when the public-school authorities were either ignorant of
the need or unwilling to meet it.
The original commercial courses
in public high schools were short intensive courses. This kind of
organization. immediately called down upon commercial 'educators
severe criticism from those who were charged with the' responsibility
of administering public education, and from the public. general
which was at that time quick to reflect. the idealism and aloofness
.1051,
106
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
from life character of all ducational enterprise.
The natural result
of this widespread criticism Was to shake the faith of the commercial
teachers in the type of training which they had receivedthat is,
private commercial school trainingand were recommending for the
public school.
It was nIt, long before these teachers of commercial..
subjects began to play 4 to the academic standard so esteemed
the new educational fields in which they were workers, with the
ultimate result that in the average high school commercial educa-
tion simply represented a number or commercial elective subjects
grouped with academic electives and distributed throughout the
four-year program.
Under the average conditions of high school's a few of these
commercial subjects could be taken, and under the most favorable
conditions many such subjects could be elected.' It can be seen
readily that this elective plan could effect no standard of commercial
instruction, and us a result the product ranged all the way from
reasonably efficient to wholly inefficient.
Commercial pupils under
this plan lacked the thoroughness and attention whichvocational
pupils in more modern vocational courses attain.
By the com-
promise described commercial educators succeeded in winning a
place among educators in general, and were able to advance the cause
of commercial education in a system not attempting any other kind
of vocational work.
In a subsequent period of educational development two years of
commercial work were offered at the end of the high-school course.
Only those who were able to continue through the four-year program
were permitted to get commercial training.
The result of this type
of commercial course was that the large majority of boys and girls
who had any laim on public commercial education.were denied the
privileg
etting it.
The private commercial school waxed fat
on this public-school program.
The evolution of commercial education seems to be bringing us at
this moment to a ne* and better conception of proper procedure.
We are now.,attempting to meet the needs of boys and girls who
attend high school in large numbers for the first
years, and who
desire instruction in commercial subjects, by placing commercial
work At the beginning of the course, but adapting this work to the
,stage of maturity of the younger pupils., The more technical and
difficult commercial subjects are postponed to the latterikart of thg_
high. school course.
Slich a plan seems to meet more adequately
the needs of all the pupils who resort to oui high schools looking for
the advantages possible under the limitations of time, capacity, and
maturity.
Our first-year high- school commercial work consists mainly of
commercial . arithmetic, penmanship, and elementary bookkeeping.
In our am:owl-year work are found more Advanced bookkeeping,
COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.
107
typewriting, and simple. Office proceduW.
Stenography and still
.
more advanced bookkeeping are reserved for the third and fourtli
years.. In junior high schools commercial subjects are generally
taught upon a prevocational basis.
Many junior high schools in their
efforts to furnish fullest opportunity for tho;:e pupils who will not
proceed to the senior high school are offering somewhat technical and
advanced courses in stenography and bookkeeping, too advanced foi
the pupils who pursue the courses.
To summarize the present stage of development of commercial
education in our public high schools, it may be said that the present is
a peliod of earnest; and rapid readjustment.
Mistakes and failures
of the past are recognized, and earnest effort is made both to mako
the courses suitable to the ages and capacities of pupils and for tip
purpose of making most valuable the opportunities for commercial
instruction for all pupils, irrespective of their eduCational limitations
and vocational destinies.
One of the most hopeful signs of a more adequate conception of the
province of commercial education is the recognition that there are
many commercial occupations other than those of bookkeeper and
stenographer; that no boy or girl should be encouraged to apply for,
or to accept., any position for which he or she is not qualified by matu-
rity, general education, and special training; that the special apti-
tudes of boys ,Liid girls should be taken into consideration in deter-
mining the kind of position for whilocji each one should be trained,
and that new types of commercial education must be developed to
meet newly discovered needs in the field of business training.
As an illustration of the recognition of commercial occupations
other than clerical may he mentioned the subject of rani' selling.
In
no field of commercial education is there greater activity or need for
educational facilities than in that of retail selling and retail store
service.
In the immediate inane plans for meeting this need should
be developed.
This attempt will moan the development of a new
department of business education, with specially qualified _teachers
and with methods of procedure specifically adapted to secure the
ends sought.
At the present time many cities are experimenting with courses in
salesmanship, or, better named, retail selling.
It would appear that
the Drocedure of industrial vocational education had-inorg in the way
of suggestion frr courses in retail selling than have our'older courses
in clerical pratti: e.
We have seen th
our long - established commer-
cial education has followed the acad
is procedure of the high school
in teaching commercial subjects witl out field practice.
Those best
qualified to judge consider that salesmanship can not-be effectively
taught from textbooks alone unsupplemented by actual practice un-
der supervised conditions. We can not expect that salesmanship can
I
. 108
BINITNIAL arravEY OF antiorriow, 1915-1918.
develop as rapidly and with the same facility that clerical commercial
education. has shown.
During the conditions of war and the stimulation of the labor
market, the need for clerically -traiged commercial workers has been
more apparent than that of othk commercial occupations.
The
wages offered for clerical workers has grown with the unusual de-
mand. This condition may be expected to retard for the present the
development of tlie teaching.of salesmanship.
Even under normal
conditions the teaching of salesmanship, has been involved in the
social prejuilice which seems widespread, namely, that the commercial
emplolment of seUing goods does pot equal (in the minds of pupils
and parents at least?) the social grade that clerical workers enjoy.
Particularly with girls the vocational motive is as apt to be found in
social esteem as in the wage offered.
Employers of labor seeking
trained sales people will toedlo do much in the way cif affecting public
opinion concerning the worth and dignity of the sales person before
our pupils in public schools may be expected to elect training in sales-
manship in preference to the present esteemed
lerical occupation.
Various investigations such as Cleveland and Minneapolis have shown
that selling is morerseasonal in character than in clerical work.
How-
ever, any analysis of the process of selling will show that itis an art
for which training may be offered as truly as that of clerical occupa-
tion, belt as long as there is .keen competition both in wages and in
social esteem among various commercial occupations, we may expect
that boys and girls will still resort in greater numbers to the long
established and tried clerical occupations.
FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
PROVIS: 3N FOR COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.
Among the several assistant directors for various types of voca-
tional education is found provision for a specialist in commercial
education.
F. G. Nichols, formerly &rector of commercial education
in the city of Rochester, N. Y., has been appointed to carry oft this
function.
Commercial edileation tri4y. expect from a new national
ift) woe advice, guidance, and assistance, limited heretofore in this
country.
It is expected that a State supervisor of commercial
education vrill.be appointed in each State; such a supervisor .to be
accountable to the assistant director of commercial education on the
staff of the Federal Board for'Vocational Education insWashington.
We may expect that the character of teachers' qualifications may
be formulated as the result of the new organization .of forces. A
better training for commercial teachers would seem probible .both
as the result of stiniutation and advice of the national director, and
also from'the peostibility of national funds which seem possible under
COM NIEECIAL EDUCATION.
109
the Smith-ThIghes law. We are informed that certain kinds of
commercial work where the vocational conditions are assured may
receive the same subvention. that does inchistrial vocational work.
For example, connuercial pupils who take cooperative courses and
work at intervals in the school and in the vocation under'conditions
of approval as to the character of the course may constitute a group
for whichnational moneys can be granted.
Courses in salesmanship,
such as those maintained in Boston and Cleveland, may petition and
likely receive the same proportion of national funds for such kinds
of commercial education
as do courses in improved industrial
*cation.
REPORT Ot' THE COMMITTEE ON BUSINESS EDUCATION.
COMMISSION ON TUE ,REORGANIZATION OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
19143 the National Education Association issued a brief report
4°
commercial
ommercial education, the chief feature of which was a recorn-
mndation of a commercial curriculum for general high schools.
Since that date the association has offered no formal statement upon
the subject of commercial education.
.
Two years ago a committee consisting of N. Cheesintin A. Herrick,
president of Girard College, Philadelphia; F. G. sSichols, formerly
director 'of commercial education, Rochester, N. Y., now assistant
director of commercial education, l'ederal Board for Vocational
Education; and F. V. Thompson, superintendent of'schools, Boston,
formulated a report now under revision by thefteviewing committee
on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of the National
Education Association.
The report emanating from this committm can not fail to receive
marked attention, due to the keen interest in the question of read-
justment of commercial education now dominant in the minds of
our administrators'of secondary schools.
i No one who. is familiar with the pronouncement of The National
Education' Association, in 1903, regarding the course of study can
fail to see the progress and expansion of commercial edueatiorovhen
comparing the single inflexible, largely academic course of' 1903
with the manyfold flexible courses formulated at the present time.
As an illustration, bt the modern development of commercial courses
,----
of study, the commercial curriculuni for cosmopolitan hjgh schools,
adopted by Boston in 1917, is offered below.
It will be noted that the
comrperciar curriculum is divided into three distifict sections in the
third and fourth years of the course.
Commercial pupils by such a
curriculum can specialize either for the accounting or bookkeeping
side of commercial occupations, or for the stenographic, or for the
yooation of selling.
r.
110
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1816-191$.
COMMERCIAL CURRICULA.
(To meet all requirements for commercial certificate.)
.
Required subjects.
FIRST
Points.
yam!.
Elective subjects.
Rhysical training I
2
History I
Choral practice
1
Foreign language I
Hygiene
1
Biology I
English I
5
Introductory science
c
Bookkeeping I
4 or 5
Drawing I (freehand)
Domestic art I
SECOND YEAR.
Pants.
3 or 5
5
3 or 4
3
3
3
Required subjects.
Points.
Elective subjects.
Points
Physical training II
2
I
Choral practice II
1
English II
4 or 5
Histo.ry of commerce
3
Bookkeeping II
4 or 5
Foreign language II
4 or 5
Commercial geography
3
Mathematics I
5
Biology II
3 or 4
Drawing II (freehand)
3
Domestic art II*
3
TRIRD YEAR.
Nors.At least one elective in the third and fourth year must be a "Controlled
Option" (a related vocational subject taught in a homogeneous division).
Accounting.
Required subjects.
Points.
Physical training III
.2
English III
3 or 4
Bookkeeping III
4 or 5
Elective subjects.
Choral practice I I I
1
Phonography I
5
Typewriting I .
3
Merchandising I
4 or 5
Civics
3
History III.
3-, 4, or 5
Foreign language III
4 or 5
Physics I
3, 9, or 5
Chemistry I .
r 5
Drawing III
,..717-e
3
Domestic art III
3
iferchandssing.
Required subjects.
Points.
Physical training III
2
English III
3 or 4
Merchandising I
4 or 5
Elective subjects.
'Choral practice 111
1
Phonography I
5
Typewriting I
3
BookkeepingJll
4 or 5
Secretarial.
4
Required subjects.
Points.
Physical training III
2
English Ill
1 or 4
Phonography I
5
Typewriting I. .,
3
Elective subjects.
Choral practice III.
1
Bookkeeping III
4 or 5
Merchandising I
1 or 5
3
History III
,
3. 4. or 5
Foreign language III
4 or 5
Physics I
.
3. 4, or 5
Chemistry I. '
'3, 4, or 5
Drawing III
3
Domestic art III
3
(Retail selling.)
Elective subjects.
Points.
Civics
3
History III
3 4, or 5.
Foreign'language III II
4 or 5
Physics I
4. or 5
Chemistry I
3, 4, or 5
Drawing III
3
Domestic. art III
3
Accounting.
Required subjects.
OOMMEECIAL
POURTE
Points.
EDUCATION.
YEAR.
Secretarial.
Required subjects.
Ill
Points.
Physical training IV
2
Physical training IV
2
English 1V
3, 4, or 5
English I V
3,4or5
Commercial law'
3
Phonography II
5
Bookkeeping IV
4 or 5
Typewriting II
3
Office practice
2 or 3
Electivesubjerts.
Elective subjects.
Choral ptactice IV
1
Choral practice IV
1
Phonography II
5
Commercial law'
3
Typewriting II
3
Bookkeeping IV
4 or 5
Merchandising II
4 or 5
Office practice
2 or 3
Economics'
3 or 4
Merchandising II
4 or 5
Foreign language IV
4 or 5
Et-onomics
3 or 4
History IV
4 or 5
Foreign language
4 or 5
Civil service
3
History IV
3
Drawing IV
3
Civil service
3
Domestic art IV
3
Drawing IV
3
Domestic art IV
3
I
i
Merchandising.
(Retail *eking.)
Required-subjects.
Physical training IV
English IV
3
Merchandising II
Points.
2
4 or 5
4 or 5
Elective subjects.
Phonography IV
Typewriting 11.
Economics'
Points.
5
3
3 or 4
Elective subjects.
Choral practice 1V
1
Foreign language IV
....,
History IV .
4 or 5
4 or 5
Commercial law',
3
Civil service
3
Bookkeeping 1V
4 or 5 I Drawing IV
3
Office practice
2 or 3
Domestic art IV
4
COMMERCIAL COURSE CERTIFICATES.
A candidate for a commercial certificate must have completed a full course of train
ing in at least one of the three vocational groupsi. e., accounting, secretarial or mer-
chandising, with a grade not less than B in any subject of the group.
SCHOOL SURVEYS AND COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.
Since the last report of the Commissioner of Education on com-
mercial education, a number of surveys have been made, notable
among them being those of Cleveland, Minneapolis, and Indianapolis.
In general, these surveys bear out the position of the Commissioner
of Education's Report of 1915-16. As an instance ot this, the survey
in Cleveland draws a parallel between the actual commercial voca-
tions found in that city and the public provisions for training workers
in commercial occupations -itethe public high schools of the city.
The situation depicted contains no stirprises for those who are
familiar with what was revealed in New York City by the Hanus
inquiry of 1912.
la school. raqiiirina both commercial law and wationstes. theformer may be takes In the third year.
112
BIENNIAL sum:1:1 OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Briefly stated, the Cleveland survey shows what any survey
invariably doesthat commercial education in our public high
schools pursues a policy quite independent. of the business needs and
conditions of the community under consideration.
Commercial ed
ucation has been a thing of school credits and academic standard
conducted in.accordance with college entrance requirements or with
abstract scholastic procedure.
Commercial educators have neither
seen nor apparently cared for the actual conditions of employment into
which their graduates may go.
The school prepares-a certain prod-
uct which buSiness must take or leay.e just as it chooses.
The Cleve-
land survey makes a distinct point of the fact that boys and girls are
trained alike for the same kinds of commercial occupations, whereas
an actual surv-ey of business conditions shows that the sex conditions
of employment are quite different, males being found in excess in
certain commercial employments and females in other kinds of
employment.
Another pertinent criticism of the Cleveland survey is to the effect
that commercial employments are taught simultaneously to the same
pupils; that is, our public high schools train our boys and girls to be
both good bookkeepers and good stenographers, whereas business
employment shows that the demand is for specialized workers in
one field or the other.
Figures pertinent to this point are as follows:
In Cleveland, in largo business concerns, it was found that the dual
capacity of stenographer and bookkeeper was found in one instance
in a thousand; in small businesses only in sixty instances to a
thousand.
.
The findings of this survey, as well as the findings in other like
surveys, illustrate beyond dispute that commercial education in our
public high schools has followed wholly the traditions of the school.
and has been oblivious to the field conditions .of the vocation.
There
is a growing body of evidence, however, that there is a willingness to
change our procedure. We may expect within the next five years
to see sweeping and radical changes characterize commercial courses
in our high schools.
CONCLUSION.
In general, the better type of four-year commercial course will
continue to fulfill a real need and should be encouraged. The short-
unit.course will be found in part-time, extension, and preparatory
day-school courses for boys and girls already employed.
Evening
school commercial work should be -put on a practical and vocational
basis, having in mind definite needs of definite groups of people;
foreign-trade courses; in centers
ere such courses should be encour-
aged, should be organized and
iven wide publicity; retail-selling
education of a high character, both in connection with the four-year
commercial course and the part-time evening school classes, should
COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.
113
he made available; more intelligent rules for the licensing of teachers
should be worked out; adequate commercial teacher-training facili-
ties that will insure the training of commercial teachers along the
newer lines of commercial vocational education should be set up in
every State; and the whole field of commercial education should
be reorganized where necessary on the basis of vocational needs,
individual aptitudes, and local requirements.
1'tio29°-21Bull. 88-8
CHAPTER V.
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN Tilt CITIES OF THE UNITED
STATES.
CO \ TESTS.i. The larger cities: IntroductoryAmericnnizationElimination of German
and the teaching of foreign languagewJunior high schoolsVocational education
The Gary SchoolMilitary training In the schoolsWar activities In the schools
Conclusion.
The smaller cltles.: Administration-- School board rules and regu-
lationsThe superintendentThe survey
in school
administration Salaries and
promotions of teacher -- Duplicate schools--Supervised studyThe war and the small
city schools.
I. THE LARGER CITIES.
By J. H. VAN SIOUX, Superintendcni of Schools, Springfield, Moo -s.. and Jour;
WHYTE, Neu. lurk
Long before America's entry into the great war, education, in the
larger cities, in common with every other aspect of our national life,
was reacting to the great conflict across the seas.
Our educational
authorities were watching carefully the effects of the watt upon
European edueation, with a view to appropriating for oar p rposes
the educationally fruitful ideas that were coining from the cataclys-
mic struggle, in which we had as yet no part: but as the months
passed and the inevitability of our being drawn into the struggle
became apparent, theoretical discussion as to the wisdom of this or
that educational innovation of England or France gave way, to the
immediate consideration of the relation of the schaols to the prob-
lem of war itself, in the event of our enTering it.
The schools were
analyzed as to their part in a great preparedness program. and every
phase of educational activity was scrutinized as to its potential con-
tribution for service to a country at war. With the entry of America
into the war, the slogan for the schools became "Win the War," and
the solution of all the school problems was approached from that
angle? for it was soon realized that the schools had become an essen-
tial part of the very machinery of modern war. That slogan is still,
after 18 months of America's participation in the war, the determin-
ing factor in any consideration of educational problems, but already
the problem of reconstruction is forcing its attention on the schools
with an emphasis that is sure to beano more and more insistent.
And rightly so, for it is very appareti that a great many of the
115
116
BIENNIAL. SITRVE,Y OF E61.TCATION, 1916-1918.
'educational problems of a country at war are and will be the prob-
lems of a country at peace, with the exception that in war their seri-
ousness is accentuated and their immediate solution demanded.
Hence it is frequently possibleand where it is possible, it is surely
the part of wisdom to act accordinglyto unite the discussion of the
best educational measures for a Win the War" policy to a discus-
sion of the applicability of those measures to post-war programs.
By so doing we shall be proceeding along the lines of the warring
European nations (particularly England and France), who under
the compulsion of the times have adjusted their education to war and
at the same time have not neglected planning and even executing in
part such a revision of their whole educational policy as will best
make up for the derelictions of the past and insure the future. Un-
less we proceed similarly, it is likely that after the war, when our
problems seem less acute, lacking the stimulus of a great catastrophe,
we shall try to some them in the same haphazard, indifferent way
that has characterized our attempts at this solution in the past.
The latest example of the long look ahead toward the closer rela-
tions, commercial -arid otherwise, which are sure to obtain between
the allied nations is furnished by France, which through the Frefich
high commission has arranged to send to the High School of Com-
merce, of Springfield. Mass., for an intensive course of two years in
American business pra6tice, 35 young women, about 18 years of age,
----who- have-hail -a-preliminary_edinairion euiyalent to that of a grad-
uate of an American secondary school.
These are daughters of
French officers who were killed in the war. This is probably but the
vanguard of a larger delegation of young women who, if the initial
4. experiment is successful, will be sent to this and other similar insti-
tutions in this country for preparation to carry on work in French
business houses. It will be necessary for them, after the war, to take
the places of men who have lost their lives or been incapacitated by
their injuries. The advantages of the plan. while marked on the side
of commercial relations, are equally significant on the social side.
It is the wish of the members of the French high commission to
have these girls made acquainted with the home life of the people of
America, and to this end arrangements have been made by which
they are to be taken into the honies of representative people of the
city and treated not as boarders but as members of the families in
which they may be placed.
It has been suggested that after the termination of the war a
reciprocal arrangement may be made for the exchange of pupils be-
tween France and this country, and this may 4orove.to be one of the
factors that will bind together more firmly than ever the people of
these two Republics.
PUBLIC EDUCATIoN IN THE CITIES.
117
AMERICANIZATION.
In the category of problems that has been thrown into especial
prominence by the war, but whose solution belongs not only to war
but to the future, is the great problem of the Americanization of the
immigrant. Before.the war it was a problent that engaged strenuous
efforts only on the part of welfare and settlement workers and
sociologists and remained in the eyes of a great ninny educators a
more or less academic sentimental issue. To be sure, some provision
had been made for certain aspects of the solution of the problem,
e. g., for the teaching of English; and sotbe States, such as Massa-
chusetts, had even demanded compulsory attendance at evening
school of minors of 16 to 21 who could not read and write up to the
fourth-grade standard; but the enforcement of such laws was de-
pendent upon the maintenance of evening schools by the towns and
cities of.the States, and far tdo few provided adequate facilities and
financial support. for such apparently extra curricula and irrelevant
,Matter. But with thwar came the sudden realization of
vital
importance of the immigrant as a factor in the winning of
e war.
The revelation of the 1910 census that there were 5,51(016 people in
the United States who could not read or write had evoked little com-
ment and a few adequate remedial measures, but the fact that, of
approximately 10,000,000 registrants for the selective draft, 700,000
could not sign their names aroused even the most apathetic to the
serious impairment of our military efficiency revealedby such figures.
With 1 out of 1.3- finable-to respond intelligently to military or indus-
trial orders on the one hand, and moral and spiritual appeals on the
other, all because of lack of a common medium, the necessity for im-
mediate action on the part of the schools became a matter of na-
tional importance.
.Additional facilities for Americanization were
speedily provided, and the teaching of English to.the immigrant as
the first step in Americanization engaged the serious attention of
school authorities all over the country.
THE IMMIGRANT AND THE NIGHT SCHOOLS.
There is a tendency to blame the immigrant for his failure' to
learn the langdage of his new country.
But, as a general rule,
failure can be attributed less to his lack of desire than to, his
of opportunity. The opportunity must be given him in every com-
munity by ample provision for night schools that shall be looked
upon as an integral.part of the functions of the schdols of America.
Up to the present the night school has been treated as a foster-child, oe
maltreated and even disinherited when the budget required.
If the
wisely conceived plan of the National Committee on Illiteracy is
.
118
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
to be realized, i. e., the utilization of all the school machinery of
the country in the teaching of the foreign illiterate, the administra-
tive wisdom of educational authorities will be taxed as never before
to solve the pedagogical and finanial problems that will come from
this broadening of the school's funftions.
THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH TO THE IMMIGRANT.
The fallacy that teaching English to foreigners is a simple, sec-
ondary matter, and may be safely entrusted to any who can be found
to accept the pittance allowed such instruction, needs apparently
to be demonstrated, for the policy of most night-school instruction
in English. rests upon this fallacy. It is time that educators realized
that English for theaforeigner is a foreign language and that the
giving Of instruction MI foreign languages in our educational scheme
has always presupposed a certain technique of instruction and a cer-
tain minimum at least of preparation and specialization.
ENGLISH AND THE PROBLEM OF AMERICANIZATION.
The selection, preparation, and
organization of
night-school
teachers ought therefore to engagg the most serious attention of
school administrators, and particularly, because it is through the
foreigtrlanguage, English in this instance, that the immigrant's first
introduction to the customs, thoughts, and ideals of the new country
may come. 'the night-school instructor becomes, nolens volens, the
interpreter of America to the newcomerthe mediator between the
old and the new. To mediate effectively, he should incarnate the
best of his country and be able to approach the foreigner symPatheti-
cally, He should- realize that he is one of the instruments that is
. trying to effect the bleu ling of all the racial elementsthe Slav,
the Teuton, the Celt, the Angto-$4.xoninto a distinct racial cul-
tural entity.
That blending can not be commanded.
Under the
stress of war and under the compelling idealism of a Wilson, a
" War Americanization " has taken place. The whole country has
supported unitedly the compulsory service act and has given almost
unwavering support to the policies of its President.
And tIte great struggle of all the races in ticommon Cause will
surely have constituted, when the war is over, a great .step in that
Americanization -.and democratization that all have desired.
But
with the conclusion of peace there will be lacking the urgent appeal
for Americanization that the war has brought with it.
The neces-
sity will still exist, and it is even possible that, with the recrudescence.
of an intensified,. national feeling everywhere arid the awakening
Hof new. nations from the suppressed national. groups of Europe,
PUBLIC EDUCATION TN THE CITIES.
119
the nationalistic feelings of the foreign groups in America -nay be
intensified and provide added difficulties to the process of assimila-
tion.
It is for the educatdrs of the country to realize the importance
of Americanization not only as a war program but as a peace'pro-
gram, and always as a problem for whose solution specialists on im-
migration, social, welfare, and settlement work should he invoked.
DIFFICULTIES IN THE WAY OF AMERICANIZATION.
The insistence on English as a prereq4e to Americanization is
one thing, but the sudden and radical suppression of all foreign
languages by city or State command is another, and is likely to de-
feat the very ends that are sought. for.
Presenting American ideals
and customs is one thing, but attempting to rommi.nd immediate
and utter forgetfulness of the old country is another, and perhaps
the very way to insure in this country unassimilablo foreign groups
after the model of those existing in such countries as Austria. Hun-
gary, Russia, and Germany where repression has marked the tip"-
ment of alien groups. The normal course of Americanization in
many parts of theTyountry with respect to English has so far been
from the uni-lingualism of the immigrant to the bilingualism of the
second generation,. to the uni-lingualism (English) of the third
generation. Whenever the proc6s is slower, there is the likelihood
that there is maintaining itself a distinct racial unit that may be
holding too vigorously to all of its foreign habits and customs. Such
a state of affairs demands the attention of immigrant and welfare
experts. An analysis may prove that a great deal of responsibility
for it may rest on the American of older generations who by his 1-
difference and social exclusiveness has thwarted the initial impulses
toward Americanization...It is difficult to see, hoWever, how thisnor-
nal process can be greatly accelerated without detriment to the im-
migrant and to his new country. Competent observers have remarkedj
the deterioration that is evident in that immigrant who has con-
temptuously stripped himself overnight of all the customs and ludrii
of his old country, for in their stead he has too frequently appropri-
,*
ated a shoddy, Americanism of the streets.
The problem that con-
fronts those who would deal intellipntly with the immigrant is
how to transmute the real value that the foreigner brings with him
into the new Americanism.
The, common assumption that the 'for-
eigner has nothing to lose and everything to gain in the transition;
that he has nothing of himself, his background, his country fo give
in exchange for what he receives, mlikes both him and the new
cOurlity the losers. The spirit of Americans of older stock should be
that so well expresSed by the Secretary of the Interior, Mr, Lane, in
his opening address at the National Conference on Americanization-
3, 1918): The keynote of the conference, Our Responsibility,"
120
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1910-1918.
was struck ih this address.
His frank recognition of the serious-
nes§ of the problem, his assumption for the shoulders of the older-
Americans of their great responsibility in its solution, and the sytn
pathetic spirit with which he meets the immigrant. need to become
the common possession of those school authorities into whose hands
are to a great degree committed the solution of the great issue.
To
quote:
-
We are trying a great experiment in the United States. Can we gattlfr to-
getlwr from all ends of the earth people of different races, creeds, conditions,
and aspirations, who can be merged Into one?
If we can not do this, we will
fall.
I
There Is no such thing as an American race, excepting the Indian.
We are
fashioning a new people. We are doing the unprecedented thing in saying that
Slav, Teuton, Celt, and the ()flier races that make up the civilized world are
capable of being blended. '
Out of this conference should come, not
a determination to make more hard the difficult way of those who do not speak
or read our tongue, but a determination to deal in a catholic and sympathetic
spirit 4Ith those who can be tel to follow in the way of this Nation.
To this blending, then, the Slav, the Teuton, the Celt, the Anglo-
Saxon, the Romance, and other races art' to contribute. That Italian
boy born with the soul of an Italian poet not contribute that poetic
soul to America.
If in his Americanization he loses it, both he and
America have lost. That Slav with his wealth of folk song and
legend must contribute 't hat to America.
I
s only thus that there
shall come to pass that great new Ameri
in which shall be fused
the 'first .attributes of all peoples and
ces.
Towa'rd the consum-
mation of that end educators must devote their best efforts.
ELIMINATION OF GERMAN AND THE TEACHING OF FOREIGN
LANGUAGES.
Under the pressu
of popular feeling, the teaching of German was
forbidden in thousands of communities in America. The agitation
in favor of its elimination was such that few school boards or su-
perintendents insisted on its retention.
New York eliminated all
beginners' classes, thus abolishing all German in three years. Phila-
delphia abolished it entirely.
Many, but by no means all, of the
larger cities of the country followed suit.
Some whole States, such as Iowa, pelawareMontana, etc., forbade
the teaching of German in all schools.
C
The attitude toward this question in some of the more conservative
of the larger cities is illustrated by the following paragraph from the
last annual report of.the Portland, Oreg., schools, L. R. Mclennan,
superintendent:
I have bMi asked repeatedly concerning the attitude the Portland schools
will take regarding the teaching of German and French., Some have,
ked
If we expect to do away with the former and Increase the work in the.,
r.
41.
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
121
Now, It Is well known that Americans are Ilidlcient in language study.
Euro-
peans have been stimulated to understand the tongues of their near neighbors;
but separatist as we have been by great oceans, we have lived on without feel-
ing tile need of mastering any language save our own.
But, now collies the
present stimulus. We are concerned as never before in our national life wlgi
events and developments in Europe. We wish to gain 'for ourselves Om il,pe
literature, art, and science of the Old World. We confidently trust that a time
is near at hand when all nations will be united In a compact of enduring peace;
and when such a time comes we all shall need to know the languages of other
nations. The boysind girls in the high school will he the leaders of the coming
age.
They must be prepared to meet the rjouirements at that time.
Spanish
must be !earnest, French must he learned. Dermal' must he !Parnell. and learned
with wore enthusiasm than ever before.
-".
The results on the education of tho country can not be measured as
yet.
One of the immediate results wine the rapid increase in the
teaching of j.Spanish. The lack of properly equipped teachers of
Spanish seemed to be no barrier; the Jobless teachers of German be-
came
'programs were
w.
came teachers of Sptinih almost overnight.
Cour f s were discon-
tinued without notice and students'
f ted about in
a demoralizing fashion. High-school students preparing for-ehem-
istry or other scientific professions, who had chosen German tis'an
essential part of their preparation, were suddenly informed that the
study of German even for such purposes was not necessary.
1
American educational authorities would do well at this time to
consider the report presented (in 1918) by the committee appointed
by the prime minister to inquire into the position of modern lan-
guages in the educational system, of Great Britain.
It was a strong
committee, presided over by S #iley Leathes, a civil-service commis-
sioner aml one of the editors of the Cambridge Modern History, and
including several distinguished persons, such as Sir Maurice de Bun-.
sen, late ambassador at Vienna; -Dr. H. A. L. Fisher, now minister
of education; Ir. Walter Leaf, the well-known banker and trans-
lator of Homer. The report emphasized the special
treed
for
foreign languages for the conditions after the war and asked for
increased instruction in modern languages.
It placed French at the
head of the list both for cultural and commercial 9tirposes, and Ger-
man close behind it, and then Italian, Russian, and Spanish. It
came
to the conclusion that it is of essential importance to the na-.
tion that the study of the German language should -be not only
maintained but extended." To what extent the findings and conclu
sions of the Leathes comm tee lack pertinence for American condi-
tions is a question that oug
to be answered by the same type of
scientific investigation that prompted the research of the Leathes
commission.
It is obvious, however, thiat British ranking of Spanish
Is too low for American conditions, in view °flour colonial and South
American relation&
.
'It
-.
122
BIENNIAL SURVEff OF EDUCATION, 1916-1H8.
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS.
The ra id growth of junior high schools has been one of the out-
standing
ucational developments of the years 1916-1918. Wher-
ever a re ganization of the school system has been under contem-
plation, the organization of a junior high school seems to have found
favor.
The reasons for its favor lay somewhat, to be sure, in the .
fact that it seemed to involve no such violent change as would disor-
ganize or demoralize even temporarily at least the. school organiza-
tion. And that is, of course, a conunenkble feature and has surely
accelerated its introduction. But its comparatively easy incorpora-
tion into the present system contains dangers that must be avoided.
It is patent that, in order to serve the ends that educators have pur-
posed for the junior high school, it must involve a reorganization
that is more than a mere numerical regrouping of tile school years;
it must contain and conserve above all those provisions for the edit"-
cational guidance of the individual pupil in a wide, flexible, adaptable
curriculum for which it was established.
It is not unlikely that' five years may see its inclusion in the
majority of the schools of the country.
Prof. Davis, of Ann Arbor,
has investigated the junior high schools in the North Central Asso-
ciation territory, 1917-18, and has found that about one-fourth
<
1;2,931) of the accredited schools contained the junior high school,
and that one-fourth of this fourth (72) had been organized in 1917.
The year 1918, Prof, Davis asserts, will how an even greater number
of new junior high schools. The growth in the North Central As-
sociation has been fairly typical of the whole country.
In a plea for the reorganization of the school system of Greater
New York, Mr. Somers submitted the following resolution, which
Was adopted by the board:
That the board of superintendents be requested to appoint a special com-
mittee of three associate and five district superintendents to investigate_ and
..
'report upon the desirability and advisability of organizing our schools on the
basis of a six-year elementary, a'three-year intermediate, and a three-year high-
school grouping.
.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
The Great War has deknonstrated as nothing else could, the
national need for vocationally. trained men and women. In recog-
nition of that need the Sixty-fourth Congress passed the Smith-
Hughes Act, which Was signed by the President February 23, 1917:
It provides for the promotion of vocational education; for coopera-
tion with the States in the promotion of such education in agricul-
ture and the trades and industries; for cooperation with the States
in the preparation of teachers of vocational subjects; and for the a.p-
.
PUBLIC EHI'CATTON IN THE CITIES.
123
propriation of money and the regulation of its expenditure. The
moneys set apart by Congress are granted on a graduated scale, be-
ginning with $1,860,000 in 1917-18, and increasing to $7,367,000 in
1925-26, at which amount they are continued indefinitely.
The
amount appropriated to any State must be matched by that State, to
become available. Under the impetus of the
fllith-Hughts Act Vo-
cational education has taken a great leap forward. The movement
in support of trade schools and continuation schools has been acceler-
ated. It is obvious that, with the shortage of labor and building ma-
terial and tir constant readjustments in teaching force due to the
war, the adeluate introduction and trying out of vocational train-
ing on a nation-wide scale must wait for more normal times. In the
meantime, investigation as to the best method's of arriving at the end
desired can be carried on, for there are not lacking those who, ad-
mitting the wisdom of the Smith-Hughes Act, are fearful lest in its
administration it fail to .achieve the great and easily recognizable
national benefits for which it was passed. The Carnegie Foundation,
for example, has reached the conclusion that the Smith-Hughes Act
is reproducing the history of the Morrill Act in involving the Fed-
eral Government in great expenditures of money before a sound edu-
cational policy and system of supervision have been formulated.
There
the idea of more voca-
tional training, see the unity of the educational system threatened
class education fostered by a kind of enforced predestination of trade
or profession; in other words, that type of. dualism in education
inaugurated that has existed in Germany and must not be incor-
porated into American education, just at a time when Germany is re-
yerting to an " Einheitschute " in an .attempt to correct the evils of
her undemAtic class education. -It would seem that the whole mat-
ter is one which wise administration can solve by a frank recognition .
of the dangers involved, and by a scientific endeavor to remove these
dangers.
THE GARY' scripolv
Vocational education after the Gary Sciool type received a set-
back in New York City with the election of Mayor Hylan. Intro-.
duced as a part of a political program by Mayor Mitchell, it remained
always a political issue and was continually subjected to the passion
of political struggle.
It was one of the chief issues in the last
tqayoralty campaign,' and went down to defeat with its sponsor. The
new school board under the new *ministration proceeded at once
to " de-Garyize " the schools, and with the election of Mr. Ettinger
0, as superintendent it is quite likely that the so-called Ettinger plan,
with its prevocational opportunities for the seventh or eighth grades,
124
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
will be general?), introduced.
The Ettinger plan may, of course,
lead to the junior high school or at least some compromise with it.
Advocates of the Gary School in New York City will always feel
that the new system was not sufficiently tested, that four years' Gary-
izing of only a few schools did not provide sufficient data for its
summary rejection.
Opponents of the Gary school, unaffected by
the political aspects of the question, can retort that the introduction
of such a radical departure in such a vast organization as that of the
New York schools was sure to meet with insuperable difficulties.
The
failure of the Gary schools in New York can as yet hardly be looked
upon as an indictment of the Gary School scheme except as to its
applicability to all the conditions of New York.
Other communities
may find in it all that Gary has found in it.
Whatever may be the
losses that may have come to New York through its adoption and
rejection, the Gary School idea has at. least served to accentuate the
great import of vocational training for the whole country by the
publicity that the New York experience has given it.
MILITARY TRAINING IN THE SCHOOLS.
Even before America's entry into the war the question of military
training in the schools had become a much debated issue.
Some
States, such as New York, had by*State legislation provided for mili-
tary training in the schools of the State. The consensus of the
opinion of educators opposed its introduction, and the committee on
military training of the department of superintendence, presented a
report against it at the annual meeting of the superintendents in
1917. The report was adopted almost. una 'nurly. The committee
in its recommendations (1) asked for unive
ilitary training for
yottmg men 19 to 21 years of age, (2) protested against military train-
ing and military drill in the elementary or secondary schools, (3)
advocated thorough compulsory physical training for boys and girls,
(4) favored compulsory medical inspection, (5) encouraged outdoor
camp life and camp activities, (6) placed new emphasis on patriotic
and civic service as a prominent feature of. an American education.
WAR ACTIVITIES IN THE SCHOOLS.
The availability of the schools for war purposes became apparent
soon. after the declaration of war. The school children became volun-
teers in Liberty Loan drives, Red Cross drives, and in
activity
in connection with the war in which they could partake effectively.
It is not too little to say that they played a vital part in the material
and spiritual organization of the country in support of the war.
Nor was their activity confined to the school. year. Thous ds of
boys were mobilized during the vacation months for watt' on the
PUBLIC EDUCA4TION IN THE CITIES.
125
farms, and it has been due to their efforts that the farmer has been
able to meet the shortage of labor and to harvest his crops. Thus in
a very direct way the schools have come to the support of the Ameri-
can Army in France and to the vast suffering civilian populations
of the allied countries.
CONCLUSION.
The period in which we are living is one of rapid flux and transi-
tion, and those in control of public educatibn must so recognize it.
They must he ready to meet every emergency. They must be pre-
pared to cope with the problem of the returned, disabled soldier.
Thy must keep open-minded toward all the great problems of recon-
struction and the radical readjustments they may bring with them.
America's experiences in the war will certainly lead her to certain
new conclusions.
But it is well to be reminded that Europ*.an
countries have a three years' start on the problems with which we
must cope.
We can learn from them. Educational journals are
wisely opening their pages to detailed analyses of the changes that
are taking place in the educational thought of Europe.
If we are
to remain abreast, we must even now be grappling with the same
problems that have made for such radical revisions in the educational,
policies of the warring countries. It is only thus that we can prepare
for the great reconstruction.
H. THE SMALLER CITIES.
(With ivut than 25.000 population.)
By W. S. DEFFEN BAUCH,
Rpoolalift In City School eichoritsistration.
c
lihapter treating of progress in education for a period of one or
two years must dear principally with the change in the machinery of
education.
It is not the purpose of this chapter to show how much
better children in the small cities are being educated now than a year
or two ago.
The aim is to summarize changes in administrative ma-
chinery observed from Correspondence with supefintendents in the
smaller cities, from city school reports and other publications.
Among the significant changes that may be mentioned are the en-
Actment of a general education law for the cities of the State of New
York, simplified school-board rules and regulations, a greater interest
in'the scientific study of educational problems, salary schedules based
to a certain extent upon merit, greater attention to industrial work,
126
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
.
home economics, and physical training, and the use of the schools for
disseminating information regarding the war.
ADMINISTRATION.
During the past two years, few if any changes by special charter
provision have been made in the manner of electing school-board
members, in the number of members, or in the relation of the school
board to the city council.
In fact, few of the smaller city schools are
now governed in any way by special charter provision.
Most of the
States have enacted general education laws to include the cities of
the State.
The State of New York is the latest to enact such a law.
In that State the school systems of file several cities. were operated
and controlled under the provisions of nearly 250 separate acts en-
acted from the year 1829 down to and including the year 1915.
These various In s of the legislature contained 800 pages of printed
matter
simply o create the necessary machinery to operate the
school systems of
e several. cities.
Many of these acts had becom3
obsolete, many conflicting provisions were found in them, and in
some cases every section of the law relating to the school system of
the city had been amended, in some instances a single section having
been amended a dozen or more times. Many of the provisions of
these laws were mandatory in instances where the statutes should
give school authorities discretionary power, and the statutes relat-
ing to the great. majority of these cities so limited and restricted the
functions of the local school officers that they dM not have the au-
thority to exercise many functions which a board of eduCation should
exercise in order to maintain and operate a' school system in ac-
cordance with the public sentiment of the city over which it exer-
cised jurisdiction.
The situation in the State of New York was the cause of many
special bills being introclifeed into the legislature each year for the
purpose of amending the several acts so as to give local school
authorities the power to execute certain powers in .relation to the
local school systems which are desired by ant people of the several
cities.
For illustration, one city went to the legislature to obtain
authority, which it did not have under existing law, to submit to
the voters of that city a proposition to expend $40,000 for the erec-
tion of an elementary school building.
Another city which had
erected a new school building and abandoned an old one did not
possess the authority to sell the abandoned school property. It
was necessary to go to th? legislature to ob4in authority for that
pnrpose.
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
127
In order to provide better administrative machinery for the schools
of the several cities of the State, the education department prepared
and caused to be introduced into the legislature a bill which repealed
all the special acts and substituted for the 600 pages of printed mat-
ter a law which contains about 20 pages. The hill was enacted into
law during the session of the legislature in 1917.
The chief advantages claimed for this law are:
1. It is simple and clear and easily understood by those who must
administer it.
2. It confers broa
owei-s upon boards of education in the sev-
eral cities of the State, so as to operate and manage their schools
as the residents of the city may desire and to adjust the school or-
ganization to the necessities of new and changing conditions from
year to year.
3. It gives greater polt to localities than they have ever before
exercised, and it elithinates many of the useless mandatory and re-
strictive provisias contained in the old, complicated, and obsolete
statutes.
.
4. It fixes responsibility upon those who manage the schools.
That the powers and duties conferred by the general education
law upon city boards of education in the State of New York are
broad and permit cities to expand their educational system is evi-
dent-from the fact that school hoards have power to prepare an
annual estimate for the following purposes:
(7) The salary of the superintendent of schools. associate, district, or other
superintendents, examiners. directors. supervisors, principals, teachers, lec-
turers.
sts,cial
instructors, auditors, medical inspectors, nurses, attendance
officers, cli,rks. and finitors, and the salary, fees. or compensation of all other
employees appointed or employed by said hoard of education.
(b) The other necessary incidental and contingent expenses, Including ordi-
nary repairs to buildings and the purchase of fuel and
supplies, textbooks,
school apparatus, books, fu rot tore and fixtures, anol other articles and service
necessary for the proper maintenance. operation, and support of the schools,
libraries, and other educational, social, or recreational affairs and Interests
under its management and direction. The provisions of this section in regard
to the purchase of light shall not apply to a city having a poptilation of
1,000,000 or more.
(e) The remodeling or enlarging of buildings under its control and manage-
ment, the construction of new buildings for uses authorized by this chapter and
the furnishing and equipment thereof, the purchase of real property for new
sites, additions to present sites, playgrounds, or recreation 'Centers and other
educational or social purposes. and to meet any other Indebtedness or liability
Incurred wider the provisions of this chapter or other statutes, or any other
expenses which the board.of education is authorized to incur.
128
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
SCHOOL BOARD RULES AND REGULATIONS.
The rules and regulations of a school board are not often revised,
but a sufficient number of school boards have taken this action within
the past few years to show that the tendency is toward fewer and
more definite rules.
Too many regulations seriously confuse.
The
teacher who manages her school with the least effort usually makes
few rules.
School boards can learn from the.experience of teachers
in this respect not to hamper the superintendent and others by mak-
ing rules to cover every conceivable point.
The rules and regulations adopted by the school board at East
Orange, N. J., may be given as an example of the kind that moo
progreSsive school boards are adopting.
These rules are in accord-
ance with two interesting principles of school adminstrntion: (1)
Legislative action by the school board as a whole; (2) centralization
of executive authority in the superintendent.
Article II of the rules and regulations of thittility, which treats
of the organization of the school system, and Article III, relating to
the duties of the executive officer, are quoted as a type of the kind of
rules that school boards in the smaller cities could well adopt :
ARTICLE II.
OROANIZATIqN OF THE SCHOOL DYRTEAL
SecrioN 1. Departments and Their Functions.
There shall be three depart-
ments, to be known as the Department of Instruction, the Department of
Records and Finance, and the Department of Buildings and Grounds.
. Instruction. The department of instruction shollicomprise all the activities
that directly affect the welfare of the pupils, such as teaching, discipline, at-
tendance, and medical inspection.
The superintendent of schools shall have
charge of this department.
The department of records and finance shall comprise the more strictly busi-
ness activities of the board, such as keeping records, the tanking of contracts,
purchases, and the custody and expenditure of funds. The secretary of the
board shall have charge of this department.
Buildings and Grounda.
The department of buildings and grounds shall be
responsible for the physical upkeep of theschool property, including repairs.
renovation, and new construction.
The supervisor of buildings and grounds
shall have charge of this department.
ARTICLE III.
EXECUTIVE OFFICE:RN AND DUTIES.
SECTION 1. Superintendent of Schools.
The superintendent of schools shall.
under the direction of the board of education, and In accordance with its rules
and regulations, brave the general management of the school system.
Duties.
He shall, unless excused by the hoard, attend all regular and special
meetings of the board ttf education, and of committees, and shall have a right
to speak, but not to vote.
PUBLIC EDUCATION TX THE CITIES.
129
All communications to the board from principals, supervi ,rs, teachers, or
other employees shall be submitted through the superintend,
t
of schools.
Communications from teachers shall also be first submitted to the r respective
principals.
All such communications shall he referred to the board
the next
regular meeting by the superintendent with or without reconnuendati ,ns.
But
nothing
this paragraph shall be construed as denying the right to appeal to
the board of any member of the school system.
The superintendent shall recommend tee the board for appointment principals,
supervisors, teachers, and others to be engaged In the work of instruction or
discipline, also school doctors, nurses, and attendance officers.
With the advice
of the supervisor of buildimm and grounds. he shall also recommend for ap-
pointment engineers. Janitors, -mKlinics. and other assistants.
In the same
manner he may recommend the removal of any employees whose services are no
longer required.
All recommendittlems provided for in this section shall be
made in writing, excepting in the case of substitutes for temporary'periods.
where no action by the board is necessary.
The superintendent shall ussigu
principals, teachers,. and others employed
In the department of Instruction to their (Mikes, and make necessary transfers,
reporting such action to the board at the next regular meeting.
Ile shall, with the cooperation of principals and supervisors, plan courses of
study, time schedules, etc., for all departments, and supervise their operation:
but be shall subunit to the hoard for Its approval any Important changes which
call for a radical departure from accepted policies, or which require increased
expenditure of money.
With the cooperation of principals and supervisors, the Aperintenderit shall
recommend altproprinte text and reference hooks. ache.
supplies, apparatus,
and furniture for the use of the schools, and shall submit such recommenda-
tions to the hoard for Its approval.
He shall prepare the annunl budget before April 1 and submit It to the
board at the next regular meeting.
He shall submit a report to the board in writing at least once a month, with
recommendations for action.
This report shall be mailed to each member of
the hoard at least 48 Boors before the board meeting, and any further particu-
lars may be submitted in writing at the meeting. He shall prepare a general
report on the condition of the public schools at the close of the school year.
He shall prepare and submit to the board any special reports which may be
required. He shall attend to all other necessary details of administration, and
shall faithfully perform such other duties as may he required of him by the
board of education or the laws of the State of New Jersey.
Huron, S. Dak., and Mansfield, Mass.,'may be given as examples
of other cities that have simplified itt administrative machinery of
their school systems. The following chart shows the plan of the
ogantzation of the school system of Huron:
171020 °-21Bud. 88 9
a,
/N.
130
DIENNIAL SUBVEY OF EDUCATION, 1915-1018.
THE PUBLIC
IBOARD OF EDUCATION
CLERK
SUPERINTarGENT
.
.
SECRETARY
PRINCIPALS
ENGINEERS
JANITORS
SUPERVISORS
TEACHERS
PUPILS.
HURON PLAN' OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION
By this plan the board of education legislates, the spperintendent
executes, the board acts as a whole without standing committees.
The board of education holds the superintendent responsible for an
efficient execution of its orders.
This reponsibility is distributed
by the superintendent to all members of his staff, the principals hav-
ing the responsibility of the first degree next to 'the superintendent.
Within his or her particular field of activity, the: superintendent
holds each of his staff responsible for effective results, the only way
by which to secure them.
With the delegation of responsibility, there must go commensurate
authority. Tge superintendent must uphold the. authority of each
member of his staff within his or her field of responsibility.
Pupils
are, amenable to the manageMent of their teachers and of special
supervisors, and at times to that of janitors and engineers. The
teachers work under their principals and cooperate with the janitors.
The principals, janitors, and supervisots cooperate directly with the
superintendent, who is the means of communication betw,een all mem=
ben of his staff and the board of education.
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE
131
The school board at. Mansfield, Mptss., may also be mentioned as;_
having simplified the organization of its school system. The super-
intendent has been made secretary of the school board, thus centering
the executive work under one head.
This makes the superinten-
dent responsible for the bookkeeping, purchasing, correspondence,
records, and other clerical matters. as well as for the admitistration
and supervision of instruction.
The making of yhe soperintendent
the secretary of the school board in a small city should always carry
with it sufficieht clerical assistance to relieve hint of detail'.
The organization of the school system at Mansfield in relation to
the community may be pictured as follows:
Supervisors
LJanitors
People
Committee
Supt.
Clerk
Principals
Att. Officer
Teachers
Pupils
Parents
rt
It will be noted that(1) the board is responsible to the town for
the control of the schools; (2) the superintendent is responsible to
the hoard for the expert management of the schools; (3) the prin-
cipals are responsible to the superintendent for buildings, teachers,
pupils, and janitors; (4) teachers and janitors are responsible to
the superintendent and principal.
In the three cities just cited as examples of those that have re-
organized the administrative machinery of their schools all stand-
ing committees have been abolished.
School boards as a rule are,
reducing the number of sucii. committees or discontinuing them al-
together.
The plan of having many committees originated with
many school boards when they were.larger than they now are. As
a rule the larger boards have more committees than the small boards,
Doctor
Nurse
132
BIENNIAL SURVEY or EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Though the size of school boards has been reduced by legal enact-
ment this evil of many standing committees; characteristic of the
large board, persists in not a few cities.
These have hung on as a
soli, of vermiform appendix, having no useful function and often
causing internal trouble.
In not a few of the smaller cities there
are still as many standing committees as tbere are board members,
it not being uncommon for each member to hold a chairmanship,
which is about the only
excuse for the existence of many of the
committees, since there is nothing in particular for them to do.
In
the absence of a genuine need, too frequently they take upon them-
selves duties flint belong to the professional experts employed by
the school board: On the other hand, if the board acts as a whole,
responsibility can be placed on each member and not on an elusive
committee; all business, not part of it, is considered by the entire
board and all members must he intimately familiar with every phase
of it. Such an arrangement insures better correlations and more har-
monious expenditures, expedites business, and avoids the shifting of
responsibility. 'One argument sometimes advanced in favor of com-
mittees is that they can inet:t and go over the work assigned them
without having it discussed openly in board meeting. The argument
that school business should be transacted through committees so as
rot to attract the attention of the public is not valid in a democracy.
The school board represents the people who should be kept informed
of the disposition of all school matters that affect the general pub-
lic. There are times, it is true, when it is necessary for the school
board or a special committee to discuss in' private matters in which
only individuals are interested.
The school boards that have re-
duced the number of their standing committees, or, better, that have
abolished them, have without doubt taken a step forward in the
efficient administration of their schools.
THE SUPERINTENDENT.
School board rules and State legislation have gradually recognized
the importance of the office of city superintendent of schools. The
qualifications for the office have been raised and more power granted
the supeiintendent.
For example, ate-recently enacted general edu-
cation law of the State of New York takes cognizanct of the city
superintendent, setting forth the qualifications for a city supdrin-
tendent in that State and his powers'and duties.
A provision of the
law is that in all cities except in those of the first class a superin-
tendent shall serve at the pleasure of the board. This is an unusual'
provision. The argument for such provision is that if 'a superin-
tendent is to be the executive officer of the school board, he should be
requested to resign at any time he can not or does not carry out the
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
133
plans of the board, and that. it means a longer tenure for the majority
of superintendents. When superintendents are elected for a term
of two or three yeak.s and are required to come up for reelection, a111
the enemies he has made concentrate their forces upon the school
board. The expiration of a superintendent's term is a signal for
them,to act.
If he serves at the pleasure of the board, there is no
4
one time when opposition is invited.
The standard fcir the office of city superintendent is placed by
the recently enacted general education law of the State of filed'
York on a higher basis than in most other States. Ile must be
1. A graduate of a college or university approved by the University of the
State of New York, and have had at least five years successful cxrieriencesin the
teaching or in the supervision of public schools since graduation; or
2. A holder of a superintendent's certificate Issued by the commissioner of
education under regulations prescribed by the regents of the University of the
State of New York, and have hail at leapt 10 years successful experience In
teaching, or in public-school administration, or equivalent educational experience
approved by the commissioner of education.
The superintendent of city schools in the State of New York shall
possess, subject to the by-iaws of the board of education, the follow-
ing powers and be itarged with the following duties:
1. To enforce all provisions of law and all rules and regulations relating to
the management of the schools and other educational. social, and' recreational
activities under 'the direction of the board of education, to be the chief ex-
ecutive ()Meer of such board and txhicatioual system, and to have a sent in the
board of education and the right to speak in all mutters before the board, but
not to vote.
2. To prepare the content of each course of study authorized by the board of
education.
3. To recommend suitable lists of textbooks to be used in the schools,
4. To have supervision and direction of associate, district, and other super-
intendents, directors, supervisors, principals, teachers, lecturers, medical in-
spectors, nurses, auditors, attendance officers, janitors, and other persons em-
ployed in the management of the schools or the other educational activities of
the city, under the direction and management of the board of education, to
transfer teachers from one school, or from one grade of the course of study
to another grade, and to report immediately such transfers to the, board for its
consideration and action; to report to the board of education violations of
regulations and cases of insubordination, and to suspend an); employee until
the'next regular meeting of the hoard, when all the flits relating to the case
shall be submitted to the board for its consideration and action.
5. To have supervision and direction over the enforCement and observance
of courses of study, the examination and promotion of pupils, and over all
other matters pertaining to playgrounds, medical inspection, recreation, and
social center work, libraries, lectures, and all other educational activities and
Interests under the management, direction, and- control of the board of
education.
6. To issue such licenses to teachers, principals, directors, and other members
.
of the teaching and supervisory staff as may be required by .the board of edu.:*.
134
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-19l8.
cation In cities /In which the board requires its teachers to hold qualifications
In addition to or io advance of the minimum qualifications prescribed by law.
Whether or not the powers and duties of city superintendents
should be definitely defined by general State law is still a question.
The school law should, however, define the more important duties of
the superintendent, as does the general education law of the State of
New York.
In those States where the school law does not define the poifiers and
duties of the city superintendent of schools, school' boats have
within the past few years accorded him many of the prerogatives
that belong to an executive officer.
They have made the office a more
dignified one, calling for men with eliecutive as well as with teaching
ability.
For this reason a new type of superintendent is coining to the front.
Instead of the mere pedagogue, out of touch with the world, there is
the practical, scientific administrator who is able to show what the
schools are accomplishing.
Ile can show the public how the school
funds have been expended.
Ile has developed school accounting so
as to indicate with definiteness the purpose for which all money is
spent in terms of the particular service secured, and also with respect
to the particular division, school, or subject taught.
Not until within
the fest few years did school boards, or, indeed, any individual in the
smaller cities, know how school funds were expended. Money was
appropriated on a "hit-or-miss" plan.
The high-school expenses
might. be costing four or five times as much per pupil as the ele-
mentary grades. The cost of heating 1,000 cubic feet in one building
might be several times as much as for another building. Latin might
be costing 25 cents per pupil recitation and other subjects only 5 or
6 cents.
No one knew: There was no attempt made to find out
where every cent of the funds went. There was no attempt at de-
tailed budget making. Now all piegressive school boards and super-
intendents can trace every dollar from the time it leaves the taxpayer
until it is expended for the object intended, It is true that in the
smaller cities the number of such boards having this information is
not large; but it is becoming larger each year.
-
The new type of superintendent has also learned to show more
definitely what children have achieved.
He is using more exact
measurements, especially for the formal subjects.
His annual re
ports have been much improved, ociug no longer abstract treatises
or amass of uninterpreted facts. The frankness with which many of
the superintendents in the smaller cities set forth conditiobs is an
indication for the better that has come about in the administration
of the small city school. For instance, the whole situation regarding
the progress of pupils through the grades, tlitschook attendance, and
achievement of pupils measured by well-know standards are pre-
sented, and recommendations made on the basis of fact.
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
135
THE SURVEY IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION.
In this connection mention should be made of the improvement of
school administration it: the' small city through the influence of the
school survey.
Though the immediate results where surveys have
been made have not always been all that could be desired,they have,
on the whole, been helpful to school administrators. they have at
least. shown a method of attacking educational problems and they
have aroused greater interest in school administration, especially in
the approach from the fact side.
Among the small city schools that have been surveyed during the
past two years are Brookline. Mass.. Elyria, Ohio, Janesville, Wis..
Winston-Salem, N. C., and all the cities of Arizona and South Da-
kota in connection with State-wide surveys.'
Besides the general surveys, there have been surveys of specific
phases of school work.
At Fort Dodge, Iowa, a survey was made to
discover the chief reasons why so many boys leave the schools Of the
city before completing the course; in what grades the greatest number
of boys drop out; what they do after leaving school ; what their earn-
ing capacity is; and what. readjustments should be made in the
courses of study to make them meet the needs of the boys of the
community.
At Virginia, Minn., a stilly was undertaken to determine what is
required of boys and girls who seek employment after leaving school.
The survey covered not only the trades, such as machinists, plumbers,
etc., hut. all work -which requires the employment of men and women,
boys and girN The information for the survey was collected from
three sources: (11 Industrial surveys pade in various parts of the
country; -(2) reports and expenses of institutions, botlkprivate and
public,.working along the dines of industrial,educatioA; and (3) a
survey of the local industries.
As a result of the survey the school board adopted the plan of
giving students in the junior high school general work in the various
departments of vocational training, work which would be Practically
the same as that offered under the head of manual training.
During
this period every effort. is to be made to assist the students who are
followiwg vocational work to decide which of the courses offered they
are best fitted tOollow. The senior high school is to be used as the
time to wecialize in this course or trade, so' that at the end of the
high-school course the graduate will' have had four years of work
in the trade which he has selected 4k) follow.
It. is not the ex-
pectation of the school board in adopting this plan that lifter four
years of work in the senior high schocillthe graduate will be a Anished
I For a dtacusskinof the reports of these swear, see the chapter on educational sue,
ye s, replinted as Bulletin, 1918, No. 45,
.1.36
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
401'
-
tradesman but that he will simply have made a very good start
toward the mastery of his trade.
The survey committee recinnniended: That the work in the indus-
trial department, both for boys and girls, be made practical; that it
be suited to the needs of the industries in the community ; that a
certain amount of commercial work be brought into the shops; and
that experienced men be employed from the industries to teach shop-
work.
The committee was of the opinion that, while the greater
part of the instructors' should be experienced .workers, it must not
lose sight of the fact that teaching others is a profession, and that a
few trained teachers should be employed to systematize at least the .
elementary work of the student and give
a
ounded educa-
tion. ,
'
The survey, according to the report of the committee, developed
the fact very clearly that something has been lacking in the school
system. The employers Of labor, upon first approach, were skeptical
about what the school could do to better conditions in the industries
and to train boys to take their places in the industries. They seemed
to question the possibility that work of this practical character could
be introruced into the schools, but After the committee explained
that experienced workers would be employed as instructors and that
the employers would be called upon to visit, criticize the work, and
give suggestions, they all agreed tit& the committee was upon the
right track, and that this matter should have been considered and
put into effect long ago.
The fact was also brought out that the
students in the community lacked the quality of stick-to-it-ive-ness,
and 'that they overestimated, the value and ability of themselves.
The employers suggested that it was high time that the school and
the community cooperate in bringing about a bettei spirit toward the
work. The survey committee continued itsreport by makink recom-
mendations regarding the work to be done in the schools in respect
to the industries of the community.
As a result of the surveys made by persons not connected with
the schools suryeyed, more superintendents are surveying theiK.own
schoOls. If the outside survey has accomplished' nothing more than
to cause school men to study their own schools, it has been worth
while.
Whether surveys by persons outside the school system will
-1-continue is a' question. One thing is certainthere will be more
self-surveys. Superintendents surveying their own schools may call
in some one as consulting specialist'to help them .interpret the facts.
The better type of school report that ROM superintendgits are
preparing -is evidence that' they"are analyzing conditions more care-
fully than before, and that in effect ,they are surveying their own
Pl'BLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
137
schools. There is no reason why a superintendent can not make. an
exhaustive study of hisachool system, especially if he has had col-
lege courses in school administration and management. He is c...
the ground all The time and should know conditions better than any
one else. The statistical data that the surveyor collects often after
much labor should be in the superintendent's office at all, times. It
should not be necessary for an outside surveyor to spend a week or
more collecting data regarding school attendance, progress of pupils
ft
throug14 the grades, education and experience of teachers. etc.
These
should be on file. A superintendent cap measure the achievement of
pupils by Means of standard tests as well as any one else. He has
Recess to the scones made by pupils in other citiesand can easily make
comparisons and draw conclusions.
In the matter of finance he
can show unit costs and make interesting compAisons just as ef-
fectively as can any one brought in from outside the school system.
Among the late school reports that may be classed as instructive
self-surveys are those of Southington, Conn.; Huron, S. D.ak.; Globe,
Ariz.; Anderson, Ind.; Bristol, Va.; Lawrence, Kans.; and Kane, Pa.
The 1916-17 report of the schools at Huron, S. Dak., discusses
organization and adrninistration, physical environment, teaching
force, pupil accquptink, quality of instruction, pupil achievement,
schools costs.
The report contains 35 statistical tables and 39 charts
to illustrate relation of attendapce to enrollment, preparation of
teachers, grade distribution, etc.
The superintendent of schools at Lawrence, Kans., in his report
for 1916-17, asks and answers 90 questions regarding the schools of
that city. Among the questions asked and answered are:
In what proportion does Lawrence appoillon school money nntong the several
expense items?
What do these figures show?
What probable future demand will these several Items make upon Lawrence?
What changes will this necess ate In the Lawrence budget?
How does the high cost of DO g affect the schools?
How many children tailed of
romotion?
Hpw many'ehlitiren skipped n grade?
t
In what subjects do children n ke the most failures?
ks Lawrence peculiar in this,
t?
hat do we know of failures f
all the children?
What is the retardation in each building?
Have we any basis of comport
n in ,;tee matter?
What does the comparison mho% ?
What has been done to improve \th*.situation?
ThE report thus continues t' answer questions thit any searching
investigator would ask, and
idi the school patron would wish to
know.
,
lifENNIAI, SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-19IQ.
2.
SALARIES AND PROMOTIONS OF TEACHERS.
Until within the past two years the educational and
ofessional
standards for teachers had been raised slowly until most of the
smaller cities required applicants for teaching positions to be high-
school graduates with an additional year or two of professional
training, or in lieu of such training a year or two of successful
experience. In not a few cities the standard has been dicacult to
maintain, owing to the fact that many teachers have recently`` left The
profession to accept more lucrative positions with the National Gov-
ernment or with private corporations.
In many, of the schools in
smaller cities it is not unusual for a teacher to receive a salary of less
than 000 a year. Since positions elsewhere, paying $1,000 or $1,200 a
year,
ere easily obtained, the teaching corps in many of the smaller
cities has been almost depleted of its experienced teachers.
As a re-
sult those less experienced and less well prepared have to be em-
ployed.
Many married women who taught school 10 or 15 years ago
have returned to the classroom.
The plan of enploying married
women who have taught school is to be preferred to that of em-
ploying girls just out of -high school,-from the face that the married
women, though they may not have completed a high or normal
school course, have a broader view of life and know children much
more intimately.
In order that those who formerly taught and who
are again taking up teaching may know something of recent develop-
ments in educational methods, a sUperintendent should hold runner-
ails conferences to assist these teachers in gaining the newer point of
view in educational method's.
As many us possible should be,in-
duced to attend summer schools for teacher§:
If school boards had increased salaries in proportion to the in-
.
crease in living expense, there would in all probability not now be
such a shortage of teachers. Some, however, would have left the pro-
fession, thinking that they could render better service for their coun-
try in other lines of work.
In order to keep the schools running some school boards have given
teachersbonuses of front po to $100 a year. Others have granted
salary increases ranging from 5 to 35 per cent, the usual increase be-
ing only 10 per cent.
Salaries 'in other professions or occupations
have increased much more. Although the cost of living has more
than trebled, teachers' salaries have remained almost stationary.
The
schools in many of the smaller cities can not help but suffer because
teachers resign to accept more lucrative positions.
Resignations hf
teachers were all too comnion before the war, few teachers remaining
in a city more than five ykrs., Conditions have beetrgoing from bad
to worse. There is but one way to check this general movement away
from the professionsalaries commensurate with the preparation re-
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE. CITIES.
139
quired and with the-exacting demands made neon a teacher's time
must be paid. The increase in salary should be at least 40 per cent
over the salary paid two years ago.
Increases of 5 and 10 per cent
have little or no effect in holding teachers who have been offered posi-
tioris_at twice their present salary.
In determining a salary schedule the following principles should
be recognized:
1. The teacher at the very least should receive a living wage.
This
should include enough to allow her to improve herself professionally
and to save something each year in anticipation of the time when she
inust retire from active schoolroom service.
2. The maximum salary should be sufficient tb retain the service of
the most desirable teachers.
3. In the administration of a salary schedule, superior work should
be recognized.
lit many of the school systems where merit is a factor in the pro-
motion of teachers, superintendents have devised various plans for
grading teachers.
Of 780 superintendents reporti
15
have
formulated schemes for grading teachers.
Whethe
h rating
plans can be carried out successfully is a question, especially if the
rating scheme is a detailed one.
If a teacher is to be promoted upon
merit, she should know what standards the superintendent has in
mind, so that she may attempt to attain them.
It is not possible to
give examples of all the many standards in use, but a few are pre-
sented to show what superintendents and others are attempting to
do to develop subjective standards for the testing of teachers.
In
some of the schemes which enumerate qualities or elements of. good
instruction the idea is that'the qualities enumerated may serve as a
basis for self-criticism and self-imprcivenient on the part of the
teacher.
For instance, the superintendent of schools at Kalispell,
Mont., who has prepared a teacher - rating plan, wisely say's:
With these standards as a suggestion, teachers need not watt to have weak-
nesses pointed out to them.
Let no one understand that instruction and teaching
lrbtllty will be judged solely or chiefly oh the basis of the factors enumerated...
The best part of the teaching process is what has been called "unconscious
tuition."
The habits the teacher is instilling, the taste she is cultivating,
and the appeals she is making to the feeling and the volition of the child are
more important than any of these elements. We are more concerned with what
the childro do than with what the child knows.
The following test is to be used by the teachers themselves to see
that they are not overlooking some of the elements of success:
I. Reintita.
(a) DeveloPment of pupils.
(b) Otowth In Anbject matter.
(c) Attention.
(d) Responsiveness of clam.'
It Technique in lenchinp.
.
(n)' Organisation of subject mat-
ter.
.
(b) Choice of subject matter.
(o) Skill in teaching how to study.
140
BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
It. Technique hi teaching--Contd.
(d) Skill in stimulating thought.
(c) Definiteness and clearness of
aim.
(f) Sk ISI and care IT, assignment.
III. School management.
(a) General care of room, black-
s boards,
window
*tides,
waste baskets, floors, etc.
(b) Ventilation.
(c) Cure of wraps and wardrobes.
(d) Care of books and supplies.
(e) Care of desks (teacher's and
pupils').
IV. Professional equipment.
(a) Understanding children.
(b) Use of English.
(c) Interest in the work.
(4) Manner of reacting on sug-
gestions.
(a) Manner of receiving criticisms.
IV. Professional equipment--CAnktd.
(I) Loyalty to other teachers and
school authorities.
(g) Manner of keeping records.
(h ) Times tardy during the year.
(I) Days absent during the year.
V. Personal equipment.
(a) Health.
(b) Voice.
(c) Tact.
(d) Sympathy.
(c) Evenness of temper.
(f) Dignity.
(g) Personal
neatness
(dress,
etc.).
(h) Cheerfulness.
(i) Orderliness.
(j) Winsomeness: appeal to chil-
dren.
() Posture.
To receive promotion in the kalispell schools beyond $960 a year
a teacher must show-marked success.
All advancement. in salary is
upon the recommendation of the superintendent, confirmed by the
board of education, which recommendation isconditional on ability
to teach, professional spirit, attitude toward the school and the
children, spirit of .growth, and desire to excel.
At Marblehead, Mass., the teachers are classified by the super-
visors and superintendent into fives groups, onthe basis of the quality
of service they heve rendered :
1. Those whose work is of so poor a
quality that they should be dismissed from the service.
5t New
teachers whose work has been unsatisfactory, but who show suffi-
cient promise of growth and improvement to justify further trial.
8. Thoie who show litle, if any, improvement over the work of pre-
vious years.
4. Those who are strong teachers and do uniformly
good work ; who measure up well in all departments and show im-
provement from year to year.
5. Exceptional teachers whose work
is superior; who possess unusual skill in teaching and show a large
nuSasure of initiative; resourcefulness, and power in stimulating pupils
to achieve the most worth-while of the results that the school seeks
to accomplish.
The school board of Ann Arbor, Mich., has prepareda salary
schedide to supplement the regular one.
After attaining the maxi-
mum salary allowed by the schedule, each teacher's. %%Airy is to be
final for triennial periods. An increase of $100 above the maximum
may be received the second. triennial period by meeting, during the
first period, the requirements of any one of tll.following plans:
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
141
PLAN I.
(a) Attendance on at least one annuui sessiou of sonic national educational
organizttion meeting outside of Michigan.
(b) Attendance on at least one annual session of the Michigan State Teach-
es' Association meeting outside of Ann Arbor.
(c) Subscription for and reading of two educatiopal periodicals, one of
which shall not be devoted especially to the subject or grade taught by the
teacher.
(d) linking reports on the nevtings attended and the periodicals read as
may be required by the executive committee and the superintendent of schools.
PLAN II.
a) Gaining eight hours' credit for regular work in any university, college,
or normal school, half of which shall not be In "subjects or grades regularly
taught by the teacher.
(1)
Subscription for and reading of two educational periodicals, one of
w filch shall not be devoted especially to the 'subject or grade taught by the
teacher, and making reports thereon.
PLAN III.
(a) Spending two months in foreign travel and reporting as may be required
by the executive committee and the superintendent of schools.
bl Subscription for and rending of two educational periodicals. one of which
shall not be devoted especially to the subject or grade taught by the teacher,
anti making reports thereon.
PLAN IV.
(a) linintnining during the period a definite line of study that. In the judg-
ment of the executive committee and the superintendent of. schools, is equiva-
lent to eight hours of university, college, or normal school work.
(b) Subscription for and reading of two educational periodicals, one of which
shall not be devoted especially to the subject or grade taught by .the teacher,
and making reports thereon.
Any teacher who has gained the first Increase of $100 may for the ensuing
period gain an increlise of $100 more by meeting the requirements of one of the
foregoing plans other than the one by which the first increase was gained; but
only two such increases shall be possible.
Failure to meet the requirements of some one of these plans during a trien-
nial period will 'cause the loss of $100 per year in salary if an increase has
already been gained.
Each applicant for increase beyond the maximum of the schedule must notify
the superintendent of schools in writing, at the beginning of the school year,
of the Intention to seek an increase and state which of the plans bas been chosen.
In the inauguration of this plan, any teacher who has taught three years or
more at the maximum salary and has, during the past three years, met the re-
quir,emente of any one of these plans, except as to reports, may receive the first In:
crease during the current year, and any teacher who has taught two years or
more may receive the first increase for the year after that In which the require-
ments of any one of the preceding plans have been met,
142
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The following efficiency record, prepared by the department of
education of the University of Chicago, is in use in some of the schools
reporting the.use of subjective standards:
EFFICIE NC Y
ECO It
DETAILED RATING
a
1. General appearance
2. Health
3. Voice
4. Intellectual capacity.
V. P.
5. Initiative and self-reliance .. . ..... i . ,
6. Adaptability and resourcefulness
I. Pereonal equip-
7. Accuracy
most-
8. Industry
9. Enthusiasm and optimism...
. ...... ...
10. Integrity and sincerity
11. Self-oontrol
12. ProMptness
13. Tact
14. Sense giustice
18. Acade
c preparation
16. Professional preparation
17. Grasp of sublet% matter
Vt. Understanding of children
19. Interest in the life of the school... ..
II. social and
20. Interest in the life of the com-
munity
fes
nut
t_ 21. Ability to meet and Interest pa-
e9
trons
22. Interest in lives of pupils
23. Cooperation and loyalty
24. Professional Interest and growth..
25. Ditily_preparation
26. Use of English
27. Careoflight,heat,and ventilation
III. School manage- 28. Neatness of
merle-
29. Care of routine
.... ' ...... .
30. Nel9ciliniPtelinnems(g°anedriliclearn"skeisarnofatm., ......
32. Skill in habit formation
33. Skill in stimulating thought
34. I:Willits teaching how to study.... ....
11/*
Thal,ynkl.,,,.._w of 35. Skillin questioning
42. Growtholpuplis in subject matter
Poit. 1
SI E011:11.
I GOOD.
I I: \.
I,
V. Renal-
mINNPm. eiMM 1
GENERAL RATING
11
-
Recorded by
Position
Pate
EXPLANATION OF TERMS.
I. Personal equipment Includes physical. mental, and moral qualities.
1. General appearance--physique, carriage, dress, and personal neatness.
3. Voice-pitch, quality, dearness of schoolroom voice.
4. Intellectual capadly--native mental ability.
5. Initiative and air- reliance- Independence In originating and carrying out
Ideas.
7. Accuracy-In statements; records, reports, trid school work.
10. Integrity and elneerity-soundness of moral prindples and genuineness of
character..
13. Tact - adroitness. address, quick appreciation of the proper thing to do
or say.
14, Sense or Justice-fairmindedneas, ability to give all a " square deal."
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
143
II. Social and professional (guipment Includes qualities making the teacher
better able to deal with social situations and particularly the school
situation.
15. Academic preparationschool work other than professional.
Adequacy for
present work.
10. Professional preparationsped:it training 'or teaching. Adequacy for pres-
ent work.
17. Grasp of subject mailercommand of the Information to be taught or the
skill to be developed.
18. UnderstandONY of chddrciein dght Into child nature; sympathetic, scientific,
and practical.
22. Interest in lives of pupilsdesire to know and help pupils personally, outside
of school subjects.
23. Cooperation and loyaltyuttitude townol colleagues tool superior officers.
24. Professional interest and growfh--effort to keep up to date and Improve.
26. Use of English vocabulary. gummier, ease of expression.
III. School munagement Include, inehntlicsil and routine factors.
29. Care of routine--savIng time and emrgy by
reducing frequently recurring
details to mechanical organization.
30. Discipline' (governing skill)character of order- maintained and skill shown
In maintaining it.
IV. Technique nl teaching includes skill in actual teaching and In the conduct
of the recitation.
31. Definiteness and clearness of aim -of each lesson and of the work as a whole.
32. Skill in haiot formation- -skill In establishing specific, automatic responses
quickly and prmuneutly ; drill.
33. Skill
in stimulating thought--gleing opportunity for and direction
in
re-
flective thinking.
34. Skill in tenchioo how to studyestablishing economical and efliclent halts
of study.
35. Skill in que4 fin,
Charnetrr and distrilmtidn of questions; replies elicited:
30. Choice of subject mutterrskill with which the teacher selects the material
of instruction to suit the interests, abilities. and needs of the class.
37. Organization of 'Subject matter the lesson plan and the system in which the
subject matter Is presented.
30. skill in motiratinu work
arousing interest and giving pupils proper in-
centives for work.
40. Attention
to individual needs
teacher's care
for
individual differences,
peculiarities, and difilculties.
V. Rcntilts Include evidence of the success of the above conditions and skill.
41. Attention and response of the classextent to which all of the class am
Interested In the essential ttart of the lesson and respond to the demands
made on them.
42: oenwth of pupils in subject mattershown by pupils' ability to do work of
advanced class and to meet more successfully whatever tests arc made of
their school work.
43. Oenerol development of pupilsIncrease In pupils' ability and power along
lines other than those of subject matter.
44. Stimulation of communityeffect on life of the community, tending to im-
prove or stimulate its various artivities.
45. Moroi influenceextent to which the teacher raises the moral tone of the
pupils or of the school.
Since school superintendents in the State of Indiana are required
by law to issue over their own signature and deliver to the teachers
under their supervision each year a statement of the success of each
teacher, and such success grade shall be the teacher's legal success
grade from one yetu; from date Of issuance, superintendents in that
State use the rating system provided by the State law or a modifiea-
a
144
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-191s.
tion of it.
The following schedule of success items is in use at
Elkhart:-
SCHEDULE OP SUCCESS ITEMS.
I. Teaching Ability
A. Professional attainment'
(20%)
1. Scholastic preparation.
2. Professional training.
B. The recitation
(15%)
1. Preparation of teacher and pupils.
2. Appropriateness of subject 'natter.
3. Detiniteness of aim and purpose.
4. Skill In questioning.
5. Progression in plan.
6. Care In assignments of lessons.
7. Balancing of lines of work
C. Results In scholarship of pupils
(20%)
1. Acquisition of facts and relations.
2. Accuracy.
3. General information.
4. Awakening of scholarly interests.
5. Clearness and elegance of expression.
II. Governing and Disciplinary Ability_
A. Moral and social influence on pupils and
community
(10%)
Ability to develop in the pupils the altru-
trtlistic virtuesrecognition of law and
social rights.
B. Ability to develop egoistic virtuesindustry,
honesty, reliability, fidelity, etc
(10%)
C. Personality'and appearance of teacher__ ._
(10%)
Perms* and moral worth and influence,
b
habit., disposition,
health, attire, sym-
pathy, energy,
manliness or womanli-
ness, bakesty, etc.
III. Professional and Community Interest
A. Cooperation with other teachers and with
with supervisors
(5%)
B. Interest in alms and plans of school com-
munity_
(5%.)
I. Care of school property
a. Protection of suppilea and furniture.
b. Neatness.
c. School decoration.
2. Building up of strong school sentiment
in the community.
. 8. Educational, literary, or social club work.
C. Professional pursuits
I...Present lines of professional study.
2. Reading of educational literature.
8. Attendance upon summer schools, Wet.'
tutee, and associations,
.
Total
(5%)
55%
.30%
15%
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
145
The following is a schedule of success items provided by the super-
intendent of pliblic instruction of Indiana according to the school
law of that State:
Percent.
A. Teaching 'power
45
Many items enter Into this, but the principal ones are training of teacher,
preparation of lessons, skill In presentation, resujta obtained.
B. Government__,
35
The teacher's power in government is shown in the general spirit of the
school and In the attitude of the pupils toward their daily tasks,
toward each other, and toward school property.
C. General characteristics
20
Under this head the personality of the teacher, his community interests,
and all those qualities that make for the best citizenship are .con-
sidered.
Salary schedules prepar& by teachers.Some superintendents, in
conjunction with their teachers, have prepared salary schedules based
upon merit: Such a schedule was prepared by a committee of teach-
ers and the superintendent of schools of Columbus, Miss. Teachers
are divided into tfe fdtlowing classes:
Class A Superior. A tet,m1,sr whose work is exceptional. A teacher possessing
unusual skill, resourcefulness, and power to stimulate pupils to
achieve the hest results the school seeks to accomplish.
Class BGood. A teacher whose work is satisfactory and Improving from year
to year. A strong teacher.
Class CFair. A teacher showing little Improvement from year to year. A
teacher who has practically ceased to grow and whotie service is
\ doubtful, whose work Is uneven and
inconsistent.
Work strong in
some things and weak In others.
Class DUnsatisfactory. A new teacher whose work is unsatisfactory but who
gives promise of improvement and growth.
CH& EInexperienced.
A teacher who is entering the profession, or one
whose experience is insignificant and unworthy of recognition.
Class.FPoor. A teacher whose service is poor and should be dismissed.
All teachers are classified by their principal in the following
items:
1. Peraftal qualiflcations.Health, voice, appearance, enthusiasm, etc.
2. Professional ahilify.Knowledge of subject matter, knowledge of children,
-
daily preparation, etc!
3. school management.Discipline, system, attention to routine, etc.'
4. Teaching skill.School spirit of pupils and teacher, skill in conducting
recitation, character of work of pupil, eta
5. Results.Knowledge gained, power to use knowledge, etc.
The school board of Evanston, Ill., made a decided departure from
the usual method of formulating salary schedules when itsuggested
to the teachers that they appoint a committee of their own number'
to discuss, formulate, and recommend changes which, in their
opinion should be made in the salary schedule of the teachers of that
171029°=21-13u11. 88-10
146
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-018.
city
Acting on this suggestion the teachers in each building and the
prificipals as a group selected one of their number to represent them
on the committee.
This resulted in a committee of nine,_which held
a number of conferences to discuss the various phases of the salary
schedule.
After every conference the arguments presented and the
conclusions reached were reported by each member to the teachers
they represented.
Tile school board after making a few minor
changes adopted the recommendations of the committee of teachers.
The committee recommended that a salary schedule should be
haled upon the following principles:
1. The salary of a teacher at the very least should be enough to provide a
living wage.
It should enable a teacher to do the reading and pursue such
studies as are necessary to keep her in touch with the progressive movements
In education in this and other countries.
In addition it should permit her to
save something each year to provide for the time when 'she must of necessity
retire from active schoolroom service.
2. The maximum salary should be sufficient to retain the services of the most
desirable teachers, as, well us to induce teachers of highest quality to seek
positions in the Evanston schools.
It is sate to say that this community de-
mands and is willing to pay for the best possible instruction and training for
Its children.
3. The administration of a salary schedule should result in stimulating
teachers in the service to develop to the highest degree whatever teaching
power they possess.
Superior work should be recognized and rewarded.
Teachers should he classified according to the quality, of service rendered and
not alone on the basis of their years of service.
4. The basis for classifying teachers as to their teaching efficiency should
be systematized, rationalized, and controlled.
There should be something
definite to show upon what the judgment Is based; evidence should he avail-
able to support the final rating.
The factors on which a tenclier is judged
should be carefully selected so as to include the really vital elements. - The
terms used should he so clearly defined that the teacher will not be in doubt
as to what is expected of her.
It is of the highest importance that the Items
listed be understood by those who use them. Confusion and misunderstanding
are inevitable it the supervisor rating and the teacher rating have,a different
interpretation of their meaning.
The rating schedule should enable a teacher
to analyze her own work, to disCover her own strength and weakness, and to
tint out how best to remedy the defects In her teaching.
G. Salary increases should be based on the quality of service rendered as
alumni by the rating of the teacher's efficiency.
In teaching as in other lines
a "wage should be a gauge "more pay should mean larger or finer service.
Mediocre service should not be rewarded by increase in salary, lest all service,
including the best, shall suffer from withdrawal of efficiency rewards.
In-
creases of salary should he conditioned upon demonstrated increased class-
room eilloiebcy.
-
In applying the basic principles which it 'announced the Evanston
teachers' committee urged that tbe board of education adopt (a) a
plan for rating teachers accordinglg,tiskquality of the service which
they render; (b) that as a result of the rating, definite classifications
be established, and that these determine the pay of individual
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
147
teachers; (c) that a specified salary rate'be adopted; and (d) that a
well-deterMined plan- be adopted for the dismisSal of the unfit.
The purpose of the rating plan, as outlined by the teachers, is-
1. To determine the quality of teaching, as a basis for selecting
(a) those who are deserving of promotion with increased salaries;
(b) those who are to be retained without salary increases; and (c
those who should not be retained in service.
2. Tb help teachers discover their own strength a
weakness and
to remedy existing defects in their work.
The following tentative basis for rati
teachers was
recom-
mended :
/
. TENTATIVE BASIS FOR RATING TEACHERS.
I. Personal qualities:
1. General appearance.
2. Health.
3. Voice.
4. Tact.
5. Intellectual capacity.
6. Reliability
7. Initiative.
8. Self-control.
0. Enthusiasm.
10. Sincerity.
II. Social and professional
1. Preparation. academic, and
professional
2. Professional
interest
and
growth.
3. Grasp of subject matterand
daily preparation.
4. Use of English.
5. Understanding of and inter-
est in children-.
6. Relation to associates and
school 1 I fe.
7. Relation
to
parents
and
community.
III. School management:
1. Character of discipline.
2. Guarding physical welfare
of children.
8. Schoolroom housekeeping.
4. Attention to ratine.
IV. Teaching technique:
1. Factors affecting recitation:
(a) Physical conditions.
(b) Attitude of pupil to
work.
1r. Teaching techniqueContinued.
1. Factors
affecting
recita-
tionContinued.
(c) Attitude of pupil to
teacher.
(d) Attitude of teacher to
pupil.
2. Activities of the teacher:
(a) Securing and retain-
ing attention.
b) Selection. and
zation
of
matter.
(c) Motivation.
(d) Character of questions.
(e) Character of Illustra:
tions.
(f) Clearing
up
pupils'
difficulties.
(g) Attention to individual
needs.
(h) Capitalizing child's ex-
perience.
(I) Stimulating initiative.
(j) Courtesy to pupils.
,-
8. Activities of pupils:
(a) Character of responses.
(b) Organization of ma-
terialdifferentiat-
Ing between essen-
tials and nonessen-
tials.
(c) Vdependent thinking
and self-reliance.
.(d) Cooperatloh
with
teachers and other
pupils.
organi-
subject
148
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
IV. Teaching fechniqurCoat inued.
3. Activities of pupilsContd.
(e) Character and extent.
of
questions
by
pupils.
(f) Chaacter and extent
of field work.
4. Assignment of lesson:
(a) I wfiniteness and clear-
ness.
(b) Aubluacy of preview.
(e) Presentation of values.
(d) Reasonableness
Itild
rovishv for excep-
tional
V. Rest/UsContinued.
f). Power
to use and
apply
knowledge gait
3. Powers of init int e and per-
sistence.
4. Powers of IndeSudent judg-
ment and reason.
5. Attitude toward school.
6. Habit of testing results.fiv
7. Skill in performance.
8. Development
of
character
qualities.
9. Development of social mind-
edness.
10. Influence in community.
V. RextiTts:
1. Gain in subject matter.
1. The scale of 1 to 10 is used for the sake of convenience to indicate the
extent to which a quality exists.
Such a markhig is relative;
It can n44, of
course, be considered tin absolute measure. A mark of 10 in self-control, foi
example, does not mean 100 per cent or perfect self-control, but rather that
the person so marked possesses self-control in an unusual degree; while a mark
of 1, 2, or 3, would hidicate the lack of it.
2. The qualities listed are not considered of equal value, neither does the
scale show their relative value.
It is obvioushowevn, that Conte of these %quali-
ties should have vastly more consideration than others in tlekermining th
n-
eral rating of a teacher.
3. The general rating of a teacher therefore can not he found by adding up
the numbers set opposite the different items. A teacher's general rating may
be low, although she is marked very high In many of the items listed.
4. It is recognized that differing standards of excellencp In the minds of dif-
ferent judges must result in differences in judgment.
These standards so far
as possible shoul
be standardized and made objective.
Standards can be es-
tablished-only th
ugh experience and long use of the scale, with such changes
and modifications as are found to he needed.
5. In all cases it is a prime essential that a teacher shall be told and shown the
basis for the rating in any pa
as well at the final general classification
she is given.
All "teachers at Evanston are to be clarified by the sup6rvisors and
nally by the superintendent into five groups, on the basis of the.
quality of service they have rendered.
Five groups are sug:Vested :
1. Those whose.work is of so poor a quality that they should be 'dismissed
from the.service.,
.
.
2. New teachers whose work has been unsatisfactorr but who show stlfficient
promiSe of growth and improvement to justify further trial.
Frequently, it
.happens that a teacher who has done excellent work elsewhere finds it difficult
within a year to adjust herself to new conditions, to new' demands, a\lil 4o
standards which differ from those to which she has been accustomed.
8. Those who show little, if any, improvement over the work of prOious
years.
The results obtained may be fairly satisfactory,- but the fact that a
tpacher is reaching the point where she ceases to grow and improve, places her
n the doubtful class. The work of a teacher IQ this. group soon deteriorates and
PUBLIC EPUCItT!ON IN THE CITIES.
149
V
her value is greatly
reduced.
Teachers whose work is uneven or not con-
, sistentstrong in some lines but weak in othors Millet' are (,ssentinirshould be
classified in this itroue.
4. Those who are strong teachers and do uniformly good work ; who measure
up well in all departments and show improvement from year to year.
5. Exceptional teachers whose work is superb
who possess unusual skill
in teaching and show a large measure in initiatig: resourcefulness and power
in stimulating pupils to achieve the most worth while of the results the school
seeks to accomplish.
It was recommended by the committee of teachers and adopted by
the board of education. that the minimum sulary- should be $75 and
the maximum salary $1,500, and that increases should be granted asl
1f9llows:
For teachers clnesifted in
(a) Group l--no increase; teacher dismissed.
( b) (rou 2no increase
teacher retained for further trial.
4'
(c) Group 3$25 increase.
(d) Group 4$0 increase.
(e) Group 5$75 increase, or more, the merits of each case to be con-
.
sidered and -"4eelded IndividuaVy.
The initial salary f;n any teacher is based on the character of the
teacher's academie
and professional equipment, trie quantity and
quality of her previous experience, and the salary she has been able
to command
r. former position.
DUPLICATE SCHOOLS.
Sufficient data are not at hand to say whether there is any geh-
eral movement in the smaller cities to adopt duplicate schools.
Several superintendents report that they are experimenting with such
cliool with good results.
The duplication school at Monessen, Pa.,
may be given as an example of the possibilities of such schools.
One of the eight-room buildings in that city hits been converted into
a duplicate school.
To the original building pf eight rooms there
were added a gymnasium, auditorium, domestic science, munual train-
ing, art, music, nature study, and application rooms, and a corn-
.
nmnity room,..and library.
The use of the eight regular classrooms and the eight -special rooms
during every part of the school day gives the pupil the advantages
of special activities and special teachers withollt the disadvantages
of extra room occupied only part of the time.
All the drawing is taught by one teacher in the art room, which is
arranged especially for the work.
All the music is taught by a
special teaches in the musio room. A teacker is in the gymnasium
the entire school day, and the different classes go to the gymnasium
for their physical exercises:
While the boys of two classes,are in
the manual-training room, the girls of the same two classes are in
.
*
150
BIENNIAL SURVEY Of' EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
the ilomestic- science room. The teacher in the.library 'or reading
room teaches the supplementary reading to the first, second, and
third grades, and all the reading to the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades.
The basal reading in the primary grades is taught in the regular
classrooms. Spelling; writing, English grammar, arithmetic, his-
tory, and geography are taught by regular teachers in the class-
rooms.
Under the direction of the teacher of expression the
pupils are taught story-telling, dramatization of stories, and other
oral English work. Hygiene and sanitation and nature study are
taught by a special teacher in the nature study and application
room. Thii, puts number work into practice by playing store, for
'which sets of measures and weights, toy money, and different pack-
ages of goods have been supplied.
There are no pupils beyond the
sixth grade in the duplicate school.
The following, program ex-
plains the operation of the school:
6 PUBLIC EDUCATION 'IN THE CITIES.
151.
PROPOSED PROGRAM FOR THE IOWA BUILDII4O.
September, 1917.
ea.
8.50-9.40
I
9.4040.20
10.20-11.00
1
11.05-11.46
1B1.
Exp., M. IV! F.
Handwork.
Nat. S. App., Tu. Th.
classroom.
.
.
1132.
Classroom.
Exp., Y. W. F.
Nat, 8. App., Tu. Th.
Handwork.
1
I Al.
Exp., Tu. Th.
!
Handwork.
Nat. S. App., M. W . F. I
i
Cluwoom.
IA2.
Classroom.
Exp., Tu. Th.
Nat. 8. App., M. W. F.
Handwork.
HO.
Handwork.
1
Exp., M. W. F.
Nat. 8. App., Tu. Th.
Classroom.
II B.
IIA.
Classroom.
P.
Handwork.
M. W. F.
1 Nat.
.
pp., Tu. Th,
II A.
Handwork.
Exp., Tu. Th.
Nat. 8. App., M. W.F.
Classroom.
III B.
Classroom.
Han work:
Exp., Tu. Th.
Nat. S. App., M. W. F.
IIIB.
II IA,
. Art, Tn. Th.
l'hy. Ed., M. W. F.
Music, M. W. F.
Lib., Tu. Th.
Art Tn. Th.
Phys. F.4., H. W. F.
.
.90
Music, H. W. F.
Lib., Tu. Th.
IIIA.
Classroom.
IV B .
Art, M. W. F.
I
Music, Tu. Th.
Phys. Ed., Tu. Th.
:
Lib., 11. W. F.
Classroom.
IVA.
4
Classroom.
Art, M. W. F.
Phys, Sol., Tn. Th,
Cls
asroom.
Music, Tu. Th.
Lib., M. IC F.
.
VB.
Music, M. W. F.
Lib., Tu. Th.
Art, Tu. Tti.
Phys. Ed., H. W. F.
VA.
Classroom.
.
'
Music, H. W. F.
Lib., Tu. Th.
Al% ,1`u. Th.
Phys. Ed., H. W. F.
VI I3.
Music, 'Fn. Th.
Lib., M. W. F.
-.......
Art, IL W. F.
Phys. Ed., Tu. Th.
'Classroom.
..a
VII).
.
Classroom.
.
t
Music Tu. Th.
Lib., M. W. F.
.
Art, M. W. F.
Phys. Ed., Tu. Th.
Noon intermission, 11.45-1.15.
Boys may tabiart walla girls am taking physical sthsaation. Girls may
take art while boys are taking pluvial education.
152
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
PROPOSED PROGRAM FOR THE IOWA BUILDINGContinued.
1.15-1.55
1.55-2.35
2.35-3.15
3.15-3.55
I Bl.
Art Tu. Th.
Phys. Ed., M. W. F.
Music, M. W. F.
Classroom.
Lib., Tu. Th.
IB2.
Classroom.
Art, Tu. Th.
I
Music, M. W. F.
Phys. Ed., M. W. F.
,
Lib., Tu. Th.
SAL
Art M. W. F.
I
Musie Tu. Th.
Phys. Ed., Tu. Th.
I
Lib., M. W. F.
Classroom.
I A2.
Classroom.
Art, M. W. F.
Phys. Ed., Tu. Th.
Music, Tu. Th. c,
Lib., M. W. F.
II B.
Music, M. W. F.
Lib., Tu. Th.
I
Art, Tu. Th.
Phys. Ed., M. W. F.
I
Classroom.
SIB.
IIA.
Classroom.
Music, M. W. F.
Lib., Tu. Th.
Art, Tu. Th.
Phys. Ed., M. W. F.
//A.
III B.
Music, Tu. Th.
Lib M. W. F.
. ,
Art, M. W. F.
I
Phys. Ed., Tu. Th.
Classroom.
Classroom.
...
Music Tu. Th.
I
Art M. W.,.
Lib., M. W. F.
1 Phys. Ed., Tu: Th.
III B.
IIIA.
Exp., M. W. F.
Nat. S. App., Tu. Th.
Handwork.
,.
Classroom.
IIIA ,
Clsssroom.
Exp., M. W. F.
Nat. 8. App., Tu. Ti,.
Handwork.
1
1/713'
Exp., Tu. Th.
Nat. B. A pp., M. W. F.
Handwork.
Classroom.
IVA.
Classroom.
Exp., Tu. Th.
Nat. S. App., M. W. F.
Handwork.
VB.
Handwork.
Exp., M. Ni. F.
NIL S. App., Tu. Th.
-
Classroom.
VA.
Classroom.
Handwork.
Exp, M. W. F.
A
Nat. S.
pp., Tu. Th.
VIB.
Handwork.
.
Exp Tu. Th:
Nat 8. A pp., M. W. F.
Classroom.,
VIB.
Classroom.
lisudwork.
Exp., Tu. Th.
Nat.8. App., M. W. F.
In grade 5, for example, the 5A pupils are in the regular classroom
from 8.50 to 10.20, Ind during the period from 10.20 to 11.45 they
are in one or more of the special rooms. During the period 8.50 to
10.20 the 5B pupils are ih one or more of the special rooms, and dur-
ing the period 10.20 to 11.45 they are in the regular classroom.
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
153
The superintendent of schools at Monessen summarizes the ltd-
vantage of the duplicate school as follows:
It furnishes specialleachers for specialssubjects, like music, drawing, physical
culture, domestic science, and manual training.
It provides these special activities at a less cost by having all rooms occupied
at all times.
It provides library and reading facilities that we can not have In another
school.
It provides better for the exercise of the pupils' natural activities.
In the application room and the handwork rooms the pupil has an opportu-
nity to put into practice his arithmetic, and in the expression room or story-
telling and dramatizing room he has an opportunity for practical oral English.
Our experience so far shows that the children prefer to go to this school.
4
SUPERVISED STUDY.
A few years ago the attention of teachers was called to the fact
that many children fail because they do not know how to study. Not
a few superintendents have, within the past few years, rearranged
the daily program in both the elementary and the high school so that
teachers may have an opportunity to supervise the study of pupils.
Supervised study may no longer be considered an experiment. The
interest in it has become such that several books and numerous maga-
zine articles have been written on the subject.
Teachers' associations
and institutes have taken it up as one of the vital problems in school
management.
The purpose of supervised study is to shift the emphasis from the
recitation period to the study period and to giVe more attention to
methods of study and less attention to testing the pupils to find out
how much they remember of the text. A recitation of 10 minutes
after 30 minutes of supervised study is no doubt better than a recita-
tion of 30 minutes after 10 minutes of study, the amount of time
some pupils give to the studying of a lesson.
Since good habits of
study are more desirable than the mere accumulation of facts, pne of
the important functions of the teacher is to teach children how to
study.
The. results Of supervised study have been reported as good. The
superintendent ot schools at Foxcroft, Me., who made trial of this
method in the elementary grades, reports:
Many of the supposedly dull pupils manifested unusual ability after a short
time, due to the contidencv caused by class discussion and better methods of
study.
Nonpromotions were diminished, and a better standard of work was
obtained in both divisions. The dull pupils were not outstripped in coming to
conclusions by the bright ones; neither did the quicker pupils have to wait for
explanations that were needless to them. At the end of the year the class came
nearer to being all on the same level than they could possibly have been with all
pupils in the same group.
154
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, .I916-1918.
The superintendent of schools at Madison, Ind., who has intro-
duced supervised study into his schools, has distributed to the pupils
the following suggestions as to methods of study which should prove
helpful, especially if the teacher encourages and assists her pupils
to follow the suggestions:
SUGGESTIONS.
1. Make out a regular study program at the beginning of the term for both
school and home study. A regular study program saves time, prevents idleness,
presents a definite task for each period of the day, assures preparation of each
lesson, shows the necessity for home study, and tends to create habits of regu-
larity along all lines.
2. If possible arrange to study a subject Immediately following the recitation
in the subject.
3. Follow your study program regularly every day. Never make an exception
to this rule.
4. Begin to work at tIle beginning of the period. Do not waste time.
5. Provide yourself watt the material the study of thelesson requires at the
beginning of the study period.
0. Begin by reviewing the chief points In the last recitation in the subject to
be studied.
7. Study the assignment.
Be sure you understand it and know what you
are expected to do.
8. Concentrate on the work to be:done. Do not let other things attract your
attention. When you study make a serious bushies.s of it.
Do not dilly daily.
9. Read the lesson through us a whole and get the general idea.
10. Study each paragraph, topic, or problem in detail.
Understand it before
going to the next.
11. Make use of the dictionary: reference books, maps, and all aids available.
12. Stop frequently and think over what you have read.
Relate the new ideas
to old Ideas of a like nature.
18. Make a brief written outline of the chief points.
Close the hook and
think through the lesson following the outline.
14. Review often.
Memorize Important data.
THE WAR AND THE SMALL-CITY scii0of.S.
Schools in, the smaller cities have been influenced by the war in
practically the same way as those in the larger cities. The former
as a result of the war-have in some respects suffered more and in
other respects they have made more advancement relatively than the
latter. In the small city there has been a greater shortage of teachers, ,
owing to the fact that salaries in most of these cities are much less
than in the larger cities. The selective draft called more men from
the schools of the small cities than from the large, since most of the
male teachers in these schools are within the draft age* In some re
spects the small-city schools have made more progress relatively than
the large-city schools. Prior to the war not a few of the former
confined their attention chiefly to the academic subjects. Now most
PUI3LIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIFS.
155
of them have introduced industrial, home economic, and commercial
courses. Many have organized night schools for adults and espe-
daily for the foreign-born adult..
The war has modified the course of study by relating it more in-
timately to actual conditions.
Schoolmen realized that the teaching
of the war should not be deferredittfttil after the historian has ar-
ranged the events in chronological order and has sifted and inter-
preted the factt Practically every school in the smaller cities has
been teaching the causes of the war.-- Many schools have followed
the movements of the armies from day to day by means of bulletin
hoards.
Discussions in connection with lessons in history, geog-
raphy, English composition. and literature haye been common. In-
cidental instruction regarding the war can and should lie provided
through the opportunities offered by the regular school subjects. It
has been found that a good time to impress the causes and events
of the war upon the minds of the children is when Liberty Loans
are being floated and when subscriptions for the Red Cross are being.
solicited.
However, if definite results are to be obtained, instruc-
tion regarding the war must be more than incidental, incidental in-
struction in school subjects having proved a failure. There must be
systematic instruction, there must be some aim, and not the teaching
of a few unrelated facts here and there, and now and then, in con-
nection with the other school sublItct.
Some schools have made a systematic study of the war by means
of an outline prepared under the direction of the superintendent.
Such an outline prepared by the superintendent and teachers at
Fargo, N. Dak., may be given as en illustration of what it is possible
for a school to do to make a systematic study of the war. The out-
line was prepared to suit the different grades The outline for the
sixth grade is given herewith:
OUTLINE OF WAR STUDY AT FARGO, N. DAK.
I. The Army.
1. Regular.
2. National Guard.
3. National Army (first call).
IT. The geography of the warring nations,
III. Social and political conditions among the warring nations.
I. Suffrage.
2. Condition of
(a) Poorer classes.
Day laborers; wages.
(b) Middle Classes.
(c) Upper classes.
8. Clam distinctions.
4. Opportunities for the common people.
5. Position of women.
156
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
III. Social and political conditions among the warring nationsContinued.
8. Government.
7. Compare with the United States.
8. Immigration to the United States.
Why?
IV. Military organizations of-
1. Germany.
2. Austria.
S. Russia.
4. Italy.
5. France.
q. England.
7. United States.'
V. The Hague Tribunal.
1. Its history.
2. Attempts at arbitration.
8. Attempts at disasinament.
VI. The Monroe Doctrine. Attitude of Germany toward it.
VII. The war.
Why we are in the war.
(a) Invasion of Belgium.
(b) Sliking of the Lusitania; President's message.
(c) Stnkink of the Sussex; President's message.
(d) Submarine warfare.
(e) Making the world safe for democracy.
VIII. The naval battle of Heligoland, illustrating nse of dreadnaughts, 1 attla
cruisers, torpedo-boat destroyers, torpedo boats, and submarines.
IX. Movement for peace.
1. The Hague'rribunal.
The work of Carnegie.
2. Czar of Russia and his disarmament proposition.
8. Treaties made upon the advice of Mr. Bryan.
X. The Red Cross.
1. Its history.
2. Its purpose.
8.Tell the story of Florence Nightingale.
Rend the poem to her by
Longfellow.
XI. Y. M. C. A.
Its purpose in relation to the war.
XII. Conservation.
Elimination of waste:
(a) Clean plate and empty garbage can.
(b) Quit feeding useless pets.
(c) Getting full value for money.
(d) Government fixing prices.
XIII. Tell how the different countries finance the war.
The war has modified the method of teaching many of the school
subjects. The teaching of English composition has been vitalized
through the discussion of topics relating to the war.
Compositions
based upon some event of the war have taken the place of those on
topics in which the pupil had no, or at least only a remote, interest.
One of 'the most powerful means of vitalizing instruction in English
has been the Aunior Four Minute Men talks. New meaning has peen
given to history and geography by teaching about present-day hap-
PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE CITIES.
157
penings and the work the world is now doing. In the manual train-
ing shop and in the home economics rooms a motive now prevails,
while heretofore the pupils in many schools in the smaller cities did
" exercises " in manual training and in cooking and sewing. Now
they are making things in the manual training shop tkat have a real
use. Sewing is for some purpose, making material for the Red Cross;
cooking has been put on a more rational basis, the children being
taught food values and food conservation. The art teacher has like-
wise vitalized her work. Instead of mere exercises, she, has had her
pupils make posters for LibertjLoan, War Saving Stamp, and Red
Cross campaigns. There is scarcely a school subject that has not
been made more alive by relating it to actual conditions. The prin-
ciple that school work should be related to life has long been advo-
cated and but little practiced. The war has been a means of relating
school work to life.
Before the war We smaller city schools as a rule gave but little at-
tention to home gardening under the direction of the schools. A few
were, however, experimenting with this kind of school work.
In
almost a day practically every small city school system became inter-
, ested in gardenihg under the direction of a supervisor. Many teach-
ers have volunteered their services during the summer months. In
sdme places the supervisors are employed by the school board. This
is the better plan.
In a very small city the principal of schools
could well devote part of his time to the supervision of home garden-:
ing.
In other cities the instructor of science or teachers especially
interested in nature study should be employed for the entire year,
so that during the summer months they may supervise the garden
work.
Most of the small-city schools report that they have dropped Ger-
man from the high-school course of study. In those schools in which
German has been the only modern foreign language offered, French
or Spanish has been substituted. Owing to our close relations with
the French people and ourinterest in them, the teacher of the French
language now haiPan opportunity to vitalize the subject which she
has never had before. Many children will be interested in learning
the language so that they may write letters in French to their broth-
ers or friends now in France, and they will be interested in learning
to Speak the language so that they may converse in French with
'those returning from France. These motives, it is true, are not the
real ones for studying the language, but they are so bear that the
teacher can not afford to neglect them.
Within the last few years physical training has received a power-
ful impulse.
Of the schools reporting, practically all have taken
steps toward the better care of the child's health. Some have intro-
'
158
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
duced military training, others have introduced systematic physical
education. Many have employed a school physician or nurse,9r
both.
Greater advancement has been made in the schools of 4lie
States of New York and New Jersey than elsewhere, owing to the fact
that the State law in each of these States requires physical training
as a part of the 'course of study.
As good results may be expected
in the other .States that require physical training.
In those States
where no such law has been enacted the more progressive cities have
made physical training a part of the school work.
Since such. train-
ing has been found to be necessary, the State should require it of
every school and not leave its adoption to local initiative, because
some cities never will have initiative enough to introduce a course in
physical training.
It is wound theory that the State should require
every school to teach those subjects that are of most value to the
individual and to the State and not leave the introduction of vitally
important subjects to the whims of a local community. Eve' State
requires that reading, writing, and arithmetic be taught, these being
considered the "tools," and that it is necessary for every one to have .
a thorough mastery, of them, so that they may have the means of be-
coming intelligent citizens.
Every State should require physical
training of every child so that he may become an efficient citizen.
Not until this is done will small city schools introduce systematic
physical training, though the war has made thelbeed of such training
apparent.
Thus we might continue to enumerate the influence of the war upon
the schools.
In brief, every school in the smaller cities has engaged
in some kind of war 'stork.
In some of these the schools have under-
taken to do everything that was suggestedRed Cross work, selling
Liberty Bonds and Thrift Stamps, demonstration lessons in food
conservation, gardening, etc.
Through the school children much of
the information regarding the war, food conservation, etc., has been
disseminated..
Though the wilr has entered the schools, school men have not been
unmindful of the fact that a state of war is unnatural and that the
'fundamental studies ought not to be' crowded out by war activities.
Superintendents and teachers have, however, found that they can
vitalize the regular school subjects by introducing the war into the
schools.
They have found that the war offers. an opportunity to
train children in the service of the State.
It is true that in peace
time opportunity exists for the same kind of training, but the Milne-
diets need is not so keenly felt.
'"4-4*,
CHAPTER VI.
RURAL EDUCATION.
By H. W. FOOJIT,
Specialist in Rural Schaal Practice.
CoNTEsrs.introductoryAdminIstratton and supervision of rural schoolsIncreased
financial support for the rural schools Teachers' salariesOrganization of the
rural schools--Growth In rural high schools--Vocational education and the Smith-
Hughes ActThe rural school course of studyStatus of teachers for the rural
stehools--National Rural
Teachers'
Reading CircleComminslons and
committees
organized for the advancement of rural education and life--Rurikkichool surveys
Publications on rural education of the Bureau of Education.
INTRODUCTORY.
Rural education and the war emergency.The war has served to
accentuate many marked weaknesses in our rural school system. For
years devoted leaders in this important educational field have carried
forward a propaganda to enlist local and national interest in the
matter, and not altogether without success.
In many sections of
the country splendid schools have been organized that fit into every
requirement of modern agricultural communities. Whole States are
going through the process of reorganizing the primitive one-room
schools for effective rural leadership; but, unfortunately, it can not
be said that this movement has yet gone far enough to affect rural
education fundamentally for the Nation as a whole.
The annual reports of the Commissioner of Education disclose
that about one-half of the Nation's children are enrolled in the village
and open-country schools.
These twelve million children are labor-
ing under distinct educational disadvantages.
So far as the -open-
cquntry schools are concerned, fully two hundred thousand of these
schools may still be classed as one-room schools of pioneer type, which
but poorly meet the needs of modern agricultural life.
Their
teachers are largely immature, inexperienced, poorly trained, and of
limited vision of rural needs ana problems. The school year is much
shorter than it ought to be, enrollment of school population is in many
States low, daily attendance is often irregultNand compulsory-
attendance laws are not always enforced as theyshould be. The
course of study in the small schools is often badly planned and the
subjects poorly taught, and financially they are meagerly supported
in comparison with what is invested in education elsewhere.
Recent
educational surveys have disclosed that in Certain States the level of
school education must be measured by about six and one-half years
- 160
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
of school attendance for, the villages and less than five years for the
rural districts.
Such limited education can not furnish the intelli-
gent leadership required at this present time of entrance upon the
new era of scientific agriculture.
general reconstruction of rural education likely.The world war
brought home to the general public what educators have long known,
that there are in the United States between five and a half and six
million illiterate adults, and that more than one-half of these people
live in rural sections where there are little or no school facilities.
Likewise, there is a public realization that a large proportion of the
ill-taught millions of. aliens' live in rural communities, left there
largely to their own resources and inclinations in educational mat-
ter. In many States they are grouped in large settlements speaking
foreign tongues and using their native language as a medium of in-
struction in the schools.
This littS delayed the assimilation process
and has been at the root of many un-American practices disclosed by
the war.
The war emergency, therefore, found rural education poorly or-
ganized to cope with the serious problems of war and the period of
reconstruction that will follow the war. The period of isolation in
American rural life is gotte, and the period of international commer-
cial
at hand. This demands an organized
ural
life based on the right type of educated leadership, and t
come
only through the bet kind of rural school education.
le eturning -
soldiers who have dealt with large issues, and others who have been
drawn into great measures of industrial efficiency for war and peace,
will not be content to go back to the old ways in rural communities.
What is more, the women who haye remained at Iffeilt have in a
measure stood still educationally while the men have grown. They
also need the vitalizing influence of a new, much-embracing edu-
cation.
Federal aid for rural education.The problem of education in
rural communities has attained too vast a magnitude to be left en-
tirely to local and sectional control.
The war emergency attracted
many of the.best teachers into Government activities; the draft called
many of the men teachers to their country's standard. This left the
rural schools shorthanded and manned largely by inexperienced
teachers.
To remedy these serious conditions is to much for the
ordinary locality. It is a matter for national consideration. As it is
national in scope, it requires national aid for %atisfactory solution.
Federal cooperation and financial aid for the development of rural
education might well be extended to the several States on the basis of
real merit, to include the following:
1. All-year schools organized to Meet the needs of all the people,
young and old alike.
RURAL EDUCATION.
161
2. Teachers of good academic and professional preparation and
broad teaching experience.
3. Teaching process preparing the people to meet their responsibili-
ties and opportunities of citizenship and helping them make a good
living from the land.
ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS.
Progress in the administration of rural schools. School organiza-
tion in the United States has developed from the needs 'of community
life in the different sections of the country.
In pioneer days school
organization was wholly a community enterprise, each group of fami-
lies organizing and supportig its own school is best it could.
From
these often far-separated group cehters, school organization began
as an outward deyelopment, coinciding as a rule utimately with the
geographical unit established for civil administration.
Historically
this has given the country three distinct types of school organiza-
tion district, town (township), and county.
The district, which was the original pioneer organization, still 'pre-
vails in many sections of the country, chiefly in the Middle West and
West. The, town organizatiois the basis for school administration
in all of New England, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and parts of Michi-
gan, Iowa, and South Dakota. The county unit has prevailed from
the first in the South and has more recently been extended in some
form to several Middle Western and Western States.
The district unit, which in the early days was the only kind of
organization possible, has largely outlived its usefulness as a unit of
school organization and administration.
Unquestionably it is the
cause of much of the inefficient and ineffective schools to be found
in many sections.
In the States organized on the district basis the
prevailing tendency is toward the county unit, which, if rightly
organized, offers a large enough area for the introduction of equable
taxation and equalized educational opportunities.
However, the county unit must be planned to alloy patrons of the,
schools a certain amount of local initiative and responsibility or it
will fail because of fop much central control, as the district unit-has
failed because of too much local control. Syveral States that are
organized on the county basis have placed dil educational matters,
including taxation, in the hands of the singli county board of educa-
tion, leaving the local school communitiWwithout any direct repre-
sentation or right- to levy local taxes. 'This teas proved an unfor-
tunate practice in many places.
The best plan appears to be to retain
a representative for each school community who shall represent the
needs of his own school before the county board.
Likewise, while
the county should properly be the unit for general taxation for ordi-
171029°-21-11U11.
162'
BIENNIAL SURVEi OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
nary school maintenance, every local school community should have
the right of taxation for extraordinary purposes, such as improving
its school plant, buying sites and lands for agricultural experimenta-
tion, increasing teachers' salaries abOve the county maximum, etc.
At the present time 19 States are organized wholly or in part on the
county unit basis for school administration. Of these Alabama,
Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland. North Carolina,
Tennessee, Utah, and New Mexico may be classed as of the pure
county type; that is. in which practically the entire management of
the schools rests with the county board of education, with such local
assistance as has proved most advantageous. New Mexico is the last
State to adopt the county unit.
In 1915 the 'State legislatc passed
a county unit bill for tax purposes, and the legislature of 1917 made
the county the unit for all administrative putrposes as well.
Says
State Supt. J. Howard. Wagner, speaking of the success of-the new
plan:
We now have the county board of education, which has charge of all the
schools In the county.
This Is pimving a wise provision, as it centralizes aim
administration of the county schools.
It has already stopped all financial leaks,
and 'better qualified teachers are being employed.
It is a great deal mare
economical than the old system, as all counties are requited to work under the
budget system.
Prof enional Fuperriftion of rural RehooM.The teachers of the
open county, whose problems are assuredly the most perplexing in the
whole field of education, have suffered for want of expert professional
supervision.
If many have failed to achieve success, it has been, in
large measure, because they have not had that close and expert
guidance commonly found in large town and city schools. The whole
plan of organization has been at fault, or perhaps, more correctly,
circumstances beyond public control have conspired 'to make condi-
tions what they are.
Rural school supervision in many States has been
limited to incidental inspectjon. The newness of the country. the
rapid.westward expansion, and othei transitions in rural life explain.
Prevailing conditions; but the schools of the new era of scientific agni-
culture demand more than this ,perfunctory inspection. System is
needed. There must be organization and leadership. This is par-
ticularly true at the present time when teachers; tasks are becoming
greatly multiplied.
The many war duties and the after-war reor-
ganization require of the teachers real community leadership. To
give them the necessary help there must be created a staff of school,
supervisors, both local and State, in addition to the county and dis.
trict superintendents, who must conanue to devote much of their
time to office practice and mere school 'inspection:
Some real progress is being made in many states in professional
super4ision.
In some there are expert supervisors working under
.
.
RURAL EDUCATION.
168
the direction of the county and district superintendents.
In others
there are the so- called " helping teachers," or " supervising teachers."
Many State departments of education have added to the reiltilarstaff
men and women who devote all their time to directing the work
of the local supervisors. This is bearing good fruit.
lremhington.This State has organized its State departmtint of&
education fur the purpogie of extending more effective help to rural
life and education. There are now in the department one expert
in rural education who devotes his entire time to work with the county
superintendents, one community center organizer who plans the or
ganization)of rural communities with the school and teachers' home
as center.
There is also a State rural life commission centered in
the department of education, and a boys' and girls' club Worker who
cooperates with the representatives of the Federal Government for
the promotion of school and home projects.
Marytand.PrQvision has been made for 4.he appointment of ei
mentary school supervisors in such a way that each county with 100
teachers or more mustJiave-at least one specially trained school super-
visor in addition 6 the county superintendent, the attendance offi-
cer. and the statistical clerk. The first of these supervisors in each
county shall under law have charge of the- rural schools.
kenthekll.This State has recently introduced professional super-
vision fur both white and colored scitools.
At the present time 3
VVIiite supervisors are engaged in 24 counties.
Eighteen colored su-
pervisors likewise are at work in as many counties where they are
maintained by the General Education Board andthe Jeanes Board.
The latter devote practically all their time to supervision of voca-
tional subjects.
Wext T'irginin.---This State, which was one of the first4o sub-
divide its counties for supervision purp4ses, has as many as four
supervisors in certain counties. Good progress is reported.
Fermont.Three years ago a law was enacted making provision
for State-wide supervision of schools.
All superintendents arf now
appointed and paid by the State hoard of education. The average
salary of these superintendents during the paSt year has been about
$1,800, with an allowance of $12:i for expenses.
Montana.This State is making good progress in school adminis-
tration and superVision.
Speaking on this subject, State Supt. May
Trumper says:
The administration of the rural schools in Montana has been greatly im-
proved because of the fact that we'now have two rural school supervisors
working -in very clo.se cooperation with the"county ,superintendents.
During
the past year our rural school supervisors had visited practically all counties
two times.
They have held many community meetings, nt Which times many
problems dealing with administration of rurarschoels have been diticussed with
trustees, county supertitendents,- and teachers..
164
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
S
Professional supervision typified in Jefferson County, Ala.This
county may be taken as 'typical of the best organization to attain
professional supervision of schools and teachers.
The plan is sum-
marized in the following statement:
1. Subdivision of the county into 11 districts containing about 18 schools each.
In charge of each of these districts is a supervising principal who devotes his
entire time to supervision. He travels among the schools, directs teachers'
meetings, 'reading circle work, makes requisitions for his supplies. conducts
sample lessons, acts as critic teacher, etc.
These ttupervisors made 6,605 visits
last year.
2. An assistant superintendent is placed in charge of theilepartment known
ns " Teacher Training in Service."
He has meetings with his teachers on
Saturdays, selects reading matter for them, has charge of the rending circle
work for the county, assists in the employment of teachers, and determining
the standard for employment.
3. The professional requirements have been increased until now It is neces-
sary for one employed to teach in this county to hold a normal-school diploma
or its equivalent. or, In lieu of this, a high-school diploma with two years' suc-
cessful experience elsewhere.
. .4. There are 12 consolidation schools, to which pnpils are conveyed at pub-
lic expense.
There are also about 40 union schools: that Is, Schools made by the
conaolidatlim of two smaller schools, but without transportation.
Of the 130
white schools, only 28 are one-teacher schools; of the 75 colored schools, only
35 are one-teacher schools.
5. During the year 04 night sehools were conducted in rural districts for six
weeks. using the teachers employed In day work, these teachers tieing paid
at public expense; 1,23(1 pupils. were enrolled in the high schools, 2117 of these
being Illitecat* and 457 near - illiterates, as it was necessary for them to.begin
with the primer.
6. The county has tFo agricultural Instrnetors under Smith-Hughes work,
with n salary of $2.406 each.
7. -'our new eight -room consolidated schools have been built durilig the
year. three of these 'being on the one-story extensible-unit plan.
Fiftebn other
buildings have been remodeled or enlarged.
Five acres of ground are required
for each of these new buildings.
INCREASED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE RURAL gCHOOLS..
The most serious problem confrontPng the rural schools at this
time of excessively high costs is financial. If rural children are to
get opportunities for education equ4alent to those afforded city
children, much-more money must be expended for their education
than has been done in the past. Not alone is less money being ex-
pended, child for child, in rural communities than in the industrial
places, but if milli children are to get this equal. advantage, even
more money must be expended than is now beingitivested on the edu-
cation of city children, for the reason that educatibn in rural corn-
munitiaa.will always be more expensfre than in the larger schools in
organized centers.
In rural listricts with the ninny school plants,
the ratio of teachets to pupils will alwafa continue larger than in the
.
RURAL EDUCATION.
165
cities. The upkeep, fuel, etc., cost more in the rural schools. Trans-
portation facilities have to be provided and teachers' salaries in-
creased if good teachers are to be obtained. In some sections rural
teachers are beginning to be paid more than teachers of the grade
schools, in order to keep them in the country schools at all.
There is urgent need for serious readjustment in the prevailing
methods of school taxation. So long as schools are supported chiefly
through local taxation it will be difficult to obtain funds required
to give rural children the advantages equal to those enjoyed by city
children.
The country needs progressive legislation in this field.
State, county, and local taxation should be resorted to.
It is emi-
nently fair that the State as a whole be taxed for the educatiOn of all
of its citizens.
This rate of taxation should not exceeil in any case
more than one-third of the entire school maintenance of the State
and be distributed among the schools as an award of merit.
The
county may properly bear the mint- burden of .taxation, this to be
used for such general school maintenance as teachers' salary, upkeep
of school property, etc., and.Should be apportioned on the basis of
aggregate daily attendance and the number of teachers employed.
Finally, the local school community should retain the right of levying
taxes for extraordinary purposes, otherwise local initiative might die
-for want of proper stimulus.
Increased Setae appropriations for the schools. Practically all
of the States that make uski of State taxation for school purposes
have been obliged recently to increase their levies greatly, and coun-
ties and local communities have followed suit in order to maintain
the schools at the present standards of efficiency:
Maryland reports
its State appropriation fos public schools increased in 19l8 from
$1,750,000 to $2,000,000. In adition to this,-bonuses ranging from
$50 to. $100 are being paid teachers who remain in their schools
throtighdut the year. North Dakota has increased the amount of
State aid for standardizatioh and consolidation of rural sc14ols from
$120,000 to $225,000. Other States are doing as much or more than
these.
TEACHERS' SALARIES.
Public school teaching is the poorest paid of all professions, if the
imetnd cost of professional preparation are taken intoconsideration.
Because of this the American teacher is transient and et short tenure.
'Many teachers, unfortunately, make the calling a stepping stone to
other life ceilings.
At the present- time with its unprecedented
opportunities in industrial activities, a serious exodus from the pro-
fessiOn is threatened.
Indeed, many teachers, particularly rural
teachers, have already abandoned teaching for other activities.
(See
p
166
BIENNIAL strawy OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
the chapter on Preparation of Public School Teachers, Biennial
Survey of Education, 1916-19180 Many States, in their efforts to
stop the exodus, hive taken steps to increase their teachers' salaries
liberally, although even larger increases will be necessary to keep the.
best men and women in the schools.
The following are some of the
increases in salary lists reported to the bureau for the year 1918:
Maine.Salaries increased about 25 per cent.
Montana.Very few schools pay less than $70 per month in rural
communities.
Most of the schools range from $85 to $100 pee month
or more for experienced teachers.
illarylayul.The legislature of 1918 increased the minimum salary
for high-school teachers from $600 to $800 for the different kinds of
certificates.
White elementary- school teachers of three, five, and
eight years' experience will receive salary increases based on kind of
certificare. and length of experience, as follows:
Salaries of elementary- school leachers.
Grade of certificate.
Becinninc
I
;
tedeners.
Three
evrs'
eC perlellee
Five
ears
experience
Fight
years'
experience.
Third
Poo
1423
14511
1475
Second
4.30
473
5,
523
First
;AU
323
5.%0
530
575
6011
650
Kentucky.A. law has recently been passed ping -the minimum
salary for teachers of the second class at $45, and of the first class
at $55.
Pennsylvania.The
following minimum
salaries
have
been
adopted: Provisional certificate, $45 per month; professional and
normal - school certificate, $55 per month; permanent certificate,1360
per month. The. salaries of teachers in rural community vocational
schools have risen steadily.
Principals of vocational high schools
receive from $1,200 to $1,800, teachers of agriculture from $1,200 to
$2,000. Vocational supervisors and home-economics teachers receive
$100 per month, and other teachers of this type of rural school from
$75 to $125 per month.
WashingtmIncreases in teachers' salaries for 1918 range from
15 to 20 per cent. Teabhers are generally being engaged by the year
-instead of for a nine months' period.
Wyaming.Salaries of rural teachers range as a minimum from
$70 to $90 per month and as a maximum from $100 to $125 per month.
Vermont.There has been an increase the past year of about 12
per cent in the salaries of rural-school teachers.
These teachers, are
now almost invariably employed by the year.
RURAL EDUCATION.
167
ORGANIZATION
THE RURAL SCHOOLS.
Improvement of one-teacher schools where centralization is imprac-
tiable.There are proliably 212,000 schools of the one-teacher type
still in use in rural communities, the only means of education open to
the large majority of rural children.
It is now accepted as good na-
tional policy to reorganize the small schools to meet the needs of the
new era of commercial agriculture. Many of these schools can never
be converted into large centralized schools for topographical and
other reasons.
In broken mountain districts or in sections of the
country cut by streams and ragged coast lines, or in sparsely settled
regions, such reorganization is seldom feasible and should not be
urged.
If, on the other hand, these natural obstacles do not exist,
the centralization movement should be championed rationally and
emphatjcally.
The changing 'conditions leading to modern country,
life have proved utterly beyond the abilities of the small one-teacher
school. Nowadays it is necessary to charge the school with a multi-
tude, of responsibilities which formerly devolved on the hotne.
Otaly
where there are exceptional teachers in charge of the small school
can this 'become a truly community school. In many instances it fail!,
in the larger purpose and remains an institution furnishing at best
a meager measure of the fundamental subjects.
Reasonable standards. For the future it would seem that a really
effective one-teacher school should be standardized around such edu-
cational essentials as these:
1. A teacher with specialized preparation and willingness to make
rural community teaching his permanent occupation.
2. A school plant organized on the all-year plan, equipped to pro-
vide an education fully related to rural life and its needs.
3. A course of instruction and methods of teaching in accord with
the needs and nature of agricultural people.
Looking toward the all-year school.The new standard requires,
fir.., of all, a teacher who has preferably had his professional train.-
ihg in one of the special schools for rural teachers, a person of rural
mind and in love with rural' life, who understands its difficult prob-
lems. Ile must be hired by the year, living at the school in a home
provided by the community.. The school premises should contain 5
acres ("r more of,land, preferably more. The school building should
be planned with full equipment for experimental agriculture and.
gardening, home economics, and manual training. There should also
be ample room for community rallies.
The chie\f departure in the
new school plant is the teacher's cottage.
Some real, progress has been made the last few years in the con-
struction of homes in. connection with such schools, as these. The
State of Washington reports 196 teachers' cottages erected and many
168
BIENNIAL SURVEY OFcEDUCATION, 1918-1918,
others underway. Many of these form a part of the one-teacher
school plants, while others are erected at the consolidated schools.
Wyoming reports that many cottages have been erected during the
past year.
Texas now counts upward of 200 cottages, and several
other States are accomplishing almost as much.
All-year schools of
this type would hold out real inducements to strong married teachers
to take charge of the schools and would make it quite possible for the
teacher to conduct many outdoor activities of the school during the
summer months.
.4 better type of school consolidation.It is probality safe to say
that the period of experimentation in school consolidation has passed.
The movement, has now been accepted as good national policy. The
important thing at the present time is to see that school consolidation
shall come in its best form.
Otherwise, little will be gained by dis-
placing the old type of education. There are about 10,500 consoli-
dated schools in the iTnited States in 1918. These are schools, with
two or more teacher's, resulting from the centralization of two or
more schools,li.oviding facilities of the graded-school type.
The
most satisfactory type of consolidated school is planned to give the
rural community just the kind of education required by an agricul-
tural population.
Broadly cultural and yet practioal ; preparing
them for happy, wholesome, remunerative living on the land. Many
of the early consolidated schools were planned as big graded schools
offering courses of study in no wise adapted to the needs of rural
districts. The riew schools are organized with a view to preparing
for the new agricultural era a permanent farming population of
highest ideals. The last two years have witnessed the organization
of many exceptional schools of this type. The brief statement of the
Sargent Consolidated School in Colorado which follows is typical
of .what is being accomplished in many. States:
The Sargent Consolidated School, a Colorado county life institution.It
takes time to complete such a school plant as that of the Sargent Consolidated
School, and it was not until January, 1918, that the new building was occupied,
being then unfinished.
It was dedicpted and christened April 23. at which
time 50 autos were parked on the grounds and more than 500 enthusiastic
country people were packed Into the large school and community auditorium
to witness the event to which they had looked forward with so much pleasure.
VA
This fine modern $35,000 school building was scarcely finished when another
bond issue for $18,000 was voted. ,With this an 8-room building is being
erected to aerVe as a home for the superintendent. The contract is also let
for a 10-room teacherage for the other eight teachers, and the plans are drawn
amid approved for a garage, 40 by 70 feet, with a gymnasium in the basement.
In this most modern and up-to-date rural school plant $53,000 has already
a expended or contracted for.
These people have not only provided for the
nt, but have anticipated their future needs for years to come. The
building itself is complete in every detail. It is a beautiful structure, well
designed for all the lines of work that should be carried on in a modern rural
RURAL EDUCATION.
169
school.
It has standard classrooms sufficient to accommodate 500 children.
It has a large school and communky auditorium for both school and neigh-
borhood meetings.
It has well-equipped agricultural and domestic science
laboratories, and a manual-training shop, these three lines of work being intro-
duced the first year.
Thirty boys, each of whom owns a registered gilt, have
organized a pig club.
Already pigpens and chicken coops dot the rear of the
10-acre school site.
A gasoline engine furnishes water under pressure for
drinking fountains, lavatories, and toilets, and generates electricity for lighting
the building, as well as for charging the storage batteries of the auto busses
used in transportation.
It is still further utilized as laboratory equipment in
the study of electricity and auto repairs.
The first varl."08 children enrolled, 30 of these being in the new high school.
At present 320 school children live in the district, and it is estimated that
300 of these will he in school next year, with 50 in the high school.
Last year 180 children were transported to and from school in five large
Studebaker busses, a few riding 14 miles each way. Two more busses of the
same kind have been purchased, and next year at least 240 children will be
transported.
All of the-nine teachers, each of whom has had either a college or normal
training, are nicely and comfortably provided for in the two large new teacher-
ages now being erected by the district.. No more itinerant teachers, coming
into the district Monday morning and returning to some town early Friday
afternoon, for this district.
They are expected to live in the district and to
Identify themselves with the community life therein.
Moreover, each teacher
will be employetLbecause of some special preparation and fitness fur work in a
. rural school and rural community.
The superintendent is a young man with a
vision, and already has earned a reputation as a cOnonunity builder.
.-
This school has also been approved for Federal aid in home economics tinder
the Smith-Hughes Act.
'The following summary by States gives some ideof the progress
in a few of the States making reports for 1918:
The New England section of States centralizes its rural schools
more generally.by closing unnecessary small schools and conveying
charen at public expense to the remaining schools. This tends to
remlly teacher shortage, and. at the same time provides a better
graddd school as well.
Maine reports having 3josed many schools
during the year, conveying the children to stronger and better schools.
Rhod
Island reports that school consolidation has progressed as
far as it can in the State without overdoing consolidation to tle
detrimI
nt of some of the schools. South Dakota., a State in whicri
school consolidation is of recent origin, reports 42 new consolidated
-schools.
'Maryland and Kentucky, like New England, depend more on clos-
ing the sniall unnecessary schools and conveying the children to
larger schools of one and two teachers.
Kentucky thus has only 79
consolidated schools, 12 of them with transportation, while it hirs
1,084 rural schools with two or more teachers. These are_gf the
so called union-school type.
170
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
In New Mexico school consolidation is making rapid progress,
particula4 in the irrigated sections, where many large fine con-
solidated schools have been organized during the last biennium.
Washington has steadily increased the number of its consolidated
schools,.there. now being 22 such institutions in the State.
" It is
true in this connection," says the State superintendent of education,
"that good roads follow consolidation of school districts in very
many instances."
In North Dakota 52 consolidated schools have opened their doors
during the year and 60 new consolidations were voted.
The total
number of consolidated schools in actual operation are 447.
West Virginia has established 120 consolidated schools, 20 being
organized during 1918.
Pennsylvania, on account of its difficult topography, has made
sonIewhat slow progress in consolidation of schools.
However, as
may, be seen from the following sununary, compiled by the State
board of education, some real progress is being made:
Number of one-room schools In the
tate
9, 875
Number o! two-room schools In the state
1, 320
Number of one-room schools having an average attendance of 12 or less
1,715
Number of townships where complete consolidation would be feasible
552
Number of schools or schoolrooms closed us u result Q f consolidation In
the lust 10 years_
715
Number of the above that were one-room schools
684
Number of pupils being transporte,' to centralized consolidated or joint
schools
6.201
Number of vans, couches, or wagons used for transportation
The consolidated schools of Iowa are, moat of them, of excellent
type. The legal provision for State aid requires a large land area
to be used for playgrounds .and experimental purposes.
This has,
from the first, given the consolidated schools of the State. a decided
agricultural bent. Many of the schools are township-consolidated
schools; i. e., they serve the educational purposes of an entire con-
gressional township. Many of them'have well-organized four-year
high-school departments. The following is a summary of school
consolidation in the State:
Up to June 30, 1917, 235 consolidated districts were organized.
Thirty-five thousand4 boys and girls have passed from the one-room school
to a standard graded school.
The advantages of the standard high school have been given to 0.590 buys
and &le.
About 3,700 of these high-school boys and girls are from rural districts.
The new schools furnish hlgb- school facilities not alone for their own dis-
trict but for neighboring districts which pay tuition.
Better grade teachers are secured by the payment of about $5 per month on
the average above what is paid in the one-room schools, and this at a less
average cost per
RURAL EDUCATION.
171
About $5,000,000 have been expended for new buildings, grounds, and equip-
ment.
The equipment of these schools is equal to that found in the best city in-
dependent districts.
The course of study has been revised to give at least one year of industrial
.
training in the subjects of manual training, domestic science, and agriculture,
under the direction of a trained teacher.
number a instance$ special classes have been organized for the instruc-
tion of o'der boys and girls who halve dropped out of the one -room school
ithout completing the eighthgrade work.
This work has been curried in the form of winter courses extending from
December 1 to March 15.
Two hundred and forty-five thousadd dollars has been expended for State
'aid for consolidation. No money expended by the State has brought greater
returns than this.
The State aid has not been given these districts as a gratuity but in return
for the expenditure of a much larger amount on the part of local districts for
school purposes.
The schools have become demonstration schools for the State
of lama and are thus encouraging other communities to reorganize their small
schools.
GROWTH IN RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS.
One of the most urgent problems in rural education is to provide
the people with easily accessible rural high sch
The perc
tage
of country people educated in secondary schools o
ural
ype is
disappearingly small, in contrast with those who have simi ar facil-
ities at the industrial centers.
Rural people who are favorably situ-
ated with regard to town high-school facilities take advantage Of
the latter, although this school often tends to draw the farming class
away from agricultural activities into other callings.
It is well to
reemphasize here that city high schools are,organiZed for city chil-
dren.
Similarly, rural high schools 'should be organized foe rural
children.
Some people, and farmers among them, hold the false
opinion that to differentiate between city and country people in edu-
cational affairs is a discrimiation against country children.
This
knowledge is based on the assumption that city life is superior to
country life, which, to those who understand it best, is really the
only normal Anierican life there is.
The present movement is to establish rural high schools of an
agricultural type in the open country or in the rural villages. The
purpose is to organize the course- of study to suit the needs of its
agricultural environment.
Many States report good progress in establishment of rural high.
schools during the year. Many of these offer night-school courses
for adults, including aliens, who may here obtain their first lessons
in American citizenship, short courses for people. beyond school age
during the winter months, extension courses planned in cooperation
with the State colleges, and other progressive activities for Elie whole
community.
172
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION 1916-19181
The ultimate solution of rural school organization in rural com-
munities will probably be the adoption of the 6, 3, and 3 plan.
That
is to say, a plan to reduce the number of years in the one - teacher
schools to six,which will make it possible to lengthen class recitations
and accordingly help the teacher to provide more and better instruc-
tion for the several pupils than in the past.
The more favored
localities will plan to offer a prevocational junior high-school course
of three years, in addition to the six years of elementary-school
work. Many of these will be open country schools.
Finally, a few
centers will offer both junior and senior high-school work of an
agricultural typethis chiefly in the towns.
1V est Virg in ia.The State board of education has recently adopted
a sweeping 6, 3, and 3 plan for the organization of all the schools of
the State.
This will mean the establishmenticof junior high schools
in a large number of small places which have been unable.to afford
high-school facilities or which have sought to solve the difficulty by
organizing one, two, or three year high schools of the old type,
looking toward college entrance. Under the new plan it will be
possible to help both those who plan to go to college and the much
,larger number who will go from school direct to their life work.
Vermont.Dr. Milo B. Hillegas, State commissioner of education,
says:
In Vermont the junior high school is helping in the solution of this problem.
During 1916-17 there were 12 of these schools in successful operation In
ur
State and their appeal to parents and children was sufficient to produce a
steady Increase in their enrollment and attendance.
A considerable number
of those who had previously left school returned, and virtually no students
dropped odt except as they moved from the town.
The chief aims of the Vermont junior high schools may be stated
sus fellows:'
The work of the junior high school is planned for the best interest
of the pupils who do not intend or expect to go to college.
The work in the junior high school, so far as possible, recognizes
...piaterial aptitudes and individual differences of ability in the pupils.
The studies in the junior high school utilize local interest and op-
portunities.
The work in the junior high school prepares for central or senior
high school, and thus for college.
It need not, howevevoinclude the
work ordinarily given in the first an
second years of high school.
In other words, to quote further from a recent report on Vermont
junior high schools:'
The fundamental purpose underlying the establishment and maintenance of
junior high schools In Vermont Is the extension of the educational opportunities
ate Vermont Junior High Schools. State board of education Bid. No. 1, 1918, p. 5.
'Same, p. 8.
RURAL EDiCCATION.
173
of each Individual boy and girl In the State In the light of our professional
educational aimsocial efficiency. This means that the work must be planned
to suit the individual needs of the pupils.
It tneans that the school has just as
much responsibility in equipping for their life work, to the greatest possible
extent. those large groups of children who drop out of school early as It has In
equipping the few who plan to enter college.
It means the provision of nourish-
ing, worth-while study material for the gifted pupil quite as much as the dis-
covery of the most promising field of activity for and to the dull pupil and the
development of such abilities and skills'as he may posSess.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT.
The so-called industrial subjects, including agriculture, home
economics, and handwork of boys and girlg, which have been making
good progress in ninny 'States during recent yeas, have received a
new stimulus with the recent passage of the Smith-Hughes Act.
While aid is granted under the new law only to persons about 14
years of age, i. e., for secondary training, a marked stimulus has been
given the industrial subjects in elementary schools as well, since these
prepare for the more advanced and concrete work in the high schools.
The new Federal aid is a powerful instrument in organizing good
rural high schools in communities which could otherwise have no
such facilities.
At least two States (Massachusetts and Pennsyl-
vania) have had to make little or no modification in their established
vocational schools to obtaiii the new aid, as these States have been
organized on a thoroughgoing State-wide basis for several years.
These two States might well be used as models for other States in
which vocational education is not. so well established or deeloped.
Accordingly, a somewhat detailed Statement of the organization and
progress of this type of educationin the two. States is given herewith.
The discussion of the Massachusetts plan has been prepared by Dr.
Rufus W. Stimson, agent of the MassachusettsState Board of Educa-
Sen.
The statement of the Pennsylvania plan is from the pen of
kte Supt. Nathan C. Schaeffer.,
PROGRESS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITIES IN MASSACHUSETTS
.
UNDER THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT.
The Massachusetts hotne-project plan of vocational agricultural education re-
quired no modification in order to meet the conditions of the Smith-Hughes
Act.
The plan has become somewhat widely known through Bulletin 579 of
the United States Bureau of Education and bulletins of the Massaehusetts
Board of Education, as the "Home Project Plan of Teaching Agriculture."
Ten years of experience wall this plan have shnply led to greater and greater
confidence in both its pedagogic and its practical validity.
The home-project plan is tt plan of earning and learning.
Accurate records
of productivity, have been kept by pupils from the beginning.
Comparative
tabtes have been published from year to year, In. which have been shown the
earnings of pupils from farm and from nonfarm work. The'ratio .year by year
has continued to be outstandingly favorable to farming.
In 1917 relittble re-
174
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 99113--1918.
turns were made by 511 boys and 7 girls, or by a total (o, 518 vocational agricul-
tural pupils. Their earnings from firm work atnounted, to $111.500.87. find frou
other work to $8,808.16. Figures for preceding years were as follows:
Earnings of pupils.
-
Boys.
Olds. ;Total.
Farm
work.
Other
work.
Totals for 1912
ae
4
70
89. VA. ZS
I
31.349. 59
Total. for 1913
96
3
15.399.90
2..'es2.111
Totals for 1914
,
730
5
215
37.936.57
1.121 Ofl
Totals for 1915
I
413
5
4114
51.270.81 I
4. 074. SA
Total., for 1918
.42.9
8
497
75.754 5.3
I
8.106.90
If the ratios were reversed .11 would he a fair presumption that agriculture
were not the main, but decidedly the minor, Interest of the pupils.
Direct
" learning " gains can not he measured in dollars and Cents, and are difficult
of precise measurement In other terms. Those who have given but little
thought to the methods of instruction used have sobctime.t argued that the
principal B1111 in Massachusetts was the dollar or the earning.
In Massachu-
setts we have frankly accepted as a challenge to our be:41 endesiVors the reason-
ble expectation that if our instruction In agricultilre is 5011101. is worth while, it
'Wight to yield a profit from year to
; but, having accepted this challenge,
'Wight
have by no means neglected the other challenges of voratronal education.
Pupils are admit tedon reaching their fourteenth birthdays, to the advantages
of vocational agricultural education, provided they can establish a reasonable
presumption that they can profit from it. Academic standards such as have
determined admission to high school have not been enforced.
In 'most eases,
however, vocational pupils could haNy entered high schools without conditions,
and the Ande of mental ability and the rate of progress among agricultural
pupils have compared favorably with those of other pupils of Itigh-schogi age.
The vocational agricultural schools and departments in high schools are
suffering, ns are other schools and _departments of education, from the war.
Returns for 1018 will not be filed until about November
It is more than
likely that a 30 per cent shrinkage 'of enrollment will he shown by those
returns.
The principal forward step in 'Massachusetts in connection with the receipt
of Smith-Hughes funds for vocational agricultural education is the establish-
ment of g new agritultural teacher training plan. Tills Is a sort of project
plan of teaching teachers how to teach agriculture after, they have bean ap-
pointed for service.
The 'Instruction wilt be intinerantfrom teacher to
teacher and from school to school. One man is devoting his tune -exclusively-
to this work. No two schools are alike.
Agricultural departments in high
schools differ from the schools and from each other.
The teacher trainer is
studying the conditions under which each must do his work and is helping each
teacher on the spot better and better to meet the conditions with which he Is
confronted.
Twenty special war-emergency departments have been approved in which
State-aided agricultural instructors are supervising war gardening by adults.
Last year 2,640 adults grew war-garden products to the value of, $73,180.71,
of which, products to the value of $45,083.50 wet? for home use and the re-
minder for sale or exchange.
State aid for su
work was approved in the
cases of)eight towns and cities. Durinik918 t
number of towns and cities
receiving State aid has been Increased to 20, a d the product* bid fair to be
Ittereased pkoportionately.
RURAL EDUCATION.
175
RURAL COMMUNITY VOCATIONAL
SCHOOLS IN PENNSYLVANIA.
continue their education along agricultural lines during the winter months.
Twenty-three agricultural high schools, commonly known as rural community
the farmers' ,boys enrolled therein are continuing their education while being
beyond school age.
Thege courses usually extended through a period of six
winter for ydung men who previously dropped out of school but who wished.to
The State Collet-le of Agriculture cooperated very effectively In the operatton
vocational schools, have been established in the rural districts of Pennsylvania,
Each one of these schools is practically an agricultural continuation school, as
regularly employed on the farms.
In all of these vocational schools night
schools were held during the winter for farmers and their sons who were
weeks.
In one or two of the schools short courses were conducted during the
of the night schools by furnishing many 'speakers and teachers.
Forty-two rural communities have established vocationgi agricultural educe-
-
tion for boys, and 33 rural communities have also established vocational home-
making education for girls. The war has prevented the rapid development of
this work by calling ninny of our tigricultural instructors intomilitary service.
Plans lire lying effected for a broad development of this work immediately
upon the close of the war.
Rural districts establishing tod operating rural community vocational schools
have invariably increased the tenure of office of their teacher: by employing
the principal of the school for a period of 10 or 12 months
er year, and the
agriculture teacher always. for a 12 months pain& Mar, of these teachers
are given a three-year contract.
Salaries of teachers in :Aese'rtiral community
vocational schools have risen quite steadily. The principal of the high 'school
now usually receives from $1,200 to $1,800 per year; the teacher of agricniture
$1,200 to $2,000 per.year; the vocational supervisor of home making about
WO per month ; and assistant teachers in the academic department from $75
to $125 per month.
The rural community vocational school has a staff of teachers ranging from
three to six in number, the number depending upon the size of the student body.
About 75 per cent of these teachers are college graduates.
Plans are now being developed and will this month be submitted to the State
boa
f education for the training of vocational teachers of agriculture and
tea
of home economics in vocational schools.
t encouraging mitt of our plan for rural community vocational educa-
tion seems-to lie In the fact that we are securing teachers who are better
prepared for their work and who are being paid higher salaries with longer
tenures of office,
.
THE RURAL SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY.
The reorganization of the course of study for rural schools is
probably the most important phase of rural education that engrosses
the time of rural educators at the present time.
Readjustnient4, are
gradually .taking place in the materials and methods of the rural
schools, but such a hold has tradition on what is taught and learned
in the schools that the process of change has been. exceedingly slow.
In the past, progress in teaching rural school subjects from the owl-
jJetional point of Aiew has been hindered greatly by inflexible estab-
10(4 State courses of study, which are usually planned alike for all
ele`inentary schools, whether in town or.in country.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
Fortunately, many States are beginning to plan tdistinctive courses
for the rural schools. Louisiana has attained marked success in its
rural schools under a very progressive 'course of study planned sev-
eral years ago.
Montana has recently publisliZA a course of study
covering all the fundamental subjects and vocational subjects usually
taught in the rural schools.
Other States are planning similar
courses for their rural schools.
Meanwhile, sevetal committees have been organized, or tlre being
organized, for the purpose of making a fundamental study of the
entire field of rural education.'
In the same connection .should be
mentioned the innovation recently made for the study of rural educa-
tion by the
education department of Teachers. College,
ln-
bia
This embraces a cooperative plan of education
between Teachers College and two New Jersey counties, the schools of
which will be used as practice schools and study laboratories for the
development of the best teaching practice and study course for rural
schools.
STATUS OF TEACHERS FOR THE RURAL SCHOOLS.
Effect of the- war on teacher supply.A study made by the rural
school division of the bureau indicates clearly the serious propor-
tions readied in, thedwindling ofihe supply of rural teachers. Par-
tial returns have been completetbrom 1,150 out of 2,964 counties in
thV48 States. :According to the
giires returned, these 1,150 counties
report at shortage of 10,4)6 rural teachers and 2,004 (Alm: teachers.
Only one State, ('alifornia, reports no teacher shortage, either rural
or urban. On the basis -of the counties compiled to date, there is
probably a shortage of about '27,000 rural teachers and at leagt 5,000
other teachers.. The bureau estimate for past years places the annual
.number of new rural teachers at 87,500.
The.peoportion of begin-
ning teachers for thetyear 1918-19 is abnormally large.
In some
counties the superintendents'report as high a5..85 per cent of teachers
without previous experience. The median for experienced teachers
for the country at large is 19 4)er cent.t%.Qh the basis of figures re-
turned, at least 125,000 inexperienced teachers will be employed in
rural communities.
In addition to this, the rural schools are losing
most of the small number of men teachers. Thb 1,150 counties report-
ing have lost 1,955. men. Indeed, 41 per cent of all men who taught
in rural,schools one year ago Seem to have left the profession. The
reports from Connecticut indicate that the few men who have taught
in the. rural schools will ell be replaced with women teachers for the
Current school year.
.
1Notabiy may be,mentioned the Bureau of Education committee on rural School course
of study, *lid the eitucatIonal committee of the recently orgintaed National Rural L1fe
Coonotoloo.
RURAL EDUCATION.
177
4'
Even before the war the most difficult' please of the whole educa-
tional probleM-was how to get and retain in the profession an
ample staff of well-prepared rural teachers.
Since the country's en-
trance into the war the problem has become greatly intensified. Now
is the time therefore to drive home to the people what is necessary
before better things can be attained in the field of professional rural
teaching.
The public will have to becoMe fully aware of their re-
sponsibititytoward the teachers; they will have to make the schools
and housing conditions more attractive than they now are, and in
other ways iipke feasible long, well-paid tenures in the-same com-
munity.
The Government Must, by legal enactment, safeguard the
prpfession and offer special inducements -to all teachers to equip
themselves well for their profession as a life work. With this as a
basis, the teachers will be moke ready than now to strive to attain
genuine profesSional standards of teaching.
Teaching rewards. Teaching rewards should bear a defthile rela-
tion to the'experience and time incurred
the teaching cer-
tificate.
Salaries ought, accordingly, to -be basedon the kind of cer-
tificate held. There should in every State be a 4egat minimum salary
for each type of certificate.
Similarly a second year in the same
school commtinity ought to be awarded with a State grant of a
definite sunr, say $5 per month; a thir-d year with double the above
sum; and the:fourth and each subsequent year with treble the first
sum. These bonuses should always be "in addition to the gaieties paid
by the local.community.
As has been pointed out Akenhere in this chapter, several States
have already adopted the planV scaling salaries on the "lngth of
experience and the.kind of teaching credentials held by the teachers.
Wisconsin, Indiana, and Maryland are among the States basing their
salhry'scales on the degree and kind of professional preparation and
tenure in the same
ninity.
Parado'xical as it may seem at first thought,,the remedy for an
ample supply of well-prepared teachers should be sought in gradually
increased professions
equiremetits, of all 'rural teachers.
While
.
during the war perio,d`i was impracticable to legislate against ad-
mission to the teaching ranks by the ordinary examination route, the
present is the right time to look ,forward to ending. this practice as
soon as possible. The teacher in the effective rural community school
of the future may be expected to come into the 'profession from the
professional teacher-training schools only.
This, -. together with in-
creased salaries and improved living conditions, will Help to dignify
tht profession'and place it on the higher level which should always
have held, but which in recent years seems to hive been, largely lost
to the American teacher.
.
171029*-21Buy13-12
178
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Professional reguiretnents.Many States are steadily increasing
the professional requirements of all teachers.
The normal require-
ment recently laid down by the Bureau of Education in its State
surveys is being adopted in several sections in the country.
(See the
chapters on Preparation of Public-School Teachers, Biennial Survey
of Education, 1916-1918.)
This standard requires that all public-
school teachers must, as a minimum, lieve completed a four-year high-
.
school course and have had, in addition thereto, at least one year of
professional training.
Thi§, includes rural schools teachers as well as
other teachers.
In order to reach these standards by a time fixed by law, several
States, through their normal schools and other teacher-training insti-
tutions, have established interesting and profitable extension services
over the State, for the teachers who are unable to attend the normal
school regularly. The first State to enact a movement of this kind
was probably Iowa, which, through the State Teachers' College at
Cedar Falls, has organized a State-wide service of this kind. The
Bureau of Education, in its surveys of education in North Dakota,
Washington, and Arizona, has recominended similar extension serv-
ices.for these States, which are just getting uncleKvay.
Schools preparing rural teachers.During the sch'ool year ending
1915 the 273 public snd private normal schools enrolled 160.325 stu-
dents and graduated a total of 21,944.
It is quite certain that most
of the teachers found positions in towns and cities, as did most of.
those Ny-ho graduated from the
ools of education in universities
and colleges.
The agricultural co
ges have also done something
for the preparation of secondary-sc ool teachers in agriculture and
teachers for son& of the strongest consolidated schools.
The largest immediate supply of rural teachers comes from the
aaining departments (*the high schools in many States.
Next' in
point of numbers stand the normal schools; then, in the order men-
tioned, the schools of education in colleges and universities and the
agricultural colleges. A study 1 recently made by the Bureau of
'Education ,oh rural-teacher preparation in county training schools
and?bigh schools'discloses that 21 States in 1915-16 were preparing
teachers for rural communities in 1,493 county normal schools and
highi.sch'ool training departments,ana classes, which enrolled a total
of 27:411 students. From these schools 16,626 teachers were gradu-
ated in 1917.
Since alit time Montana has organized similar classes
in 11 schools, with an aggregate attendance of 200 students.
The real' hope of.the countig for.an ample supply of well-trained
rural teachers kill
is vtith the public normal schools. A few years
ago these instil
oris were devoting most
their energies to train-
.
V
Bulletin, 1911, No. 31,
4
RURAL EDUCATION.
179
ing city and town teachers. During the past few years there lies
been a marked change in the disposition oft the normal schools in
this regard. Many ,of.them, established in agricultural sections of
the country, hive reorganized their work to meet the-demands for the
new type of rural teachers.
In many schools this reorganization has
come as well -organized, distinctive rural- school departments
in
charge of a director and assistants.
In other schools the work has
not gone quite so far and is being offered as special courses for fural
teachers, given chiefly during the summer sessions.
Experience with
the two types of organizationdemonstrates quite clearly that the only
worth-while organization is the special rural teacher-training "Oe-
pai-tment.
Up- to the present time 122 rural-selml departments
have been established in the normal schools. Many of the depart-
ments are in charge of a director, who usually teaches rural sociology
and economies, and one or two other instructors, one of whom is a
rural critic teacher.
A' together 84 of these departments make use of
rural -practice schools, either erected on the campus or located in
near-by country districts; 97 otliel normal schools offer specific
courses for training rural teachers, sQrrle limiting the courses to the
summer sessions. The above enumeration shows an increase of almot
100 per cent in these facilities over what the schools offered in 1915,
but even with such progress there is much still to be done, as many
of the schools do not realize the far-reaching importance of the work
of these specialized departments and do not support them as liberally
as should be done to make the work in every respect satisfactory.
4
NATIONAL RURAL TEACHERS' READING CIRCLE.
II
.
The National Rural Teachers' Reading Circle was organized by
the -Bureau of Education in 1915 in cooperation with an advisory
committee of the State superintendents af public instruction. The
purpose is to be of direct assistance to the thousands of progressive
serious-minded rural teachers of the country who desire guidance in
their study to improve themselves professionally. Never in the
history of our country was there so great a demand for weif-prepared
. rural teachers and supervisors as at the present time. It is to assist
., in finding and equipping these educators that the Bureau ofEduca-
tion organized the reading circle work threesyqars "ago.o.
The American farmers are doing their great share in winning the
war through increased production from the land. After the war ts
won the rural population must take an equally vital part in the eco-
nomic recon#Entifin that is sure tb follow. This calls for a new typo
of leadershir), cultured and educated in practicill phases of modern
'scientific agriculture.' The most important and indispensable agent
in the attainment of this task will be the rural teacher. Without the
.40
180
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDLreATION, 1916-1918.
well-educated, broad-minded, sympathetic teacher any system of edu-
cation can only be a lifeless mechanism.
Therefore, the public must look to the country teachers and their
preparation and see to it that they shall be men and women of the
best native agility:, the most thorough education, and the highest de-
gree of professional knowledge and skill. Since the time of organiza-
tion a large number of progressive rural teachers of the country have
become members of the reading circle. No attempt has been made to
draw to the circle large numbers: the aim has beerather to list a
few leaders fKom each county in the several States.
Results have
been very satisfactory.
Of thetmunber matriculated a large per-
centage have completed the work
d hhve received the commis-
sioner's certificate.
The reading circle is without cost to the members aside from pro-
curing the necessary books, which may be furnished from the pub-
lishers at regular retail rates Or they may be secured through local
libraries, or in other ways.
There is no restriction as to member-
ship, although it is highly desirable that applicants have a liberal
acquaintance with the best literary works, past and present.
The books for this periodreflect largely the new conditiOns in edu-
cation due to the unprecedented changes going on in the world to-
day.
They are classified under six heads as nonprofessional hooks
of cultural value, ,civic and patriotic readings, educational classics,
general principles and methods of education, rural education, and
rural-life problems.
The work is intended as a two -year
ending course, although it
may 13e completed by the industrious teacher in a shorter time. To
those who give satisfactory evidence of having read intelli'gently not
less than four books from the general-culture list and three books
from each of the other five lists-19 books in allwithin the two
years of the time of registering will he awarded .a National Rural
Teachers' Reading CircleCertificate signed by the United States
Commissioner of Education.
COMMISSIONS AND COMMITFES ORGANIZED FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF RURAL ilDUCATION AND LIFE.
Several commissions have been organized during the year for the
advancement of rural education and life. The most important of
these organizations are.here noticed.
Tile National Country Life Comitiettion.The first steps. toward
:organization were taken by a number of educators inteiested in fol-
. lowing iip.the work done by the original commission on country life
appointed by President Roosevelt in .1908. A permanent organiza-
doh was formed at Pittsburgh, June 29, lila.'
RURAL EDUCATION.
181
The general program and objectives of the commission have since
that. time been definitely settled and committees have been appointed.
These inclitde the following committees: I. Means of communication.
II. Home making. III. Means of education. IV. Rural government.
V. Health and sanitation. VI.' Recreation. VII. Country planning.
VIII. Morals and religion. IX. Country life objectives and values.
These committees are most of them divided into subcommittees.
The committee on means of education is subdivided as follows: (a)
Rural, elementary and secondary schools; (b) .Agricultural educa-
tion; (c) Adult education.
The central purpose of the commission is to make a study of the
important problems in rural life. what principles govern their solu-
tion, and what steps should be taken now toward meeting them.
Plans are underway to prepare a statement of'the whole rural prob-
lem, including references to easily available literature on this subject
for the use of school officials, elementary schools, high schools,
grange -farmers' unions, rural women's clubs, farm bureaus, and
u
other
.
ntry organizations.
Dr. Kenyon L. Butterfield, president
of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, is general
chairman of the commission, and Dwight Sanderson, United States
Department of Agriculture, secretary.
Committee on study of consolidation and rural high schools in the
roiled ,'rates and Canada.This committed was organized by the
section of State supervisors of the National-Education Association,
at its Kansas City meeting. The work has gradually been expanded
.
from a rather small effort to a most thoroughgoing study of school
consolidation and rural high-school organization in all the American
States and the nine Canadian Provinces. The central committee con-
sists of H. W. Foght, chairman; S. B. McCready, Toronto, Canada;
Lee Driver, Winchester, Ind.; Miss Charl Williams, Memphis, Tenn.;
J. M. Foote, Baton Rouge, La., and C. G. Sargent. Fort Collins, Colo.
This committee is working in-cooperation with a larger committee of
57 educators, representing the several State departtnents of eduea-
irShAtid Canadian provincial ministries of education.
' The Work of this committee istnow well underway. It is the com-
mittee's purpose to report at the Chicago meeting of the. Department
of Superintendence in February, :1919. The scope of the work-svill
ihclude statistical 'data from all, the States and Provinces, together
with intensive studies lof 19 counties and a large number of indi-
vidual schools. The results of the study 'will be pub_ lished as-a bul-
..
letin by the Bureau of Education.
.
The Bureau of Education committee on rural school cour`se of
study, he Bureau tf, Education has Worked on.the reorganisation
o of the rural school course of study for several years. The bureau Qs-
<
.
..
182
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918,
cialists are working in cooperation with an outside committee of
educators selected from the several sections of the country at large.
This committee has undertaken a searching study of rural educa-
tion. The plan underway is first to organize the content of the course
of study, based on cultural and occupational needs.
This subject
matter is then to be tested and worked out in practice schools at sev-
eral places over the country.
The committee on rural education appointed by the National Edu-
cation Association at its regular summer session.The committee
comprises reptisentative educators headed by State Supt. J. Y. Joy-
ner, of North Carolina. The purpose of this committee is to make a
searching study of rural education in all its several phases.
RURAL-SCHOOL SURVEYS.
Several important school surveys have been completed within the
last biennium which have emphasized various phases of rural educe-
tion.:Among them may be mentioned the following State-wide.
studies made under -t-he direction of the Bureau of Education:
A survey of tlitoeducatIonal institutions of the State of Washington.
Educational survey, of Wyoming.
Educational conditions in Arizona.
Educational survey of Tennessee.
Educational survey of the schools oPiSouth Dakota.
While all these surveys, give space to the rural schools, the subject
is notably emphasized in the studies of Wyoming, Arizona, South
Dakota, and Tennessee.
Some, instructive age-grade statistics, in-
cluded in the surveys, show graphically that the present system of
school education in country districts is much less effective than the
schools in the incorporated places, the number of overage pupils
being fully 25 per cent greater in the rural communities than in the
towns and cities.
Self-surveys of rural schools have been promoted in a number of
States, notably in Minnesota, 'Wisconsin, Missouri, and Montana.
The tabulations and conclusions of these surveys may be procured
by addressing the several State departments concerned.
PUBLICATIONS ON RURAL EDUCATION OF THE BUREAU OF',
EDUCATION.
A number of publications on rural and agricultural education have
been compiled and distributed by the Bureau of Educinion during
the past year.
These publications include occasional bulletins and
rural-school letters and circplars published by the bureau and pain-
phlets and brochures klublished by other governmental and private
4
RURAL EDUCATION.
183
organizations but distributed by
e bureau. Much of this material
deals with timely topics of t
war emergency.
Bulletins of the
bureau on rural and agricultural education published since the last
report on rural education are as follows:
Bulletin, 1916, No. 26, A Survey of Educational Institutions of the State of
Washington.
Bulletin, 1916, No. 29, Educational Survey of Wyoming.
Bulletin. 1916, No. 41, Agricultural and Rural Extension Schools In Ireland.
Bulletin, 1916, No. 44. The District Agricultural Schools of Georgia.
Bulletin, 1916, No. 48. Rural-School Supervision.
Bulletin. 1917, No. 5, Report of Inquiry into the Administration and Support of
the Colorado School System.
Bulletin, 1917, No. 31. Rural-Teacher Preparation in County Training Schools
and High Schools.
Bulletin, 1917, No. 33. A Comparison of the Salaries of Rurgl and Urban Super-
intendents of Schools.
Bulletin, 1917, No. 35. The Township and Community High-School Movement in
Illinois.
Bulletin, 1917, No. 44, Educational Comlitions in Arizona.
Bulletin, 1918. No.. 3, Agriculturral Instruction in the High -Schools of Six
Eastern States.
Bulletin, 1918, No. 27. Itural.yeacher4Preparation In Normal Schools.
Bulletin, 1918, No. 31, Educational System of South Dakota.
9
*.
4
$'
CHAPTER VII.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
By THOMAS H. BRIGOR,
feathers College, Columbia University.
Corrrryrs.Character of school reports Growth ofhigh schoolsThe small high schoolConsolidation
and coordination- Larger use of the school plantThe high schools and the collegesFailures and
marksRetardation. attendance, and eliminationHigh-school pupilsHigh schools for negroes
Secondary school teachers and principals- The tenure of teachers and principals The training of
teach
and principals
Supervision of instructionExtension of function of high schoolsThe war
and
ndary schools
Facto service by high - school pupilsMilitary training in high achoolsTbe
future of the high school.
CHARACTER OF SCHOOL REPORTS.
A study of a large number of school reports, from both States and
cities, reveals an astonishing variety in the size, the audience ad-
dressed, the content, and the use made of them. The size varies
from, pamphlets of a few,pages. to volumes of several hundred.
In
a number of instances a long report is published in several small
sections, thus effecting economy and also insuring attention that
might be repelled by a formidable volume.
The audience is the
board of education, the teachers, superintendents of othgr States or
cities, the public at large, or nobody in particular.
It would seem
that in every case the persons to whom the report is addressed
would be known, first of all, for their interests or needs should de-
termine the contents of the report.
It is difficult to see why any
school reports should contain portraits of the members of the board
of education, programs of the high-school graduating exercises, ex-
pressions 'of acrimony between school offs unsubstantiated
statements of
most successful year . , ngth37/Ifinutes that prop-
erly are recorded in the secretary's. b " ', or complete unclassified
details of expenditures.
It is doubtful if most of the tediously
gathered statistics can be justified when they occupy three-fourths
of a' report and are accompanied' by no interpreting text and no
indications that they have been or will be used.
When a report is definitely addressed to the public, it verj, prop-
erly contains general statements of progress,. explanations of new
features in the schoolssuch as supervised study and the longer
school day or of extra- curricular activitiesand arguments con-
cerning the value of secondary or h4Ar education.
Supt. Stark,
of Hackensack, N. J., in addressing Alai public, prefaces his detailed
'185
186
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
report by a summary of his recommendations of the preceding year,
a list of the accomplishments during the year, and reeommendations
of what should he done in the future. A report addressed to the
public may properly. also present data concerning the high-school
teacherstheir preparation, experience, etc.facts showing the
holding powerof the school, the percentage of failures, the size of
classes, the cost of each subject per pupil, and the like, provided the
tabulations are interpreted and an appeal is made that a proposed
program of improvement be supported.
It is certainly not econom-
ical to include in one volume for general circulation different kinds
of material, each being of interest to only one of several audiences
addressed.
Of the State publications concerning high schools, it is
not invidious to mention as peculiarly helpful for various reasons
those from California, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota,
New Hampshire, New Jersey, South Carolina, and Wisconsin.
GROWTH OF HIGH SCHOOLS.
The State reports for the biennium contain less about the increase
in the number of high schools than they have done for a number of
years past.
Especially in the older States and in al younger ones
that have done mostLby way of educational- advance there are justi-
fiable expressions of pride that opportunities for secondary education
are in the reach of the greattst majority of youth.
The growth that
is more emphasized is in the number of pupils and in their persist!
ence in school.
There are a rnumber of expressions of opinion that
no high schools should be established or maintained at the expense
of the elementary grades and that in the secondary schools already
established effort should be made to secure respectable work of
h
hi
er quality.
Typical of these expressions may be quoted the
f llowing pasorage from the fourteenth biennial report of the State
s
erintendent of pnblic instruction of Montana:
..
--While everything possible has been done and is being done to encourage high..
school work ih all schocqe equipped to do the work, and whit* the principals of the
larger high schools have been most generous in their willingness to &operate with
these schools that are taking care of the boys and girls at home, it seems that a note of
warning must be sounded or some districts in their zeal for high-school work will do
their schools more harm than good.
In the first place, many schools have asked teachers not well qualified to teach
the ninth grade subjects, which is an unwise thing, for no instruction is often better
than the wrong kind of instruction.
Other schools hiring but one or. two .teachers
havb endeavored to start high-school classes.
The beet that can be said of the work
carried in under these conditions is that it overworks the teachers, robs the boys and
girls' in the elementary grades at the very tie when they are forming their like
or dislike for the public school, and cheats those who think they are getting high-
school work when they are not, and who believe that they are saving time when they
are actually losing it: Still other schools with the number of teachers necessary to
start high-school work fall short by-frying to mire for too many courses or too teeny
%SECONDARY EDUCATION.
187
ttudies in one course, forgetting that thorough work in a few branches is better than
slipshod efforts iu Many.
In planning for the best interests of the school, it must be remembered that a first-
class elementary school means a good deal more to any community than a poor high
schools and no attempt should be migie to finance high - school work until grounds, .
buildings, and equipment are what they ought to be, and something in the way of
music, drawing, industrial work, domestic science, and community activities have
been provided for the grades.
The valuation of the school district should also he considered, and until this is
what it should be. the thought of the first -class graded school with suitable equip-
ment and a permanent and fully accredited high-school course can not be fully
considered, for in the long run, carrying on a school of that kind is not a question of
.
enthusiasm, of sentiment, or of need, but one of dollars and cents with which
equipment can be provided and teachers paid.
When the proper valuation is in eight, whether it has been secured by consolida-
tion or otherwise, the first year of the course best adapted to the needs of the com-
munity in which the school is located should be taken up and strictly adhered to
until sufficient teaching force can be employed to carry on additional work.
.
The State nispeetor of high schools for South Carolina is even
more emphatic and pointed in his remarks:
One of the first weaknesses A stranger would detect in the high-school system in
South Carolina would be our small number of four-year schools in places amply able
to support them, and the attempt of a few small place; to support four-year schools
with too few pupils and too little money.
The number of the latter class is small,
.
but of the former clam there are too many.
To mai9tain a four-year school there are
three things necessary: Enough pupils to justify & existence, enough money to
employ the teachers and to equip the school, and a community that appreciates such
a school.
From the point of view of atvndance it seems reasonable to hold that any three-
.
year school with as many as 75 pupils is well able to maintain a fourth-year class.
Seventeen of our schools last year had enrolled 1,810 high-school pupils going out
with a three-year high-school education.
Admittedly, those going to college are not
prepared as they should be, and certainly those leaving school are entering life with
meager equipment.
Yrom the point of view of expense a few words ought to suffice.
In September, 1916,
these 17 schools sent from their third-year classes 194 Rupils to college, one year behind
the preparation required by highLgraele colleges.
In other words. these pupils went
to college to get their fourth-year high-school training.
At the conservative estimate
of $250 each, these pupils cost their parents $48,000 for the privilege of sending their
children away from home to get Vilatithey should have had at home.
Worse still,
it coat more to keep these 194 pUtlkat college a year than the 17 schools paid for
teaching the entire high-school enrollment of 1,816:
All this takes no account of the
large number of boys and girls whose education closed witlfthe third year of the high
school. Why will people persist in such waste and folly?
Once we heard that
ancient alluring phrase about "saving a year at college," but surely thinking people
are no onger caught with such biit.
The people of thiiState have had so little practical experience with well- equipped
four-year high schools that they. ft° not appreciate their value.
For long years we
have known nothing higher than a three-year high school resting upon a seven-year
elementary school. and the people have come to look upon such a school as ideal.
In fact, one occasionally hears the argument that such a school is enough for any
people.
Such advice reminds one of ,Eaop's unfortunate tailless fox.
If the study
of pedagogy has taught us anything, i has convinced us that we can not force the
188
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
growth of the human plant.
It requires time for the human plant to grow and mature..
When we consider the comparatively small number of men and women with a college
education, and the even smaller number with a four-year highochool education, we
begin to understand the limitations of our people intellectually, industrially, and
economically.
South Carolina's having more college graduates than four-year high-
school graduates fUniishee amusement for everybody but us. \i'e have not yet seen
the amusing side of the situation.
In. another dart of his report, Inspector Hand explains how the
unfortunate condition came to exist in South Carolina, and recounts
the cha
es in the law made in an attempt to remedy earlier mistakes.
In 1907
ouch Carolina passed a law appropriating $50,000 to develop
high s
ools.
Although the terms upon which State aid was dived to the individual schools
were liberal, of the $50,000 appropriated for the scholastic year 1907-8, only $27,960
was used.
Only 56 schools could be induced to take advantage of the new law.
In
th; law was a clause granting to the trustees of a high school accepting State aid the
power to levy a local high - school tax apt to exceed 2 mills on all the taxable property
of the district.
In most instances local boards had to promise not to levy this tax
before the people would vote for the establishment of a high sch(x)I.
It is interesting
to note how many districts then reluctant to empower their trustees to levy a 2-mill
tax have since voted 4, 6, 8, and even 10 mills for school support. In 1908-9 only
$44,295 of the State appropriation was used.
Apprehensive lest the towns and the cities might get an undue proportion, if any
part of the State appropriatiqn, the general assembly put into, the first law an unfor-
tunate clause forbidding the use of any of the appropriation in a school district con-
taining an incorporated place of over 1.000 population.
places with few pupils
and smill revenue were the only places encouraged by the law.
The consequences
might have been foreseen.
These small places were prompted to undertake the im-
Roesible, to establish high schools without resources to maintain them. ,In order to
put 2 teachers,and 25 pupils, the minimum requirements, into the high schools,
numbers of places crippled their elementary departments for years.
To remedy this *
defect the law was amended so as to permit a high school of I teacher tifid 15 pupils
to share in the State appropriation.
Again the consequence; outht to have been fore-
seen. Every school Of 3 teachers that could possibly find 15 pupils for the high-
school grades wished to become a high school.
Not infrequently a high-school
teacher would be found with 15 pupils, often fewer, while the 2 teachers in the lower
grades would have (rota 30 to 50 pupils each. occasionally more.
Between 1907 and 1917 fifty-eight places undertook to maintain high schools, but
gave them up.
ra
At the beginning of the year 1916-17 all die one-teacher high schools were put into
the rural graded school class, and the appropriatiov for that class of schools was in-
.
creased. So far as making any contribution to a permanent system of high schools,
the State's money spent on these one-teacher schools was a total loss.
It was an
expensive experiment financially, and one that had a deadening effect ar worse than
the mere financial waste.
The one-teacher high schools put an itnmediate check
upon all efforts at building up high-grade high schools at central points to serve small
surrounding schools. .The one - teacher high schools undertook the work of three and
---fiffErffitacif high schools, and parents seemed satisfied with the attempt.
')feautinie the general assembly had, after a hard struggle, amended the Iltw by
increasing the maximum population limit from 1,000 to 2,500.
With the census of
1910 twenty-five bf the largest high schools in the State were debarred from anyspartici-
Ration in the State high-school fund, although any high school a'eceiving any of this
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
189
fund'had to give free tuition'to any high-school pupil from that county.
Year after
year the lawmakers were urged to repeal this clause, but without success until 1916,
when an entirely hew law wilvibatituted.
The new law is much simpler than the
old one.
The population limitis entirely removed, ,a high school must have at least
2 teachers and 25 high-school pupils, the district must levy at least 4 mills local school
tax for running expenses. any high-school pupil can without tuition attend any
State-aided high school in his own county or an adjoining county, and the State
appropriation was increased to $80,900 annually.
The immediate effects of the
enactment of the new law will be referred to in another place in this report.
State Inspector Walker, of North Carolina, recognizing the weak-
ness in his State of the small, weak high schools, proposes a policy
that should control them:
There is needed a comprelien9ive policy, a plan backed by law, that will recog-
nize in.eoine way all r orthy high schools operated at public expense, city and rural,
and that will make possible the development of good high schools where high ecliools
are needed and prevent the multiplication of weal high schools where high schools
are not needed.
It is impossible to build up an efficient high school in every cross-
roads community.
It becomes necessary to concentrate our efforts in each county
at a few centers where there is a quickened school interest, intelligence, and available
means, all of which are. necessary to the development of schools of the right kind.
It might be advisable to extend State aid to all well-organized and well-managed
four-year high schools of the cities and towns that admit pupils to the high-school
grades from the country districts, State aid, of course, to be given under the require-
meets of the public high-school law and primarily on the basis of attendance from
outside the local district.
This matter, I think, is worthy of serious consideration.
The State appropriation should, in a word, be used for four important purposes:
(1) To stimulate counties and communities to initiate new and necessary lines of
work.which they would not be likely to undertake of their own accord, as, for example,
putting in courses in home economics, agriculture,and teacher training; (2)10 encour-
age counties and communities to inaugurate new and necessary policies, which they
would not be likely to put into practice if left without direction, as, for instance,
putting the high-school principals on salary the year round; (3) to encourage schools
to maintain- higher standards of excellence, as, for example, lengthening the school
term, organizing the work on a sounder basis, employing better teachers, paying better
salaries, etc:: (4) to equalize in some measure opportunities for high school training
by helping to support good high schools where they are needed in counties and com-
munities that have notlhe funds necessary to maintain rod high sehobla.
THE SMALL HIGH SCHOOL.
It is a matter of judgment that many small high schools are ge
erally doing poor work, but State Inspector Williams, of India
has measured the product of the small and of the large high schoo
by their records in college.'
Indiana has 94 public high schools
for every 100,000 persons of school age, approximately two and a
quarter times as many as New York, its nearest rival.
"Of the 850
officially recognized high schools in IndiatIa; 51 per cot. have fewer
than four teachers and 71 per cent have fewer than five teachers,"
Thirty students from these small high schools and 85 from large high
.
Educatot-Joumal, IS: 333-238.
190
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-1918.
schools had the following distribution of marks in the freshman year
at Indiana University:
Percentage of marks.
Small
1,argo
high
high
schools.
schools.
A
1.65
12.06
B
11. 41
31.23
C
33.01
31.32
D
23.9.3
13.09
gboditIonid....
14. M
R.60
Failure
15.26
2.69
1
Inspector Williams 'found similar results in seven other Indiana'
colleges.
Pridcipal Smith, in his survey of. Illinois high schools,
however, found no such difference between the graatiatk-rif small
and large schools.
Whether the slight inferiority of the small high
school in Illinois is due to the fact that in this claMication are all
schools enrolling up to 100 pupils or to other causes is not known.
l
Of course the academic success of thos'e pupils who become coi-
lege students is not the only criterion of tl
slue of a high, school.
A mt&iplicity of small high Nehools certainly .n
n
creases the number
of pupils who enter upon secondary education; disregarding tradi-
tion, they may be adapted ,so as to satisfy peculiar local needs,
and they may be made junior high schools and affiliate with a cen-
tral school which will complement their work, or each one may.form
a nucleus which later May (Ifivelop into something larger and more
satisfactory.
Mr. Williams, in his studyi shows that in sections of
Indiana abundantly supplied with high schools, small and large;
the ratio of secondary school enrollment to the entire school enu-
meration is from two to four times as large as when the number of
high schools is small.
-
The alternatives proposed for improvement are (1) a reduction
and adaptation of the offerings by small high schools and (2) con-
solidation.
The commissioner of secondary schools for California,
writes:
In planning the course of study for small high schools it is not necessary to include
'lithe subjects or courses taught in larger high schools.
The law requires that the high
schooloffer one course of study that will prepare graduates therein for admission to the
State university. It does not require, that the high school offer courses that will pre-
pare graduates therein for admission to all of the colleges of the State university.
The State
for
North Dakota writ
Meet high-sc.hool p
are too full.
Too much is attempted, especially in the
smaller high schools.
Such a plan makes the limited teaching force attempt too
much, and results in a lowered quality of work. In most small schools the superintend-
ent or principal has to dose much chats roothiwork that he has neither time nor ambition
to give the, kindly, helpful, thoughtful counsel and assistance to the teachers bale of
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
191
the grades and the high school which is so essential to good, satisfactory work.
Many
times the remedy ie in the hands of the teachers themselves.
Small classes could
often be eliminated and some subjects alternated with profit to all.
In Vermont Commissioner Hillegas and in New Hampshire State
Superintendent Morrison have consistently and cogently workgd to
make the small high schools contribute first of all to the assured needs
of the pupils who are likely to have no further education.
It should
be remarked, that in both States emphasis is laid on cultural as well
as on the more immediately practical training.
CONSOLIDATION AND COORDINATION.
Consolidation in some cases, as in Vermont and Tennessee, carries
with it a system of abbreviated or junior high schools, and in 9therS,
as notably in Illinois, an enlargement of territory to support a cosmo-:
politan high school.
The program proposed by the Vermont survey
has been improved and developed there, and the State superintendent
of Tennessee writes:
Until the la t legislature we did not have a compulsory high-school tax. We now
have a 5 cent high-school tax levied by the,State in every county.
Until this last
year we had, where they had a high school tax, one centralized high school with disor-
ganized inefficient secondary schools which you no doubt well remember.
These
schools never had a course of study or any regula 'ens.
As a result they began not
where and lead nowhere.
he it legislature passed a law providing for a centralized four-year high school
with as many two-year high schools established ove
e county as may be necessary
to bring the first two-years of the high-school work w
reasonable reach of all
parts of the county. The course of study in these schools
e same as the first two
years in the centralized first-class school.
This gives us a splen
high-school system.
The State inspector of high school's for South Carol
in review-
ing the conditions in each district in his State, repeatedly
a
kes such
recommendations as the following:
and 13-- ought to put aside their petty local pride and unite in est
lishing a high school that might be the righteous pride of both places.
Both districts
would save money, and have such a school as neither alone can ever hope to have
lb C-- the school has struggled hard under difficulties. An 8-mill tax far ex-
penses brings in kto little money from rural property retuined at low valuation.
Sal-
aries are low, and the school is housed in a very inferior building. The school would
be better off as a rural graded school.
va
Inspector Willituns concludes the study previously quoted with the
following paragraphs of recommendation:
The writer proposes, as the highest type of aid by the State, either that in operation
in California, where provision is made for separate and special taxation for the support of
high schools, or that in effect in New Jersey, where thegeneral school tax is drawn upon
for a special apportionment to high schools.
In the one case, the annual high school
levy is determined by multiplying the number of pupils in average daily attendance
by $15-4 State-wide tax of approximately 17i mills.
In the other, the special ap-
portionment is made to high achoola on the bails of $400 for every teacher employed
192
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF. EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
and of a fixed sum per pupil per day of actual attendance.
Some such system in
-Indiana would prove a powerful stimulus to the maintenance of standard conditions
and equalize the high-school facilitivs in every part of the State.
Fortunately, Indiana school law has made mrahle progress in the direction indi-
cated.
Legal provision exists for union or consolidation df the following varieties:
(I) Joint higkeehools.
On the petition of a definite number of legal voters of two
or more school Forporations, an election must be called to determine the desirability
of maintaining a joint high school.
If favorable, the two corporations may unite in
one of the following combinations:
-(a) Joint town or city),,,an.1 township high school.
In this case, cost of mainte-
nance is apportioned in proportion to the taxables of each corporation, and the school
is managed by a joint board.
(6) High-school district.
A city (of any class) or incorporated town may establish
and maintain jointly with one or more contiguous townships or portions thereof) a
high school district.
Maintenance and management as before.
Provision is made for
voluntary withdrawal at any time from the arrangement by any member of the district.
(c) Joint township high school.
Two adjoining townships, having a combined
taxable valuation of three quarters of a million dollars ($750,000), may tstaba and
support a joint high school, provided no high BchoCri already exists in either corporation
and eight or more pupils have graduated from the common schools in each of two
previous years.
(2) Consolidated high schools.
Under similar conditions, a town or fifth clam city
and the adjacent township may consolidate two or more existing high schools.
Two
plans of management are provided:
(a) tnew board consisting of the township trustee and two persons chosen brtown
or city councilone of these a resident of the city or town and,the other of the town-
ship outside.
(b) A joint board composed of the township trustee and secretary of the school
board, with appeal to the county superintendent.
Thus ample legal sanction exists for communities A combine resources and unite for
high grade working conditions.
As is well known, Illinois has gone further in the establishing of
consolidated high schools than any other State.
The story of the
development of its township high schools, a type that might well be
adopted in other sections of the country, is told by University Visitor
Hollister in Bulletin 25, 1917, of the United States Bureau of Educa-
tion, and many interesting data are presented in Principa,L Smith's
Survey of Illinois High Schools. The law permitting the or!raniza-
' tion of a high school in contiguous territory regardless of political
boundaries, under which nearly 200 new schools were established,.
maxi in 1917 declared unconstitutional; but the next legislature -
promptly passed'a better act.
Of the present situation State Supt.
Blair writes:
All of the territory of,a county not iiccluded in a recognized high-school district
is considered nonhigh-school territory. A board is elected within this nonhigh-
school territory and levies a tax to pay the tuition of all eighth-grade graduates
residing within the notilaighechool territory.
An unusual and most effective plan
is provided for taking care of the two and three year high schools.
In many of our
mining villages and smaller communities the people desiring to keep their children
at home during the first years of the high-school course sought to maintain a high
school and an elmentary school on the one tax of 14. per cent on the assessed veins-
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
198
tiou of the property.
In almost every instance it was found that to maintain such
a high school meant the ahortenink of the elementary school, the lowering of the
wages paid the teachers and the consequent reduction of elementary-school oppor-
tunities.
Now, this new law places all recognized two and three year high schools
within -the nonhigh-school territory.
All of the funds within these local two and
three year high-school districts is to be used for the elementary schools and they
are taxed with the rest of the district for the payment of the tuition of all the eighth-
grade graduates within the nonhigh-school district.
All the children attending
these two and three year high schools have their tuition paid out of this fund.
If a
two-year high-school district has 20 pupils enrolled, it receives 20 times the per
capita cost of maintaining the high-school courses.
If a three-year high school has
35 pupils, it receives 35 times the per capita met of maintaining the high-school
courses, all paid out of the nonhigh-school tuition. fund.
You will note that the
provisions for forming community high-school districts is much better safeguarded
than under the law of 1911, which was declared unconstitutional by the supreme
court.
In Kentucky adjacent counties have been given the privilege by
the legislature o combining for the establishing and maintaining a
joint high school covering a territory larger than the single county
as an educational unit.
The congressional district high schools- of
Georgia are well known. And in North Carolina there are the
farm -life schools.
Of these State Supt. Joyner says in his recut
report:
Since the amendment, to the farm-life school law, allowing any county that will
provide the required equipment and an annual maintenance fund equal.to the
amount received from the State to avail itself of the State appropriation not to
exceed a maximum of $2,500 for instruction in agriculture, sewing, cooking, house-
told economics and other farm-life subjects in connection with one or store of its
rural high schools, 9 new farm -life schools have been established during the biennial
period, making a total of 21 such schools in 17 counties of the State.
No part of the
annual maintenance fund for these schools or of the funds for their necessary equip-
ment is allowed to be taken out of the regular school funds and to shorten the
regular public-school term until th.ose funds are sufficient to provide a minimum of
six months. The significant and hopeful fact about their establishment through
the cooperation and sacrifice of the people of the communities in which they are
located is the evidence that it furnishes of intense interest in the education of country
boys and girls for country life, and of the faith of the country people in a sort of
education and school that can and will provide better preparation for more profitable,
more comfortable, more healthful, more joyous, and more contented living in the
country.
The progress of centralized schools in North Carolina and the
program for the future is set forth as follows:
Under the law and the rules adopted by the State board of education not more
than four of these schools can be established in any one county.
No public high
school can be established except in connection with a public school having at least
two other teachers in the elementary and intermediate grades, and the entire time
of at least one teacher must be devoted to the high-school grades.
No public high
school can be'established in a town of more,thaa 1,200 inhabitants.
Each district in which a public high school is established is required to duplicate
by special taxation or subscription the amount apportioned to the school from the
State appropriation; each county is required to apportion to esclipublic high school
171028 °-21Btill. 88--1.8
194
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
out of the county fund an amount equal to that apportioned to it out of tfie State
appropriation.
The minimum sum that can be apportioned annually from the State
appropriation for the establishment and maintenance of any public high school is
$200 and the maximum sum $600.
The total sum annually available for any public
hikh school established under this act ranges, therefore, from $600 to $1,800. The
high-school funds can be used only for the payment of salaries of the high-school
teachers and the necessary incidental expenses of the high-school grades.
There are now from one to four public high schools in each of 96 counties of the State.
There are therefore four counties in which no public high schools have yet been estab-
lished.
For the proper maintenance and development of these high schools more
money will of course be required.
It is our hope to be able to select the best high school in each county, taking into
consideration the location, the accessibility, the environment, etc., and develop this
into &laid first-class county high school, doing thorough high-school work for four full
years' and some vocational work in agriculture, sewing and cooking, and other rural-
life subjects.
Around this school should- be built a dormitory and a teachers' home.
The dormitory, properly conducted, would afford an opportunity for the boys and
girls from all parts of the county to board at actual cost.
Many of these could return
to their homes Friday evening, coming back Monday morning.
Many of them who
do not have the money to spare to pay their board would probably be able to bring
such provisions as are raised on the farm and have them credited on their board at the
market price. A small room rent could be charged each student.
The principal's
home would make it possible to secure a better principal and keep him probably for
years, thereby giving more permanency to the school and more continuity to the work,
making a citizen of the teacher and enabling him and his family to become potent
factors in the permanent life of the community, contributing no small part to uplifting
it, morally and intellectually, by their influence.
Then the other high schools in
different sections of the county should be correlated with this central school, and the
course of study in these should he limited probably to not more than two years of
high-school work, requiring all students desiring to pursue the last two years of the
four-year course to attend the central county high school, which will be fully equipped,
in all respects for thorough high-school work.
Thirty-nine of those public high schools now have 46 dormitories,
in which more than 18 per cent of the county high-school pupils
secure board at actual cost and pay for it in money or in provisions
at ,the market price.
That the effect of consolidation has not everywhere proved satis-
factorf is evidenced by the following quotation from the 1917 report
of the inspector of high schools in Minnesota.
There for several years
a law has boon in force making possible the affiliation of a number of
rural schools with a central shool of 12 grades, one superintendent
overseeing all the work.
As a State -wide policy, association of rural schools with a central school as a means
of improving the rural schools is not satisfactory.
The superintendent of a village or
city school system is, by training, experience, and lack of first-hand interest, unsuited
to the task of supervising rural schools. The exception proves the rule.
Withdraw
State aid for association, and the entiretabric which has been building for eight years
would fall to pieces.
In few places has it brought-lasting good to either party to the
contract.
The villages and cities will never succeed in making over the rural school
or otherwise materially improving rural-life conditions.
Like the rest of us the farming
'people must and will work out their own salvation.
The great benefits which we
expected from association were to come as the result of closer and more skillful super-,
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
195
vision.
But, with a few notable exceptions, we have accomplished nothing for the
improvement of the rural school and have wrought injury to the central school itself
by scattering the time and interest of the superintendent over too large and diversified
a field.
It should he evident to even a casual reader that all programs for
consolidation more or less tend toward a centralization of authority.
Whenever funds are supplied from a central source, direction of work
naturally follows.
Repeatedly in the report are found "the course
of study as outlined or approved by this office," and similar phrases.
No theme was more frequently or emphatically presented at the
Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence than
the necessity of State and Federal aid to schools in order not only
to equalize the opportunities for education but also to safeguard the
interests of the larger political and social units.
The tendency and
the underlying sentiment toward centralization are strong; before
induration they should be carefully and fully considered as part of
the new national program.
LARGER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT.
Another tendency manifested in the reports of the biennium is
toward a more complete use of high-school buildings.
The marvelous
increase in registration during the past years has made it obvious to
the observant that even the ambitious building program could not
long satisfy the demands upon it.
Now, partly because of the great
enrollment in secondary- schools and partly because the war has very
generally put a stop to now construction, there are numerous reports,
especially in eastern cities, of high-school buildings being occupied
more or less all day by two or more platoons of pupils.
This duplicate
use of high-school Wildings is found very generally in Now York
City and also in Schenectady, Jamestown, and Erie, N. Y.;
New
Haven, Conn.; Paterson and Jersey City, N. J.; Chelsea, Mass.;
Kansas City, Mo.; and Dallas, Tex.
Many cities report that in the
high-school building are held public meetings
various kinds; in
Stamford, Conn., for example, during 1916-17 there were in the high-
school building for the public 15 lectures, 39 receptions, 18 entertain-
ments, 22 civic meetings, and 8 "other functions," with an estimated
total attendance of 16,900.
More and more high-school buildings
are open for evening schools, for summer schools, and for other
activities during the vacation months.
The Washington Irving High
School in New York City, for example, during the summer of 1918
wt
used as a regular academic summer high school: as a school to
fit adult women for Governmeat service; as a recreation center,
Using the gymnasia and f.00fs for play and dancing and the assembly
hall for concerts; as a community forum, where various groups met
for the discussion of public questions; and as quarters for university
extension courses.
196
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
THE HIGH SCHOOLS AND THE COLLEGES.
Less than formerly is being said about college entrance require-
ments, partly because the colleges have, from time to time modified
their demands, partly because a larger number of high schools,
usually the small or the weak ones, attempt fo# all pupil's nothing
but what is required for entrance to college, and partly because
many other secondary schools are differentiating their work, pre-:
paring some pupils for college and others for the immediate demands
of society.
The most significant changes regarding college entrance
during the biennium were probably the new requirements of four
prominent women's colleges of the East and the decision of the North
Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, in the territory
of which is 55 per cent of the high school population, not to partici-
pate further in the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Require-
ments.
it is stated that now not more than 15 Per cent of the
students who 'miter college do so by passing admission examinations.
The criticism by colleges of the high schools and their work has
been very neatly turned by Inspector Hand, of South Carolina, in
his annual report for 1917:
Much has been said and written in recent years about the increased requirements
for college entrance.
The requirements have been increased.
But there is another
side to the natter one that is very rarely mentionA.
What advance has been made
in the standards of the colleges beyond the entrance requirements? How much
higher grade of work is the freshman class doing? How much higher grade of work
is the senior elms getting? A close comparison of some of your catalogued for 1909-10
with those for 1916-17 reveals a curious, if not incongruous, state of affairs.
Colleges
that have within that time almost doubled their published entrance requirement&
are doing almost the same work they did seven yeare ago.
For illustration, take
the subjects that are fairly well graded, such as mathematics, Latin, and English.
In numerous instances the wording describing these courses has not been changed
in years.
In many instances the textbooks have not been changed.
In others the
textbooks have been changed only as to authors.
In still others considerable changes
have been made in the freshman and sophomore work with very few in the junior
and senior work.
This situation explains how pupils from ordinary four-year high
schools are still getting into the sophomore clam with discouraging frequency.
He goes on to point out that all of the 15 colleges of South Carolina
that .. "requirea 14 units for admission are not justified in so doing.
by either thei own work or by that of the high schools of the State,
and that in the freshman class of these colleges there are 146 per cent
of the number of pupils in the fourth year of high schools in the
State in the preceding year.
Fully one-half of the freshmen entered
on condition.
Your patrons and the public have a right to know just how these conditions are
removed.
In how many hours do you work off two units of conditions, requiring in
the high school 240 sixty-minute hours? Who does the work and in what manner
is it done? Show the public in your catalogues bow, it comes about that a 12-unit
student with two units to make up can graduate on schedule time with the 14-unit
a
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
197
students without hurt to either.
What effect is the plan going to have on the main-
tenance of four-year high schools?
It is already telling against them.
The criticism is quoted At length because of its pertinency to con-
,
ditions in several other States as well.
There is evidence of an increasing effort .by the high school to
inform elementary pupils of its offerings and opportunities.
Some
cities (e. g., Milwaukee) publish handbooks for the information of
eighth-grade pupils;
and many others
(e. g., Decatur,
and
Dallas, Tex.) publish similar handbooks that are distributed to the
incoming freshmen in order that they may quickly adjust them-
selves to new conditions.
In Cleveland, Ohio, the seniors in different
high schools are reported to have visited the eighth grades from
which they came and there to have made brief talks on the benefits
of high-school education.
Data in numerous reports indicate the growth of a more critical
attitude of schoolmen toward their work.
Statements of "impres-
sions" and of untested experiments are more and more giving way
to records substantiated by standard measures.and by definite figures.
Because of the complexity of the aims in secliodary school subjects,
few standard measures have so far been developed; but in several
surveys and city reports are the scores of high-school pupils in spell-
ing, in composition writing, in reading, and in algebra; the Ayres,
Ilillegas, Kansas or Thorndiko, and Monroe or Rugg and Clark
measures being used.
When the purposes of each phase of secondary
education have been more clearly defined, we may expect the devel-
opment of tests adequately to measure aPcomplishments of all kinds.
FAILURES AND MARKS.
It is interesting to note the (Concern that is now being taken by
school administrators with failures and school marks.
The aca-
demic studies concerning these topics, startling and disappointing as
they have always been, are now being applied widely to reveal infor-
mation that will lead to the improvement of school work.
El Paso,
Tex., Stamford, Conti:, Paterkon, N. J., Topeka, Kans., and Altoona
and Johnstown, Pa., are cities that have published in their annual
reports studies of failures in thei high schools.
Supt. Cary included
in "Education in Wisconsin " a study l?y Jeanette Rankin of the
number and per cent of pupils dropped, failed, and promoted in 75
high schools of the State.
This is the most comprehensive of recent
studies.
It shows that for the 75 high schools 10 per cent of all the
student-hour work was dropped and, 9 per cent failed. As usual,
the worst records were during the first year, in the more conventional
subjects, and by the boys.
-
A study of the marks recorded by subjects and by teachers fre-
quentl leads to a revision of the marking system.
The story of how
this happened in one school is interestingly told by Supt.i Camp, of
-
..
`.
.
. .
-
;.'s
'
,
.-
.`
"_- .
_
198
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Stamford,' Conn., in his report for 1917, and afterwards more elabo-
rately in the School Review.
The weighting of marks so that they
will give qualitative as well as quantitative credit seems to be widely
accepted, and individual schools report that the plan when used has
given satisfaction.
In Chicago Supt. Shoop recommended shortly
before his death that credits of increasing weights be given by the
high schools for the subjects from freshman to senior.
This would
be a variation of a rather widespread practice of denying a pupil the
privilege of taking for credit any academic subject listed in the cur-
riculum more than one year above or below the class in which the
pupil is.
RETARDATION, ATIYENDkNCE, AND ELIMINATION.
Closely related to a consideration of failures and marking systems
are the studies of retardation, attendance, elimination, the source of
high-school pupils, and the immediate destination of the graduates.
Age-grade tables have for a number of years been common in reports
on the elementary schools; they are now appearing with increasing
frequency in the sections concerning. the high schools.
The worth
of such a study is determined, of course, by what results from it;
there is no apparent 'value in merely collecting and publishing the
figures.
One superintendent very properly is pleased with the num-
ber of
pupils in the high school, as he had
effort to recruit for further study young men and women who had
prematurely left school for work; another administrator would with
equal propriety be so disturbed by such a showing as to make a
study of the efficiency of the grammar grades. .Several schools
report the number of pupils who are present for different proportions
of the Semester, but not one of them correlates the data with the
facts concerning success in school work, and not one of them presents
any program for improving the attendance.
One of the most pleasing results of the secondary school develop-
ment is its increase ' holding power.
In scientific studies the term
"persistence" is replacing "elimination."
The losses between the
beginning of the ninth' grade and graduation, however, are still very
large.
Pickell and Winkelblech, using a rough measure, have showed
that in the States the highest percentage of the freshman class to be
in school four years later is 54, in Indiana; the lowest, 17, in the
Carolinas.
For'the United States the percentage is 38.
In New
York City, where a large number of pupils are said to enter-the high
schools to await the time when they may secure working papers or
tp ascertain by.ssampling whether they will like the work or not, the
percentage is as low as 21.
Supt. Cary reports that in 1916 the
enrollment of Wisconsin high schools was distributed as follows:
Special students, 1; fieshmen, 34; sophomore", 29; juniors, 20;.
seniors, 16. Of the 16 seniors, 14 graduated.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
199
Inspector Meredith records the progress of the class entering New
Jersey high schools, as follows:
I car.
Grade.
Numher.
Per cei11.
1914
1915
1916
1917
IX
X
XI
X11
16,tK
11,07
., 072
6,50:
109a
47
32
El Paso, Tex., l.a Crosse, Wis., Paterson, N. J., Topeka, Kans.,
and other cities present tables showing the number and percentage Of
°lin-lined° by semesters and by causes; and Kansas City, with its
efficient
iurp
of measurements, publishes a comparative table
that c
thins the approximate percentage of all pupils entering the
public schools who complete the high-school course in 17 cities.
The range is from 7.3 and 7.4, for Newark and New York, to 25.8 and
25.9, for Portland, Oreg., and Seattle.
"In 1891," the Kansas City
report continues, "only 4 per cent of our pupils who entered the ele-
mentary schools completed the high-school course, but in 1917 this
per cent had increased to 19.8."
The Kansas City report\for 1917
also shows the percentage of high-school pupils dropped annually
from 1900 to 1917.
The median percentage for the 19 years'is 20.1,
with a probable error of 1.1; however, the average for the \last 9
years is 19.4, or 1.4 per cent less than that for the first 9 'years of
the period.
HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS.
In "Education in Wisconsin," we are told the source of high-schOol
pupils.
In the whole Statewhere, by the way, 17 per cent of all
city pupils are in high school, as compared with 7 per cent of all
country pupils-63 per cent of the pupils entering secondary schools
in 1915-16 come from local city elementary grades, 2 per cent from
the elementary grades of other cities, 7 per cent 'from State graded
schools, 18 per cent from rural schools, and 10 per cent from private
and parochial schools.
Of the graduates in 1915-16 of the eighth
grades of Wisconsin, 46 per cent entered high school from tl
rural
schools, 41 per cent from the State graded schools, 85 per ceirt from
the village grades, and 85 per cent from the city grades.
These
figures, while encouraging as indicative of progress, show that there
is still much to be done even in such favored communities to equalize
dpportunities for secondary education.
Such information .should
be had for many cities and States, so that a new national program
may be soundly based on facts.
4s10 less important than the source of our high-school pupils is
'tit becomes of them immediately after they graduate. The most
compkte recent study seems to be that di the Des Moines Public
200
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19l6-1918.
School Pupil and Employment. Vocational Guidance Bulletin No. 2,
.1916.
In this we are given a summary of the study of 380 graduates
of the public high schools in 1914, supplemented by a tabulation of
the overambitious plans of the senior class for their immediate
future, of the occupational distribution of the parents of children
attending high schools, and of what the employers of graduates have
to say; about them.
Other tabulations of the occupations of parents
of high-school pupils are given by Thorndike and by Koons in Edu-
cational Administration and Supervision.
Those who believe that
the primary duty of the schools is to prepare their pupils to perform
better the desirable activities that they are likely to perform any Wit
will find in such tabulations much information to influence the
reorganization of courses of study.
HIGH SCHOOLS FOR NEGROES.
One phase of secondary education has never been fully considered,
that of negro boys and girls.
In the South, where enough negro
pupils desire secondary education to warrant it, segregated high
schools are established, butSthe curricula and courses are ofterrnot
well adapted to the peculiar needs of the pupils.
The provisions at
St. Louis must be cited as conspicuously good, however.
Frequently
the equipment is poor and the content of the courses highly academic.
Age-grade tables, as those from El Paso, show the negro pupil con-
siderably retarded, and the elimination everywhere is high.
In
Louisville, Ky., for 1915-16, only 10 'per cent of the students, were
enrolled in the senior class, and the sopl omores were 44 per cent of
the number enrolled as freshmen.
In t
-hole State of Kentucky
in 1916-17 there were 32 negro high schoo s, with an average enroll-
ment of fewer than 41 pupils, 1,225 negrio pupils for the entire State.
Half of the.entire enrollment was in the freshman class and only 9.4
per cent of it in the senior class.
It should be noted that in these
schools the average value of the equipment for manual training and
domestic science was less than $700, flinging from $25 to $2,150.
The per capita cost for conducting the 32 schools was $12.
In the North, negro children, when they apply are admitted to
high schools with little or no distinction because of their race- or
peculiar needs.
Some years ago Mayo showed that in one' of the
New York City high schools the negro pupils, although.a very highly
selected group,.did work innl rior tohat of the white pupils.
In the
1917 report of Supt. Wilson,
Topeka, Kans., there are tables pre-
senting the facts concerning withdrawal and failuie in the high
school of negro and white pupils by subjects for several semesters.
The tables are-prefaced by the statement:
The facts shown in the following tabulations I am reporting with regret.
The tables
show an abnormally high per cent of failures among the colored pupils.
*
" * The
facts are that the colored pupils show a lack.ot efficiency somewhere in the system.
The problem is not one for the cheap politicians or the demagogues of either race.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
201
The facts presented seem to show that in the Nation as a whole
the conditions of secondary education are not. as satisfactory for the
negro pupils as for the white.
If the State affords education not as
a luxury for the individual, but rather as a serious investment for
the return which_ will come to itself, it can not safely neglect any
important group of its people.
SECONDARY SCHOOL 'PEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS.
Before the declaration of war by the United States the movement
for improving the quality of secondary school teachers was strong.
Many States, particularly those in the North Central Association
territory or contiguous to it, had adopted for high schools standards
which included one or more items concerning the preparation and
experience of teachers; and the inspectors in several reports stated
that the quality was steadily improving.
The legislative committee
of the Kentucky .EduCational Association in 1917 passed. the follow-
ing resolution:
Since the rules and regulations of the State board of education, under the require-
ments of statutory law. tic the minimum academic scholarship of teachers in standard
four-year high schools at the equivalent of high-school graduation plus two addi-
tional years' training in normal schools or colleges, we favor the enactment of those
regulations into statutory law for the advice and government of boards of education
and trustees throughout 011/. State.
Washington has raised its requirements for high-school teachers
to a complete college course which includes 12 semester hthirs in
education; and the State superintendent of Utah announces in his
report for 1916 that:
The State board of education has wisely increased tide requirements for certificates
to teach until at present high-school teschers iruist have completed a standard col-
lege course of four yearn, and this must include, or the applicant must have in addi-
tion to his degree, after June 30, 1917, one year of professional work, 18 hours of
which, must tv strictly educational subjects.
This is, essentially the requirement of California, a State which
for a" number of years had led the country with its standards for
teachers 9f public high schools.
Even LouiSiana, the schools of
which have been handicapped by extremely inadequate appropria-
tions, adopted in 1916 a standard that will be gradually raised until
the minimum requirement for teachers in high schools is graduation
from a four-year college or university course.
This standard can
hardly be attained unless the State makes a material increase in
salaries for high-school teachers, the average at that time being
$680.
As an, illustration of a practical set of requirements,. those
from New Hampshire are given, together with the introductio,
both from Circular No. 1, 1917.
At this time,it is impossible to obtain aecondary teachers trained for their work.
We will accept this condition for the present, but we must insist that teachers have
no other capital defect beyond their ignorance of the teaching process.- We have
202
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
long demanded that they be satisfactory in Character and in mentality. We must
now insist that they have in addition sufficient maturity and experience to make
them leaders of young people, and sufficient knowledge so that they may guide them.
This department plans to uphold superintendents and headmasters in their efforts
to secure only qualified teachers. and to4kis end will make th
specific approval of
the teachers engaged a preliminary to the approval of the school.
The following 'schedule is published to enable school officials to determine the
general education and the special training to be required of candidates.
It will be
noted that in two notable particulars this statement differs from those given before.
(1) A real requirement is set for the education of teachers of coyunerce. The com-
merce courses have been the least successful and the least honored of secondary
courses. and a common reason is that the teachers have seldom been the equal of the
teachers ,in other courses in education. in experience, or in maturity.
This require-
ment is designed to prevent the approval of such teachers.
It is desirable that
schools drop their commerce curriculum if they are unable to secure qualified teachers.
(2) The second change is in Tequired special preparation.
It is insisted that teachers
be not aasigned to teach subjects with which they are not familiar.
.
General eth,ration required.'reachers must have a bachelor's degree from an
approved college.
Erceptione.Teachers who have studied four full years in approved &dx.* of
post-secondary kule.
Teachers who were in service in New Hampshire approved secondary schools
prior to July 15. 1905.
Teachers of modern languages who have received adequate European or other
training.
Individual cases to be approved by the department.
Provided in this
and the three cases following that not leas than 80 per cent of their teaching be in their
specialized subject.
Teachers of domestic arts who have pursued at least three full years of post-
secondary study iu approved special institutions.
Teachers of commerce wholave pursued at least two full years of post-secondary
study in commerce in approved special institutions. In addition they must have
two years of general post-secondary study, of office work or of successful experience
in teaching.
Teachem of mec
arts with scholastic and practical preparation sufficient far
needs of their wo
.
Individual cases to be approved .by the department.
.
Teachers holding Grade B certificates whose work is restricted to grades soved to
nine. except as specifically approved.
Teachers who have one, two, or three years of poet-secondary study in approved
institutions may be approved to teach courses not above the corresponding years of
the secondary program.
Teachers who fail to meet the above qualifications but are now teaching with suc-
cess in approved New Hampshire secondary schools: Individual cases to be approved
and the courses that may be taught to be specified by the department.
Specill preparation required.
Teachers must be prepared 'by two or more years of
postsecondary. study of each aubjeot they propose to teach, such study to istlude
the branches of the subject presented in the secondary courses.
Exceptions. Teachers 'who have but one or two classes in is subject may be pry,
pared by one year of pest-secondary study of that subject.
Each year of poet-secondary study may be replaced by two years of successfUl
teaching of the subject in approved secondary schools.
For inexperienced teachers
e department may waive the minim' um require.
went for one clam Only.
Indivi
aI cases to be approved.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
203
These illustrative standards are much more encouraging, however,
than -the reports of actual conditions.
The progressive State of
Wisconsin reports that., in 1916, 79.per cent of its high-school teachers
in cities, and 56 per cent of those in county high schools, were,gradu-
ales of colleges or technical schools, no account being taken of the
standing of these higher institutions.
Pennsylvania reports that
only 46.2 per cent. of its high-school teachers were in 1917 graduates
of colleges.
State Supt. Morrison makes a frank statement of the
conditions in New Hampshire:
Orthe 507 different teachers employed in secondary schools of all elapses approved
by, this office for the school year 1915-16, 393 or 77.5 per cetit were graduates of col-
leges which grant the bachelor's degree.
Of the remaining 114, the large majority
were instructors in practical arta subjects judged to have had the requisite special
training for instruction in the subjects which they teach.
Twenty -five were teach-
ers of modern language and other liberal arts branches who were not college graduates
but who had prepared themselves by special study for instruction in their, chosen.
fields and were deemed to have had the full equivalent of college graduation.
The
remainder of the 111 were graduates of normal schools or equivalent institutions
teaching in junior high schools or thitd and fourth class high schools.
Ninety-three
per cent of all teachers of liberal arts branches in first-class secondary schools wer6
graduates of colleges.
We have less than a dpzen teachers of-modern languages in the State who are thor
oughly competent in education to teach modern languages in a high school, but most.
of the remainder are passably competent; less than 20 who are thoroughly competent
for science; less than half a dozen for history;a dozen for mathematics; a very few for
Latin; almost nobody in English unless the pplatitie coveption of the language and
literature of the niother tongue which most of }hem bring from college is competency.
And yet the teaching staff of our secondary schools is better educated to-day than it
was 20 years ago, when it K9.8 no uncommon thing for teachers to be employed for
high schoOls whose education had been limited to that of the schools in which they
taught.
We have still in this State, at in most States, a secondary teaching staff which is
whollruntrained.
Not one per cent of the secondary teachers of the State-have ever
had any professional training athll comparable towhat 44 per cent of the elementary
teaching force his had. A few have taken courses in education in college, and that
is a help.
There are reported 147 persons teaching in the secondary schools of the State in the
school year 1915-16 who graduated from college in 1911 or 1915.
This is more than
one-third of all the college graduates teaching during the year, and the same propor-
tion practielilly would hold for the lioncollege teachrs. That means that you turn
over yous boys Ind girls at their most impressionable age to striplings who are without
training or experience, who hpve no notions of teaching except those which they
bring with them from college; and who in most cases have no intention whateveof
teaching beyond the few years which form a fitting in
ude between college and
matrimony. We wo,ildn't deny them the latter, but w do think that if they are
going to teach at all they ought to learn how to teach jug
do the girls who are two
years younger and who are teaching in the-elementary ec ools.
Our notebooka and recatds of inspection telt- a wretched tale of the faFical instruc
tion commonly found in the classrooms of these young teachers, particularly in
English, both language and literature, in history, in languages and in science.
Ordinarily teaching consists in assigning pages out of in incomprehensible textbook
1
V
204 ,
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
or dictating from a college notebook.
And this to boys and girls of an.age which
seed skillful teaching beyond any age other than that ofjhe primary school.
Of course, tliere is found the occasional "born teacher," and, on the other hand,
anybody who has the mentality to have won through college improves through ex-
perience.
But the point of view is prone to remain permanently formalistic, and it
too often rapidly becomes pedantic. ,
In order that administrators might have some index of the kind
of teachers tile different colleges are furnishing the Schools of New
Hampshire, Dr. Morrison bps asked the several superintendents and
plincipals of the State to rate their,teachers who were rec&it college
gratdates., The following instructions were used:
re
.
.
In rating use the letters A, B, C, and D!. Use A for a teacher who is all that you
could reasonably ask, efficient in practice and possessed of an understanding of what
she is doing and why she is doing it.
Use D for teachers who were incompetent and
ought to have been dismissed or were dismissed.
Use B and C for grades between.
A "B" teacher may be thought of as characterized by the term ;Good average.-
A "C" teacher is one who is rather below the mark and ought to be dismissed unless
she improves, but in whose ease there is. ground for hope that she will improve.
She is not incompetent. -Mark critically and severely.
These ratings for the whole State- are tabulated by colleges and
published,
State. High School Inspector Hand, of South Carolina, makes an
even more depressing statement of facts as he sees them in his
State:
To anyone familiar with the conditions that obtain in many places throughout the
State, it is simply amazing to see the absolute indifference of the people as to the
qualifications of those who teach' theirichildren. and fleece th m of their money.
Men and women innocent of any charge of education. without tny aptitude to teach,
and without any experience are put in charge of schools, in the ,ace of the fact that
they are to have little, if any, supervision.
It is safe to say that there uredn South
Carolina 500 white teachers holding legal certificates to teach who could not make
a grade of 50 per cent on the studies of the eighth %nd ninth grades of our public
schools, if examined as rigidly as are the pupils of these grades in the best schools&
of the State.
It would be unsafe to say how many white teachers are holding cet-
dficatevrantetd on all manner of pretexts, from long experience (successful or unsuc-
cessful) dawn to two weeks' enrollment at some summer school.
Notwithstanding
the fact that almost anybody can get a certificate to teach school, there are in the
public schools not fewer than 100 white teachers drawing salaries without any sem-.
blance of legal authority to teach. Some of them have been teaching from 10 to 20
years without a certificate of any kind.
These statements have concerned the .teachers of entire States.
From the following quotation from the 1918, report of Associate
Supt. !'ildsley, of New York, it seems that even cities where the
highest absolute salaries are paid are suffering materially from the
low quality of-new .tau-aers entering the high schools.
Abnormal
business conditions are not the only epee.
We have experienc. ed this past year an increasing difficulty in securing men teacfrers
of the personality and training New York City hail a right to demand in theleachers
of its youth. The rapidly mounting -cost of living has so reduced the purchasing
sib
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
205
power of salaries that men. and especially married men, can not live on the salaries
which were fixed on the basis of a much lower coat of living.
While teachers salanes
have been reduced through the operation of rising prices opportunities for employ-
ment at rising salaries have been opened up in bueine®, with the result that not only
ie the supply of men teachers being cut oft at its source. namely. the graduating classes
of our colleges. but teachers now in our schools are being drawn away by the larger
salaries paid in other occupations.
Unless the high-schpupils in this city are to
be taught entirely by women or by men of inferior perWtality inadequately trained,
and without the character and the qualities of leadership which are needed in those
who are expected to train our boys and girls for the responsible duties of citizenship,
a very considerable increase in le salaries of -high-school teachers must be made.
Much as we all deplore the constant increase in the tax rate, the people of New York
Must realize that in this city. With its large foreign population, the cost of educatiop
.must be reckoned &first charge on revenues
.
It needs only
casual comparison of the so-called salaries of school-
teachers with the wages now received by men and women in the
world of industry and commerce to explain these conditions and
others equally bad, though for various 'lessons not presented* in
school reports.
THE TENURE OF TEACHERS APID PRINCIPALS.
However good teachers and principals are, schools can not by
satisfactory unless tenure in the same position continues over a
cInsiderable period.
In Wisconsin the median length of experience
for all high-school teachers was in 1916 four years; theignedian length
of service in one locality wai one year or less. In Pennsylvania
the story, is only a little better: Half the teachers who are graduates
of colleges have taught five years or less, and half pf those who are
only graduates of normal schools have taught only two years longer.
The condition in small high schools is everywhere pitifully bad,
changes of teachers occurring with great frequency, and supervision
being negligible.
From ,California, where salaries are relatively
high, come the following report and recommendations:
The commissioner has compiled data showing that the tenure of principals and
teachers in the small high schools is all too abort.
Of the 32 small high schools estab-
lished previous to 1911-12, 6 made no change in the principalship during the four
years ending June 30, 1916; 11 made two changes; 12 made three changes; 2 made four
changes; and 1 made five changht. The average tenure of principals was a little over
two years. These schools in 191-18 employed 104 assistant teachers. Of this number
only 10 were teaching in California high schools in 1911-12.
It would seem therefore
that the small high schools are taught for the most part by teachers with.little experi-
ence.
By fixing the minimum salary of principali at $1,600 per annum, for example,
which is $100 lees than the average now paid, and advancing the salary $100 pet
annum until a maximum of $2,000 is reached, school boards in charge of small high
skihools will undoubtedly be able to retain the srvices of prihcipals for a term of years.
It is desirable that high-school boards be authorized by law to employ principalifor
a four-year term after one year of probationary service.
When we consider teachers' salaries, we find a similar situation. Good teachers are
in demand and better salaries attract them. By adopting a salary schedule based
upon experience the school board will establish a condition favorable to the retention
Or-
206
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
of teachers by the district for a longer period. The cotnrnissioner suggests that the
minimum salary in small high schools be fixed at $1.000 per annum, and that provision
be made for an increase in the salary annually until a certain maximum is reached.
The additional amount paid to teachers under this plan will yield better returns ti
the community than the same amount expended for an additional teacher.
New Hampshire has a worse story to tell:
The teaching force is very unstable.
Very nearly twoJfifths of all our secondary
teachers were new to their places last year.
Three-fifths were holding their positions
for the first or second year; 37.4 of the college graduates had held their degrees for
lees than two years. This proportion holds year after year, and the situation is
almost fatal to the efficiency of our higher institutions.
Only about 9 per cent of our
whole secondary teaching force were graduated from a New IIampshire institution.
With rare exceptions, the remaining 91 per cent have no stake in New Hampshire,
they are not personally the bit, of material, they do not understand our ways, and
naturally they move at the first opportunity.
The situation in Massachusetts is graphically told in the two ac-
companying tables, the first showing the length of tenure of prin-
cipals in each class of 'high schools, Class IV being the weakest, and
the second revealing the absurdly small increases in salary that the
principals were given.
Approximately one-half of those who held
their old positions had no increase at all, and 72 per cent of those
who were rewarded wen!) given an increment of 3100 or less, 26 per
cent very considerably less.
The wonder is that trained men and
women enter -at all, to say nothing of remaining in, a vocation that
offers such niggardly rewards for service.
Tenure of principal's position.
Number of years principal occupied Ids present po-
sition previous to September, 1916.
Number of high schools.
Group
Group
IV.
Total.
Group
I.
Group
11.
0 years
I year.....
2 years
3 or 4 years
6 to 10 years
Over to years
Total
,
1
8
8
13
11
21
23
14
6
4
11
11
7
9
19
12
16
In
21
9
10
7
7
33
38
45
51
36
83
53
63
54
255
The following' table shows that of the 203 principals who occupied
their present positions last year only 100 received an increase in salary.
Increase in principal's salary.
Increment in salaries.
Number of high schools.
Total.
Group
1.
Oroup
11.
Group
Group
IV.,
Change In ptincipal
No Increment
Inoretnent of 180 or Iess
toorement of 651 to Il00
Inatitnant of more than $163
Tow
8
44
2
14
17
14
22
4
8
5
,
9
22
11
16
3
21
15
7
8
3
52
103
26
46
28
86
63
63
64
256
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
207
A State policy of providing adequate increments in the salaries
of high-school principals would do much to attract men of superior
ability and to reduce the excessive changes in the principalship.
The median length of service in their positions by principals of
first-class high schools in Missouri in 1916 was less than two years.
EFFECT OF TIIE WAR ON TENURE.
However bad conditions were in 1916, they became considerably
'worse with the entrance of the United States into the war.
Large
numbers of the young men teachers entered the Army, as there
were no provisions by the Government for retaining them in the
less dramatic but equally important national service of teaching.
Some, especially teachers of science and of industrial subjects, have
forsaken the schdolroom to aid in the campaign behind the lines;
and recently there has been a steady and successful movement to
enlist some M the most desirable young principals and teachers in
various kinds of social work among the soldiers.
The schools have
willingly given up all these men and women as their part in winning
the war, but it is a national shame that a false sense of economy on
the part of the public should have permitted so many thousands of
other principals and teachers to be tempted from the schools by the
large increases in wages offered them .by industries of all kinds.
It is imperative that a program be formulated at an early date for
recruiting for the secondary schools the highest quality of young men
and women and for giving them adequate academic and professional
training to equip them to educate the million and a half boys and
girls who are seeking some form of advanced education.
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS.
For the'1916 report, of State High-School Inspector Kingsley, Prof.
Inglis, of Harvard, prepared the following statement concerning the
preparation of high-school teachers in Massachusetts.
An ideal pro-
gram for the training of such teachers has been formulated and
recently published by the College Teachers of Education.
,
The colleges of Massachusettshave always been the main source from which teachers
are recruited for the secondary schools of the Commonwealth.
Until the last decade
of the nineteenth century the training thus afforded included solely instruction in the
subject matter of the various studies to be twat, ' No attempt was made to provide
specific training through professional subjects of educatii
until 1891, when such
training was begun at Harvard University.
At the present time such courses are to
some extent provided in all except 4 of the 18 collegee of the Cornmohwealth.
The desirable forms of professional training for secondary school-teachers and the
work now offered by Oe colleges of the Commonwealth are as follows:
1. Instruction in th subject !latter of the studies to be taught in the secondary
school.
This is now well provided is nearly all the colleges.
208
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
2. Instruction in the fundamental professional subjects of education, such as the
history of education, educational psychology, and principles of education. Thirteen
or fourteen colleges in the State offer such courses, though in some cases those courses
are taught by instructors not primarily interested in education as a professional subject
of study.
3. Instruction in the principles and problehis of secondary education.
Nine or ten
colleges offer such courses.
Much remains to be done in this field.
4. Instruction in the methods of teaching in the secondary school.
This they he
provided separately 'or combined with instruction in the principles and problems of
secondary education, or combined with instruction in the teaching of various subjects.
ThisOwork is offered in a few institutions only, and is generall yadmitt ed to he inadequate.
5. Instruction in the teaching of various subjects.
Five or six colleges piovide some
courses of this nature, but the condition is very unsatisfactory, in 'part because it. is
uneconomical to provide separate courses in the teaching of all the various subjects
on account of the small number of students intending to teach a single subject, and in
part because such courses are commonly taught by the regular college instructor in
those subjects, whoee experience in secondary-school teaching has been sl slight or entirel y
lacking.
6. Experience in supervised apprentice teaching.
Nine or ten colleges now offer
facilities for such apprentice teaching under professional supervision.
In 1916 about 700 graduates- of Massachusetts colleges entered the teaching pro-
fession, for the most part in the secondary schools of this and other States. Of that
number approximately 500 had taken at least two professional courses in education.
Returnsirom colleges show that few, probably less than 100, had done some apprentice
teaching as a part of their professional training in the college.
The colleges of Massachusetts have made a promising beginning of training teachers
for the secondary schools of the State.
Further progress in that directiod is condi-
tioned by a number of factors, among which the most important are-
1. The establishment of a system of certification which shall prescribe standards of
admission to the service and encourage the professional training of secondary-school
teachers.
2. Recognition of the fact that a graduate year of professional study is essential for
the adequate training of such teachers, and provision for such a graduate course.
3. The provision of greater and better facilities for apprentice teaching under
supervision as a part of the training of secondary-school teachers.
4. Provision of greater and better facilities for prospective teachers in the methods
of teaching each of the various subjects in the secondary school.
It is to be noted that the first three of these factors are to a great extent dependent
upon State action.
Until the present, the initiative in providing facilities for the
training of secondary-eel:tool teachers in Massachusetts has been taken by the colleges
without the active assistance or cooperation of the State.
It is prolaable that the
extension of those facilities must depend to a considerable degree on the action of
State and local school authorities.
New Hampshire suggests the following steps as feasible and likely
to load to a higher grade of scholarship in the teaching force of its
high schools:
1. Let our State college be eo organized as to Ave each student preparing to teach
in high school four years of intensive work in the single subject which ho plans to
make his specialty.
Ile would have minor subjects, also, of course.
There is no good
reason why the young person who has finished high school, and who knows that he is
to teach at all, should not be able to choose his specialty before entering college as
well as on the day he applies for a job.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
, 209
2. Encourage postgraduate work by speciq State aid to graduate teachers who
attain the master's degree, after much thesame plan as that of our present State aid for
qualified teachers in the elementary schools, which has worked so well.
3. Let the State college aim to furnish the bulk of the new teachers needed to recruit
the secondary-teaching staff.
SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION.
Supervision is necessary for the improvement of teachers, whatever
their training or experience.
It is especially needed where it is least
given, in the small 1
h schools that are taught by young men and
women, many of
hom would rapidly become profes;;ional and
increasingly expe
under the guidance of a superyNn. of insight and
sympathy.
As a rule, the county superintendent on his infrequent
visits to a school gives little attention to the high-school teachers,
partly because he feels that their training must have fitted them for
their tasks and partly because the aims and standards of secondary-
school teaching are still indefinite.
The State high-school inspector
probably has a larger influence at his annual visit, chiefly because ho
comes with the preStige'of his position and it perspective gained from
seeing the work of hundreds of teachers who are attempting to give
instruction on the same or similar subject matter.
It would
if the functions of inspection and of supervision could be separated,
as in Arkansas.
Dattt from the several States, much of it unpublished,
give evidence that the State inspectors vary much in their helpfulness
to teachers.
In Maryland, where, since the school survey super-
vision has been emphasized, State Inspector North reports that ho
has visited classes, recorded data on well-devised blanks (see Md.
State Rept., 1917, pp. 168 -169), held individual conferences with
teachers on problems of instruction and with principals on problems,
of administration, suggested plans for working out desired school
improvements, and in a large number of cases met the faculties after
school hours, when questions of immediate moment to the particular
school and of larger significance in the high-school field were discussed.
The report continues:
The plain intent of the present school law, as regards high-school supervision, ie
that the supervisor shall devote himself primarily to supervisionthat is, to the task
of endeavoring to bring about a better quality. of instruction, to improve the actual
teaching in the classroom; and though this involves a number and variety of other
duties, both in the field and in the office, the outstanding function of a supervisor, as
distinguished from an inspector, is unquestionably that of helping to improve teaching
by working with the teachers now in service. The supervisor, therefore, began the
year's work with the plan of working immediately at the actual problems of the
classroom: but lose than one montlfei experience convinced him that the year *ould
have to be devoted principally to procuring changes in the internal organization
of the schools, and in securing the minimum equipment with which a good quality
of teaching might reasonably be expected.
The most conspicuous needs of the school
as whole wore found to lie in these three directions: (1) }dor° apparatus, textbooks,
171028° -21Bull. 88--14
210
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
materials of instruction, library equipment; (2) rearrangement and better adjustment
of school programs to the State course of study; and (3) more and ,better teachers.
Accordingly, this report will review, in a general way, under these three heids the
principal points of the supervisor's findings and efforts.
A part of the discussion of apparatus, textbooks, materials of
instructions, and library equipment is appended:
There were on the approved list for 191G-17, 72 high schools, 30 of the first group and
42 of the second.
Of these, at least 7 of the first group (23 per cent), and at least 20
(47 per cent) of the second group were conspicuously short in these several particulars
of the minimum laid down by the State hoard as requisite for placing a school on the
approved list.
Most of these schools had been on the list for several years, and many
of them had drawn the State aid ever since 1910, when it was first granted; but they had
never been furnished, nor would they, apparently, ever have been furnished with
sufficient equipment to do genuine high-school work without the steady, insistent
pressure and frequent regular inspection provided by the new law.
Their shortages
were of various kinds; some had no library and no apparatus of any sort; others had the
unusable remains of an antiquated library and of an archaic laboratory outfit; and still
others had, owing to annual. changes of teachers, let their equipment, good at first,
run down almost to nothing.
These shortages mean that the classroom exercises in
science were limited to mere textbook work, answering rote.questions, the reciting
of memorized portions of the texts; that there was no library reference or supple-
mentary matter available; and that the instruction in the two social subjects, English
and history, was simply dying on its feet, being confined entirely to one bookthe
text used; and the lack of maps and charts, either purchased or homemade, simply
petrified the instruction in history and in Ctesar.
But supervision is needed also in large high schools, either directly
by the principal or by experienced assistants to whom he delegates
this important function.
This is recognized and strongly urged by
Dr. Tildsley, of Now York City, in his report for 1918:
What is most needed in our high schools, next to closer and more skillful super-
vision on the part of the principal himself, is more effective Supervision by the first
assistants who are chairmen of departments. There is a remarkable disparity in the
effectiveness of such supervision at the present time on the part of the various first
assistants in the different schools, and oven between first assistants in the same school.
It seems evident that, in the examinations in the -past, scholarship has been given
emphasis rather than qualities of leadership and administrative ability.
It is to
be hoped that in the coming examinations the board of examiners will emphasize
personality, past achievement in our service, and proved qualities of leadership,
rather than knowledge of the subject matter and even of methods.
Scholarship and
knowledge of methods, if not accompanied by courage, kindliness, and that intangible
quality known as leadership, avail a head of a department but little.
Contrary to
general opinion, our high schools are suffering not from oversupeavision, but from
undersupervision.
Some principals allow themselves to be confined to their inner
offices, busied over details which could often be assigned to a subordinate, When they
should be in the classroom inspiring the teachers and stimulating the pupils.
Some
of these principals, while thus giving too little of their time to actual classroom inspec-
tion, are not even supervising by proxy, since they have not succeeded in developing
heads of departments who are the real leaders and not merely the nominal leaders of
departments and who lead because of their grasp Of the prod ems of their department,
their initiative, encouragement, and judgment. Weak h
of departments for the
most part mustle charged against the principal.of the ec
1.
If the board of exam-
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
211
iners has ever erred in placing unfit teachers on the first assistant's list, only in rare
instances has pressure been exerted on the principal to take a first assistantnot of hie
own choice.
Furthermore, slit+ first assistants have had a temporary tenure for three
years, and (filth)); that period would have lost their licenses on unfavorable reports
of the principals.
II cads of departments grow if the principal
encourages them or
even allow,them to grow. They degenerate if the principal gives them no authority
and does not encourage the exercise of initiative on the part of his chairmen. A
really strong principal will be found surrounded by strong, aggressive, and progressive
chairmen of departments composed of enthusiastic., energetic, efficient teachers.
Where such a condition does not exist, the responsibility lift; with the principal who
has stiff( d the growth of his teachers.
It is obvious that, if effective supervision is to he secured, a'greater
demand must be made as to training and professional fitness on the
principal.
State
Iligh-School
Inspector Calloway,
of
Missouri,
emphasizes this point in his report for 1916:
We need to evolve in this State a position of high-school principal. The city super-
intendent can not give suflivient time to the supervision of instruction in our high
schools.
The superintendent with the grade work and with official duties can not
effectively do this work:
It is clear to me that it must be provided for through the
high-school principal.
Ile must be given more time.
His work must be organized
in such a way that he can find time for work with high-school teachers.
The high-
school principal should be given more authority and his duties more clearly defined.
His status is not at the present time such that his influence with his teachers is strong.
Ile is not taken seriously by high-school teachers, and consequently refuses to take a
hand in matters over which he does not have full authority.
Both authority and
dignity must be attached II) this position before our best men will remain high-school
principals.
When we have created such a position in this State, the high-school
principalship will not be a stepping stone to the superintendency.
The superin-
tendent now has more than he can do.
Such a change will not, in any way, curtail
the importance of the position of the superintendent.
Inspector Kingsley, of Massachusetts, also recommends a require,
went of professional training:.
Too often a principal is selected on the ground that he has a pleasing personality and
has been unusually successful in teaching some one subject.
These qualifications,
while important, are far from adequate,
lie should be a student of educational prob-
lems.
It is extremely desirable that he ahould have taken courses in high-school
organization and administration in a college or university.
This seems tq be a reason-
able requirement in view of the summer schools now offering such courses.
Experi-
ence as principal of a smaller school affords excellent training for similar responsi-
bilities in a larger school, while experience as a department head under a capable
principal is of added value.
Not only must the principal be trained, but he must also be given
time from his administrative duties to visit classes and confer with
his teachers daily in an effort to improve their work.' Every one
who has studied the situation has found that actually few principals
find the time to perform adequately the mostArgportnant function of
their officethe supervision and improvement of instruction.
Mr.
Calloway, by means of a questionnaire sent to principals of all first-
212
BIENNIAL SURVEY OP EDU('ATION, 1916-1918.
class high schools of Missouri, St. Louis and Kanstis City excepted,
found that they distributed their time as follows:
Tearhing periods of prinripats.
Number of periods.
Number
of prin-
cipals.
0
1
2
2
3
3
12
5
37
:ss
7
Per cent
of prin-
cipals.
Median number of periods taught daily. by prinripa s. 5.
Nei
.,duly ben.
Number o periods.
5
2
In
11
311
28
3
Nutnber I l'er cent
of prin.'
01 prin-
cipals.
44
1
37
2
20
3
11
4
1
37
35
24
1
Median number of periods given.daily by principals to kee iing study hall, 1.
Doing office !lark.
Number bI periods.
P
1
2
:t
Number
of prin-
cipal..
70lil
I )
11
Per cent
of mills
01
:3)
21)
0
Median Wonder of periods given daily to office work by principals, 1.
Supercising.
Number
Per cent
Number o. periode.
of prin.
of prin-
cipal.
cipals.
0
82
-0
Less limn 1
8
6
1
le
13
10
0
3
0
n
4
1
1
Median number of period given daily to supervision by pripdpaln, 0.
A similar story is told in the reports from Virginia and Kentucky,
avid doubtless would be repeated iu almost every State if the data
were available.
With the omission of 31. principals in Virginia and
SECONDARY EDUCATION,
218.
of 110 in Kentucky who made no report, and of 20 in Kentucky who
confessed that they gave " very little" time to supervision, the
following tabulation was made:
Amount of time given daily by high-school principals in Virginia and Kentucky to
super
Periods.
Rent ucky.
Per. cent.
Per renl.
Give no perio 11
al
22
Give less than I period
Clive I period
Give 2 periods
15
id
21
Clive more than I period
Give more than 2 periods
A
20
7
1
Oive more than 3 periods
2
Medians
0
The situation is bad enough if the figures are taken us recorded;
it is worse if they are critically examined.
Although there is no
disposition to imply dishonesty on the pa.rt, of principals mak'
return's to the State office 31f -to how they spend their time, it mus
be recognized that the tendency would be to report a larger num
of periods given to professional and supervisory functions than actual
daily practice would warrant;-.moreover, some principals may have
misunderstood
the instructions.
In Kentucky. for exsninle, . 12
principals report that they spent from five to nine periods (folly in
supervision.
One-half of these principals were in- schools of fewer
than 125 pupils, 43 per cent of them in schools of fewer than 50
pupils, and 25 per cent in schools of feWer than 25 pupils.
Surely
it would be worth while for the State inspector to make a study of
the methods and results of such intensive supervision.
Inspector Calloway, of Missouri, makes the following comment on
the returns from his questionnaire study, some of the data of which
were presented above:.
To make a frank statement, there is not in this State, with a very few exceptions,
what inay.rightfully be called a high-school principal.
Except as regards some minor
duties, pravically all of the so-called high-school principals are nothing more than
high-schoolleachers.
They are principals in name only.
This is borne out not only
by the amount of teaching done but also by the tenure of service.
Forty-four per cent
of the teachers are in their positions this year for the first time, while 43 pelr cent of the
principals are in their positions for the first time.
Of the 121 principals reporting.
there are only 11 who de not teach as many as three periods; or half time; 6 report no
teaching; 2 teach one period; and 3 teach two periods per day; 72 per cent teach four
or more periods; 3 per cent teach five periods; and 28 per cent, or more than one-fourth,
do a full day's teaching.
. As study-hall keepers, 77, or 63 per cent of the 121, keep study ball one or more
periods: 86 per cent of the principale give one or more hours per day to office work:
35 per cent give two hours or more; and 15 per cent give throe or more hours per day to
office duties.
a
0
214,-
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUOATION, I918-1918.
When the question of the supervision of instruction in the high schools is taken up
the high-school principal falls far short; 82 of the 121, or 70 per cent, give absolutely
no time to high-school teaching besides their own classes.
An .additional 6 per cent
give lees than one hour to high-school supervision, and only 22 per cent give as much
as one hour to ,igh-school supervision. My obee,rvation is that this is perhaps an
overstatement of what is really done.
Of the 121 high-school principals, 52, or 43 per cent, are .in their positions this year
for the first time; 21 per cent are in their positions for the second year: and 16 per cent
are in their positions for the third year; 5 per cent have been in four years and 4
per cent for five years.
Five high-school principals have been in their present posi-
tions more than 10 years.
The State over the high-school principal has no voice in the selection of his teachers;
97 of the 121 report no voice in the selection of high-school teachers, and those who
report some voice in the selection show that this is usually only in an advisory way.
41'he-great number of new teachers in our high schools each year as a single factor
shows a great need for a supervising principal.
The fact that 44 per cent of the teaching
force in our, high schools change each year is in lige:is an unquestioned demand for
closer supervision.
And the add itTonal fact that 32 per cent of the total teaching force
has never taught in the high schools before this year is but a further,justilication of
this demand.
It is impossible that teachers do satisfactory work tinder such condi-
bons.
Perhaps no other -factor is so largely responsible for the shifting each year of
high-school teachers as the lack of adequate supervision of instruction.
Many teachers
come inw the high scho916 enthusiastic and with high ideals of what ought to he done.
They are misunderstood by their pupils.
Their work does not go as they have planntsl.
They become discouraged, flounder around for a,tipe, and then settle down to the
line of least resistance.
EXTENSION OF FUNCTION OF HIGH SCHOOLS.
The growing critical attitude toward the high school, of which
mention has already been made in this and in the report two years
ago, finds expression occasionally in such a passage as the following
from the superintendent at Williamsport, Pa.:
In many ways the high school is doing excellent wArli, for which both principal and
teachers deserve full credit. 'There are, however, in my judgment, some weak points
that ought to be strengthened. One weakness is in the organization of the high school.
The general attitude of faculty and students seems to be that children are sent to the
school to do a certain amount of work, and that theleachers are there for the purpose
of testing the children to find out whether or not they have done their work and to
grade them accordingly.
Both parties seem to feel that when each has performed his
work individual responsibility ends.
It does not seem to be the prime motive of the.
high-school faculty as a whole to bring out the best that is in the pupil, but rather to
permit the delinquent to eliminate himself from his class or school through repeated
failures.
The chaiacter of this kind tif discipline is negliti%7C and repressive instead
of positive and directive. Even in some colleges to-day there is a dean whose duty
it is to get hold of the failing student early and 'help him. if possible.
Througho'ne the
high-school course there should be continuous growth in self-reliance, willing and cheer.
ful obedience, and closer cooperation between the student body and faculty, and also
like relations should exist between the principal and. faculty.
Criticism must lead primarily to a clarification of the function of
secondary education.
Toward this, end the appended statement of
Cogapissioner Meredith, of New Jersey, will be an. aid:
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
The high school should assist
First, by leading the pupil to a conception of the variety and the significance of the
work to be done in the world.
This may be done. in part at least, through a study of
vocations.
Pupils may thus be led to see what fields of activity all open both to boys
and to girls; what general and what specific personal qualities are necessary for pro-
gressive success, together with the special training required. A study of this character
would reveal the probable demand for workers ina given field, and also indicate the
remuneration to be had in terms of both money and personal and social advantages.
Second, by testing the pupil's capacities and interests over a wide field of subject
matter and activities.
The high-school period is a timefrself-discover and self-
realization for the pupil, and the process of discoverinKitent interests and abilities
is a function both of the teacher and of the pupil.
Third, the school may assist the pupil by giving him definite training in muds-
mental subjects and by providing for systematic physical education, which sheuld
include the inculcation of idealsand standards in this paramount phase of education.
Whatever may be the ideal, there can be little question after read-
'ing numerous reports from both city and State superintendents that
the tendency of high-school education is strongly vocational.
This
tendency is likely to be strengthened by the Smith-I lughes !ft, which
by its opportunities for financial aid seems to be influencing strongly
the reformulation of curricula. Many schools, however, are finding
difficulty in meeting the requirements of the law.
Self-criticism is also leading to a widening of the functions of the
high school.
The tendency to include in secondary education the
seventh and eighth grades as a part of the junior high school is
progressing quietly, especially in the largest cities; New York, Chi-
cago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Boston having established the
beginnings of such schools.
The inclusion of two years upward as
a junior college is generally approved, but for economic reasons the
movement is making little progress.
Springfield, Mass., and Kansas
City, Mo., have recently established junior colleges.
Extension work
by high'schools has been''tried in one county in California, and the
depar.tmeuts of teacher-training for the elementary grades is making
substantial progress.
Reports from the several States testify that
the work is proving satisfactory.
Evening high schools are of in-
creasing importance, with enrollments encouragingly large; but
everywhere the problem is to secure a high percentage of regular
ittendance.
Tire ippOrts testify that the effort is generally being
made to. present in these evening schools, as hag been done in 'the
schools conducted by the Young Men's Christian Association and
.other semipublic or private agencies, what the mature students want.
Summer high schools likewise seem tia, be accepted as of growing
importance' as a regular part of the school system.
It is interesting
to note that a ?lumber of reports justify them by presenting data
concerning not-only the attendance but also the success of the pupils
in earning credits and in maintaining their standing in the successive
terms.
..
1
215
216
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
One deve'opment of high-school work that needs more extensive
treatment than is possible in this report is in the growth and use of
high-school libraries.
From every section of the country have come
reports not merely of increased appropriations for books but also of
the employment of trained full-time librarians and of the introduction
of systematic instruction in library work.
Although it is strange
that this development should have come so late in our secondary
schools, it is no less gratifying that the movetnent is progressing so
generally and with soh vigor.
THE WAR AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
The effect of the war on secondary schools has.been manifest in
the enrollment, in the subject-matter of instruction, and in the
extracurriular activities.
Mention has already been made of the
fact that many teachers and principals, have been drawn from the
schools by 4he demands of other service.
The pupils also have
felt those demands; some of the older ones entering the Army, and
many others, ,especially in centers of indictry, undertaking re-
munerative work. -The superintendent of schools in Chelsea, Mass.,
for instance reports:
During the preceding year there was a large loss of pupils, largely due to the increas-
ing demand for unskilled atd inexperienced laborers.
This condition was aggraval&I
by the increasing cost of living and the fact that many of our pupils came from poor
families in which the older children were called upon to help meet this higher cost of
living by going out to work for wages.
Undoubtedly the higher wages-which were
offered for this kind of labor tempted many pupils who had been gradually losing their
interest in school to leave in order to go to work.
Figures show that in the year 191:i7
16 nearly two-thirds of those who left school were freshmen.
In New Bedford, Mass., 23 per cent of the entire high- school
enrollment withdrew during the year 1916-17, 62 per cent of the
withdrawals going direotly to work.
In Providence, It. I., La
Crosse, VVis., and Aur ora, Ill., there were losses of from 4 to 7 per
cent; and in the State of New Jersey the increase in high-school
enrollment for 1916-17 was only 696 pupils, or 1.4 per cent.
The
large cities, like New York and Boston, have had smaller en-
rollments than the previous steady growth had led them to
expect.
But there has been rfo such emptying of the
schools
as many had expected; in fact, school reports for 195-1917 far more
frequently mention continued growth in high schools than any
decrease in the number of pupils.
Another effect of the war, that in the spirit of the Student-body,
has been presented by the superintendent of La Crosse, Wis.:
.
While, in any circumstance, war is a most deplorable thing, in my judgment it
has been a most wonderful factor in the development in the secondary school o( the
spirit of citizenship, honor, integrity, and loyalty.
The various war activities which
the schools have been doing during the year haVe been wonderful factors of educatiol.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
217
There is no other one influence which has so emphasized the responsibility of even
the high-school boy or girl as a citizen, and demonstrated beyond the question of a
doubt the fact that no individual can liVe in a community and be a part of the com-
munity withAt being responsible to time community, and that no person, even a hig
school boy or girl, can live in modern society as an individual entirely independent-
of the other individuals in the community.
From all quarters come similar reports; never before in the mar-
velous growth of secondary education have the pupils been so en-
thusiastic, so earnest, .and so persistent in their work.
This has in
large measure been due to the fact that high-school teachers haN;e---
incorporated fresh material and developed or emphasized it by the
war situation in their instruction of history, civics, English, science,
mathematics, and practically every othetvsubject in the curriculum.
It is difficult to see how those teachers after rho success that they
report in using meaningful, motivated material can return to the
formal work that has characterized so much, of high-school instruc-
tion.
In this connection riliOuld be mentioned the care Cl elimi-
nation in various cities, notably in Cincinnati under Supt.
7ondon,
of all Material in high-school textbooks that seemed directly or indi:
rectly to support autocratic government.
Never before has there
'
been such a widespread and determined effort to make secondary
schools the means of inculcating the ideals of- democracy.
From sehoolmen and from the pupils themselves all over the
country ,there has been a constantr'effort to learn how the schools
can best help in the war.
Partly to answer this implied question,
the Government has, 'through the Commissioner of Education,
issued a number of btilletins to th4schools and to the public at
large.
Among these may be mentioned "Europe's Educational
Message to America," "Secondary Schools and the War," "Sugges-
tions for the Conduct of Edticational Institutions during the War,"
"Work of American Colleges and Universities -during the War,"
and "Government Policies Involving the Schools in War Time," the
last one mentioned being signed by five members, of the Cabinet
whose departments are most concerned.
The burden of all those
messages has been that the high schools should continue their'work
and make it more vital for the welfare of the Nation in the years to
come. The Commission ;r of Education also published recommen-
dations of a joint committee on the teaching. of the sciences and of
industrial work 'during the war,-and, in cooperation with the Food
Administration, issued a series of ."Lessons in Community and
,
cm..
National Life" for the purpose of r
denting the ideals of democracy
and bmirder conceptions of national life.
All over the country the highschools that were equipped for the
work gave instruction to the men in the selective draft under the
direction of the' National Board of Vocational Education. *passes.
were conducted in telegraphy, in motor mechanics, in the trAdetrades.
0,.
.
.
L.:.:.!
.
.
.
-- ..
....
21$
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
It
connected wit
he construction of airplanes, and in other similar
work which th
men had been assigned, high-school pupils often
assisting their' teachers in the 'instruction.
In the summer schools
training was in many places given for the Women's Business Reserve
Corps, the students being women who were preparing to take the
places of men called to the Army.
In Philadelphia these kurses,
under the direction of Dr. Lucy L. W. Wilson, included the elements
of business, bookkeeping, stenography and typewritingor stenotypy,
filing, office practice, civics, current history, war-time housekeeping,
drawing- and draughting, telegraphy, and English expression, oral
and written.
The extra curricular work of high-school pupils
during the year has included various kinds of assistance to officials
boards, such as the filling and filing of cards, the taSulatioti of
questionnaire returns, the writing of letters and the addressing of
envelopes, the making of posters' , and other public signs; securing
membership for the Rod Cross, the Junior Red, Cross, the Young
Men's Christian Association, the Knights of Columbus; the making of
articles for these organizations; the collection of books for soldiers'
libraries; the selling of thrift stamps and bonds; the adoption of
orphans in the several devastated countries; aiding in the campaign
for conservation of coal and food; gardening and farming.
The
story of the self-denials the enthusiastic work, and the effective ac-
complishment of our boys and girls would make one of the most heroic
chapters in the history of secondary education.
FARM SERVICE BY HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS.
Late in the sprit* of 1917 there were urgent calls for assistance
on the farms by high-school boys, and in response arrangements
were all over the country hurriedly made by which boys were.excused
from some school attendance in' order that they might render serv-
ice.
In some cases they went mi. the farms as regular helpers; in
others they did seasonal work as the crops of the neigithorhood
demanded. A number of schools organized their boys into groups
who rented and cultivated a farm of their own.
Usually school
credit was given boys who worked for three months or so, providing
their marks were passing; but of course there were different provisions
among the many schools whose pupils went to this temporary work.
In Philadelphia the board of education granted furloughs lo boys over
16 whose class standing was satisfactory, the furloughs applying to
May and June and September and October.
In North Dakota the
State board of education resolved on May 16, 1917, "that it is the
patriotic duly of every school in our State to open not earlier than
October 1, in order that as many boys as possible of suitable age can
assist in harvesting the crops."
This resOlutign was approved by the
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
219
State High School Conference.
The board very wisely added to its
resolution this memorandtim:
This board believes that it is also the imperative duty of superintendents, grin-
' cipals, teachers, and boards of education to urge the attendancs It school of all boys
below conscriptive age, because the burden of responsibility which will rest upon the
rising generation will inevitably begreatly increased by the facts of the war.
Although the appeal for boys was made late, there are reports from.
all parts of the country that the response was generous, and to the
surprise of skeptics the city-bred boy on the whole furnished accept-
able aid on the farm. Some of the camps made less money than they
had expected, or even after a summer of hard work went into hbt;
but the balance was on the right side of the ledger; additional food
wads produced, a demand by boys nearing military age for oppor-
tunity to serve was satisfied, and there were numerous by-products of
no inconsiderable value.
Among these may be mentioned an in-
creased appreciation by the public of the 'high-school boy, some
understanding by the city boy of the farmer and his work, and the
introduction of agriculture into several city high schools.
Such
courses are given in Paterson, N. J., Decatur, Ill., Kansas City, Mo.,
and Pittsburgh, Pa.
The experience of 1917 revealed possibilities for so great national
service that in the several States committees were early appointed
to formulate more complete and effective plans than the earlier
emergency had made possible.
Of all the reports none has proved
more intelligent and helpful than that of the committee on mobiliza-*
tion pf high-school boys for farm'service, Frank V. Thompson, chair -
man.
From thieeport extensive quotation is made.
On the basis of its experience in 1917 with 1,600 boys-566 41,16
camps and 1,100 on individual farmsthe Massachusetts committee
made valuable recommendations for the continuance of the work.
The following, both direct and implied, are of general interest:
The committee is eonvineed'that, given the three eseentials of timethat is, early
enrollment of boys and arrangements for employment with farmers, of Proper super-
vision, and of cooperation with the local agricultural organis.ationstho work Call be
successfully carried on.
The committee undertook the development of a plan of placement on farms, as
follows:
(a) One or more boys on indiiridual farms as requested by farmers, the boys to live
in the farmers' homes.
(b) Boyr to work through local placement as nettled on the farne in their vicinity,
returning to their homes at night.
(c) Organization of camps from which boys would go to work by the day or week on
tame in.the vicinity of the camp.
The season's experience has demonstrated to the committee that the provision
made in the high schools, of the State for placing boya on farms for day labor, or for
longer periods, can and should be carried on under a plan similar to that worked out
for this season; that is, through local placement and under local eupervioore.
vo
220
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918
The committee believes that a successful working out of the ramp metbed of supply-
ing labor requires substantial modifications of the 1917 plan.
Among the modifica-
tions to which it wishes to direct attention are the following:
1. The neceasity for immediately beginning a campaign to acquaint the farmers
of Massachusetts with the results of camps established this year and the p
for next year.
2. The committee should assume the responsibility for and control of the super-
vision of camps.
3. The director should have control of the location, equipment. and,eonunissary of
each local camp. but should in every possible way seek to utilize existing community
reiource+s to the end of making the expenses as low as priseilde.
4. All of these matters mean expenditure of public motley rather than private
support by subscription.
(An elfin a't. for 50 eon+. in 1t+Iti is made of $50.000.
In
1917 there was an expenditure of S10.141.31. or $6.33 for each boy.1
5. The administration of plans the committee proposes involve the following
changes:
let The appointment of a rather large and representative advisory committee.
(b) A small executive coinmittee. seven members, largely noel' up of men who
have had experience in the work during the season of 1917, who shall be responsible
to the public safety committee for the conduct of the work.
(r) The appointment of a director of mobilization of school boys, responsible to the
executive committee for carrying out policies, when adopted and ratified by the
executive committee of the public safety committee.
(d) The director to he enpiloyed at once to carry on the campaign of publicity, of
securing cooperation, of making plans for enlistment, of placement- in
hort, all the
work necessary to get an earl y start on the fann work for the season of 19I S.
So far asothe experiment in Massachusetts goes to-day the committee finds:
1. That the right type of boys under efficient supervision are valuable in food
Rodin. t ion.
2. That mutually advantageous working arrangements between boys and farmers
can be brought about.
Th'at the employment of the boys during the summer. belt a ea-sonable occu-
pation. can be done on a considerably. larger scale with no 111:416
!age to the labor
market. e
4. That 88 rapidly as the men withdraw from productive industry for war service,
as increased demands are made upou transportation facilities fig forwarding troops,
munitions, and supplies more And more will production of food be neceasary as near as
piteible to the point where the food is to be consumed.
5. Thateo far as can be foreman, farm labor shortage will be more acute in 1918 thaii
it was in 1917.
The committee recommends that the campe be conducted on a seraimilitary basis,
that training courses he provided for camp cooks and superisdes. and that a uniform
practice in 'conducting camps be worked out embodying the hat urea pn)vod by
experience tit be best.
The Mnint pint* would probably need modification in some details to be workable
, In any other State, but it is of inlaid interest in the present emeicency. The following
is quoted from
circular imated by the olliciah of the judos volunteers of Maine:
MINERAL. INFORMATION.
Purpose, The purpose of this movement is to discover, enlist, and train boys and
young men to supply the extra demand for farm labor made necevairy thro.ugh the
increased acreage propaganda recommended by the Slate and Federal Governments
to provide for the vat emergencies.
.
.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
221
'Enlistment Boys between the ages of 16 and 20, of good moral character, who
can pass the physical examination and furnish satisfactory recommendations, may
qualify as volunteers.
Dates of enlistmentare on and after June 1,' to and including October al, unless
otherwise released by the governor, on recommendation of the director general.
Application blanks may be secured of the principal of the local high school or
academies.
If not, write to headquarters.
Enlistment for both boys and leaders will
be on the same basis as that of the National Guard.
The' boys will be known as
"Volunteers," and the leaders as "Commanders."
All desirable candidatie whose applications have been duly filed at headquarters
will receive orders to reprt at the mobilization camp for final examination and
enlistment.
Leadership. The boys will be sent out in squads to work in different sections, as
opportunity may afford, under the direction of competent adult leaders, appointed by
the director general, who will have full charge of the boys until they are returned to
the mobilization camp, unless otherwise relieved by the director general. Theee
leaders will be men of unquestioned Christian character and ability for leadership with
boys, coupled with a practical knowledge of farm work.
Mobilimtion.- The camp will he mobilized June 1, at the Y. M. C. A. State Camp
Farm, Winthrop ('enter.
This can be reached from either Winthrop or Augusta by
trolley.
Instruction and training in general farm work will be given at the camp by repre-
tientatk
Of the University of Maine and 'other qualified leaders, before assignment
to service is matte.
The volunteers will he sent out in companits, under their commanding officer
wherever and wheinp IT needed.
Fer/oughs. - Brief furloughs will be granted to the volunteers in cases of emergency,
by the governor, on recommendation of the director general.
Corn pews(
--O p port u ity for sorvicc.
Waiats, El per each secular day from date of enlistment.
Subsistence (board and lodging).
Uniforms that, blouse, breeches, leggins, shoes, overalls, and (reek).
Medical attendance.
Transportation.
School credits. Full school credits will be allowed volunteers on both the fill and
spring terms when engaged in service. The leaders will also tittot,the boys and as
fir RN poatible keep them up with their regular school work.
Van
rprocal. --It wilt 1o neeeaairy for each boy to secure the consent and
approval of either his parenei or guardian.
Gencral adminisfrahnn.- All matters pertaining to misunderstandings, adjustments
of labor !illicit It ie.. change of location or assignment, discipline, enlistment, furloughs,
rank, discharge, or other eeneral questions 41411 be referred to thedirector general.
NATIONAL ('((ILO/ LABOR COMMITTER PROPOSALS.
To send any children to farms without knowing the actual need forthem or without
regulation would he wasteful and a hindrance to the farmers, who do not want a horde
of inexperienced laborera on tbbir hands.
Therefore:
1. Create and appoint a State committee of school officials to confer with the St tta_
agricultural department and organizations of farmer to find out whether there is a
real need of school children on farms.
2. If the need exists, draft a set of regulations to ,neet the need and at the same time
protect the children, such as these:
(al Children 14 and over only, to'be permitted to work on farmi for others than
their parents, and excused from school for this purpose from Juno 1 to October 1.
.
222
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
(5) Children 14 and over only, to be permitted to work more than eight hours a day,
or more than six days a week.
(c) Children thus excused must have special work permit!, issued by the committee
of school officials or persons authorized by them showing that the child has been
examined by a physician and is physically fit for work, permits to be issued only for
farms known by the committee to be suitable places for the children to work.
3. The State committee of school officials should be responsible for the supervision
of children at wprk on farms to see that regulations are enforced.
Transportation,
feeding, and housing should all be supervised.
As to housing, it is advisable that children sent to farms to work should net be housed
with the farmers.
It has beep suggested that the Boy Scouts, for instance, can establish camps in a
given farm district under Scout Masters.
Local authot,ities will be glad to provide
transportation from camps
farms, and the boys can work in gangs, in one field one
day, in another the next, an
eturn to camp after work.
In this way both work and
living conditions will be supe
iced, and farmers will 'not have the responsibility and
cost of housing them.
Similar camps may be estab
had under playground directors, probation or school
officers.
But be sure you know where the children live and how.
England is already wishing ehe had not used her children so recklessly at the begin-
ning of the war. Let America learn by England's experience.
The Massachusetts plan differed in details but not in spirit.
MILITARY TRAINING IN HIGH SCHOOLS.
In the entliusias'in subsequent to the entrance of this country into
the war there were many who believed that military dip should be
made compulsory for all boys in high schools.
Indeed, before April,
1917, several private secondary schools had offered military training
to their older students who hoped soon to enter officers' reserve
camps. A few public high schools, notably those of Boston, had for
some years given a form of military drill to its boys; and after the
declaration of war many schools, ispecially those in cities, introduced
military training, usually. optional. Among the cities may be men-
tioned Dallas, El Paso, and Waco, Tex.; Aurora, Elgin, Moline, and
Chicago, Ill; Stamford, Conn., Louisville, Ky., Bangor, Me., Balti-
more; Md., Springfield, Ohio, Johnstown, Pa., Pueblo, Colo., Kansas
City, Mo., Richmond, Va., Providence, R. I. and most of the schools
of Arizona.
In Wyoming an elaborate system was developed and
approved by the legislature by the grant of financial aid; the legis-
lature of Oregon provided for an elective course in military tactics
and training in high schools, to be directed and supervised by the
governor; and the legislature of New York, without the approval
of the State depart neat of education, passed a law requiring military
training of all the older youth.
In. Massachusetts and New Jersey
more deliberate action was taken. Commissions composed of rep-
resentatives of the schools, of business, of industry, and of the Army,
were appointed to consider the problem. In both cases they dis-
approved military training in high satools.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
228
The arguments for and against military training in high schools
are summarized in the two following letters, which are quoted from the
report of the State superintendent of public instruction of Minnesota
for 1917:
FAVAABLE TO MILITARY TRAININO.
Some one has well said that one of the great defects of American life to-day is slouchi-
ness-- slouchiness of ph ysi9ite, slouchit
in the appearance of our towns and villages,
slouchiness in the application of
d an
body to the tasks of the day, slouchiness
in discipline and responsiveness to orders in cooperative efforts of all kinds. Com-
pulsory military training enforces on a troy promptness in obeying orders, and he muft
apply himself to a given task until it is satisfactorily finished.
His mental and physi-
cal being must always be at the best.
All of these phases are being introduced and
emphasized when military training is4Aight.
It must be introduced in a spirit of
civic service, and the cadets must he riught that this is a part of their training for
citizenship.
Our experience with military training for several years in the Rochester High
School leads me to say that it is one.of the very beet courses that we have offered.
The discipline of the school is very mu* better, the boys seeing the value of self-
control and decent restraints.
The cadets are interested in civic problems and their
responsibilities.
Citizens of Rochester will testify to the value of this training for
their boys.
I have yet to hear a complaint on the cadet organization in the Rochester
High School frorit -the parents of the boys taking this work.
The cost of this work is very slight, as we have asked the boys to buy their own
suits and capii
This year the cost has advanced from $15 to about $23.
The boys
feel it keenly, and we have allowed them to take the drill and rifle practice without
the regular cadet uniform.
lieut. W. F. Wright, of the local Machine Gun Co., is the
drill master and receives a Plight remuneration.
Drill is offered twice a week and rifle practice by squads once a week.
During the
winter season indoor drill and rifle practice are given, and during the spring, summer,
and fall, outdoor practice.
Interest in the organization is so keen. that prominent
citizens, who are membenoof the local rifle club, offered to take squads of cadets out
to the rifle range.
The rifle range is owned by the Machine Gun Co., the Rifle Club,
and the cadet organization.
State-wide military training in high schools has been a decided success in the State
of Wyoming, where legislative aid is granted.
At first there was a great deal of oppo-
sition, but It now has the hearty approval of all the citizens of theState.
The State
superintendent of instruction has this to say: "I take this opportunity to express my
hearty endorsement of the cadet work which is being done in Wyoming.
For some
time I haN4i been watching the influence which it has exerted upon the young men
enrolled in the various schools, and 1 wish to say that 1 consider it most valuable
training for. our high-school boys.
1 am glad to see the movement growing in popu-
larity."
Finally, 1 wish to say that here is an organisation in which the physical'welfare of
practically every high - school boy can he cared for.
Football takes care of about 15
or 20, basketball about 10 or 15, baseball about 12 or 13; but in drill, setting up exer-
cises, and rifle practice, even high-school boy may compete: Where the cadet move-
ment has
v
been .tried, it is a survive.
Mafia, Mankato, St. James, and Stillwater, in
this State, are ery successful in their experiments. Those who have tried the experi-
ment can speak from experience, dthers can only Inlet*, and those who oppose the
movement are mostly guessers and mothers who did not raise their eons to be soldiers
but want them to be mollycoddles.'
4
Supt. U A. Ukase, Koolau's Mina.
1111MMELmoalilowimmoloolowlionmMMIMIMAIMMIRMIMIMMIAI
224
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, I916-1913,
T15
OPPOSING VIEW.
The world is suffering from a hysteria of fear.
Fear has entered the courts of
Europe and shaped the policies of kings. The nations at war to-day had but to look
aerc& their boundaries any nieht for the last 30 years to behold a horrid, grinning
monster, ready to leap at their throats. They talked about "perils," until at last
an emperor had himself pictured ridlng in the night of a black world-catastrophe,
with uplifted sword, defying the "Yellow Peril."
In these later days this fear has
reached America.
Congress appropriates hundreds of millions to banish fear, but
it is not enough.
Our schools must ho enlisted in the desperate fight to lay this
ghost of fear.
And now this State will be asked, as others have been already, to
introduce military drill into the curriculum of its public sch..ols.
The purpose of this training is that our youth may be enabled to repel the attack
of a foreign foe.
And it is accepted by all, militarists included, that the prime quali-
fication for a soldier, the nece:vity before everything else for the man who fights, is
a sound, strong body. The advocates of military drill affirm that their system
furnishes the beet training for developing strength and endurance: If this were
true, military drill might be justified: for a strong body is as eseentiako the arts of
peace as to the arts of war.
And may I interject that the deinan0 MPeace during
the next 10 years will be a severer test up ou..\merican manlesa than any war to
come?
But the claim is not true.
And I call to witness those who know.
. First, Dr. Sargent, veteran director of physical training at Harvard: "Military
drill is not an adequate means for physical training.
It is not only very limited
in its activities, but actually harmful in its effects upon boys less than DI or 20 years
of age.
It is apt to foster a Ioulltastie spirit of 'tin-s4oldierism' and a false sense of
patriotism which does not appreciate the seriousness of war nor the glories of the
etniggles of peace."
Dr. Hernial' Koehler, of West Point, in his 'Physical Training in the Service," stays:
e4The attributes, in order of importance, may be summed up as follows: 00 (Ionentl
health and bodily vigor: (b) muscular strength and endurance: (c) self-reliance: and
(d) smartness, activity, and precision.
It is upou the first of thesehealth and to
vigorthilt the development of all the other qualities eo essential in a Bobber are
dependent, and for that reason the maintenance of robust health and the develop-
ment of organic vigor should be considered the primary object of this training."
Sir William Aitkin, professor of pathology in the Amiy Medical School of England,
says: "Boys given military training at 18 make soldiers who are lees robust and effi
dent than men with whom this training was deferred a few years, remaining in civil
life until after their bones, heart, and hinge were more matured and developed."
l'HILADELPHIA, May 8, 1916.
ro the Joint Committee on Higher Schools.
Gatert,suEN: The subcommittee on military training begs to report as follows:
The extension and development of the present method of physical training is
strongly advised, supplemented by practical instruction in hygiene, prevention of
disease, and immediate treatment of wounds and injuries.
1 quote from the report of special commission on military education and reserve
appointed by-the Governor, of Massachusetts, in 'June, 1915, consisting of a lawyer, a
publisher, two college presidents, one manufacturer, one representative of union
labor, and three retired generals,,, two paragraphs:
"The overwhelming weight Of opinion from school teachers, military experts,
officers of the Regular Army and the nailitia, and the general public is against military
drillArdeflned in the, first clause above.
It is generally agreed that the military
drill which a boy receives in school is of little or no advantage to him from the point
otview of practical soldiering.
As far as available evidence goes, drill in the schools
has had no beneficial effect in promoting enlistments in the militia, except in a few
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
225
isolated localitioe.
For various reasons it has seemed to create
dielike for soldier-
ing
Military drill in the schools is objected to by many on th ^round that boy'
of school ace have not attained sufficient mental maturity to apps -isle what war
and fighting mean, and are theretcre unaLle to digest the ideas which anlitary'drill
presents to them in concrete Corm. It is worth noting that military dri,
as such is
given in the schools of no countries of the world except Australia and Ja an.
'Alie commission does not recommend military drill, but is opposed to it."
The judgment of the men who know of committees and commiseions and of nations
is against military drill in public schools.
France and Germany have both tried it,
and have abandoned it for a more rational system of physical training. Any person
who will inspect the physical training given by skilled experts in our public schools
will find now all that is desirable in military drill, much more that is deeirableadded,
and whatever is undesirable eliminated.
He will see youths, both boys and girls,
in large groups, executing complicated movements with precision worthy of tr.iinixr
soldiers.
He will hear the sharp command; he will see instant obedience to author--
ity.
He will be proud of these boys and girls, physically fit, ready to glorify their
country in peace, and, if it must he, in honorable war4.
The nature of the military training offered in our high schools has
varied 'widelyfrom mere marching in formation to the study of
tactics.
Richmond, \'e.. has published its course of study in mili-
tary training, which consists of five hours a week for each class.
First year-- drill, three hours; signaling and marksmanship, two
hours.
::econd yeardrill, three hours; company administration
organization find military hygiene, two hours.
nir 1 year
drill, three hours; map rending and field engine 'ring, two hours.
Fourth yea drill, three hours; tactics and le:Worship, two hours.
This is a part of the Wyoming plan of military training, concerning
which much has been published.
The purposes of the military train-
ing. like its nature, have varied widelyfrom improvement in phy-
sical well-being to military: preparedness and moral development.
Th'e last-mentioned purpose assumes a general transfer of training
that has nowhere, especially in countries whore such training of
adults has been most firmly established, been proved or even hugely
claimed.
The examination of the young men who entered the
National Army has emphasized, as the schoolman has never been
able to do, the need of serious and continued physical training of
our boys and girls; and usually military -dAll in high schools has
been justified as contributing to this end. The recent manuals on
physical education issued by the States of New Jersey and Now
York are admirable outlines of work that should be enforced in all
high schools.
THE FUTURE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL.
It is generally recognized that the hig4ochool is in the critical
stage of its development; 'no other phase Rpublic education is so
often discussed and so little understood. Ha ng attained during
Amt. Sept. W. I Webster. IllansaPollc Yln
171029° -21Dull: 88-15
.
226
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
the past veneration a r'arvelous physical growth and a ratifying
improvement in its internal administration, it remains now to be
defined and directed purposefully and effectively toward ends con-
sonant not only with elementary and hither education but also with
the larger aims of national life.
Before this can be satisfactorily
done, the newer spirit of democracy and national ideals must he
clearly formulated and accepted throughout the Nation as a basis
for all national life.
Then, to make opportunities equal for all the
youth of our country, there must be extensive aid by the Federal
Government to public high schools, whickrill thus be recognized
as an effective instrument in training leaders in the upbuilding of
national welfare.
On the basis of definitely declared and accepted
ideals of democracy, and witJi the aid of a Federal subsidy, profes-
sionally trained principals and teachers of the finest qualities must
be secured to reform and redirect not merely the curricula and
courses of study but also the social activities of the high schools.
Then, and not till then, may we expect them to reach their highest
efficiency as agencies in the development of the Nation.
.11111/r
CHAPTER VIII.
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
By WALTER SARGENT,
Professor of Art Education, University of Chicago.
Coarrawrs.Introductory Art Instruction in elementary schools Art Instruction in high schools Art
Instruction in universitiesArt museums and art schools.
The term "art c;ducat ion " is used somewhat loosely in connection
with a wide range of school activities: Any discussion of the subject
must therefore define somewhat arbitrarily the aspects with which it
will deal.
This chapter includes the following:
1. DraWing, painting, and constructive and decorative design,
whether used to record facts of form and structure in connection
with industrial and scientific work,'or to interpret forms and ap-
pearances pictorially or decoratively.
2. The advancement of artistic appreciation, whether gained by
technical Tractice or by acquaintance with good art through some
approach other than that of.actual production, or by a combination
of these methods.
In the discussion of the advancement of artistic
' appreciation without technical production, the whole field of fine and
industrial art is included.
In the discussion of technical work, only
the graphic arts as just defined are taken into direct consideration.
The material here presented is based upon the replies to inquiries
regarding recent changes if aims and methods of art instruction,
sent to State commissioners .bt. education, and to the superintendents
of schools in the three largest cities of each State, to the art depart-
ments of State and other leading universities, and upon an examina-
tion of a wide iange of courses of study and of reports of art asso-
ciations and educational meetings where art was a subject of discus-
sion.
A survey of this material. shows a number of significant
changes, which may be broadly grouped as follows:
1. The changes due to the normal development to- be expected
along lines where progress has long been continuous.
Prominent
among these are
(a) A clearer understanding, whichhas come through experiments
and longer experience, regardingi what art instruction should ac-
complish as a part of general education, and the consequent revision
227
228
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1910-1918.
and improvement of methods of teaching. These have been especially
evident in elementary and secondary schools and in colleges.
(b) A better knowledge of the social and industrial values of ad-
vanced art- training for those with special aptitude, and the 'conse-
quent modification of advanced art education to meet these needs.
These modifications are noticeable in the programs of vocational
schools and professional art schools, of art departments in colleges,
in the broader range of educational activities carried on by art mu-
setuns, in the associations recently formed for bringing art instruc-
tion into closer relation with social and industrial needs, and in new
art schools intimately related to community interests.
2. Changes due to.the present abnormal conditions of war. Among
these are
(a) A revaluation of the effects of art in shaping public opinion
and in stimulating patriotic activities, and in reenforcing those at-
titudes of mind which we include under the term " morale."
(b) A revision of methods of drawing in connection with construc-
tive work, because of the shortcomings of methods which have been
in fairly -common use; shortcomingS which attempts to train enlisted
men ip constructive work have made evident. These attempts have
emphasized the fact that ability to
working drawings accurately
and to make dimensioned sketches, mechanical or topographical, with
oven among those who have had high-school
courses in drawing.
is an ability which the present crisis im-
peratively demands.
(c) A realization of the probability that in the commercial revival
which is certain to follow the war, and because of the consequent
need of highly skilled designers in the industries, the United States
must depend more than heretofore upon those trained in its own
schools, and must therefore begin even among pupils of secondary
school age to conserve and direct special talent when it is discovered.
These changes are considered in detail under the separate divisions
which follow.
ART INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.
Art ihstruction in elementary grades has been quite general
throughout the country for some Years. Iretreht changes have been
mainly .along the line of nollual development. -Among the inhortant
directions in which progress is apparent are the following:
The tendency elliphasiztd above all others in.the returns received
from superintendents of schools and from supervisors of art instruc-
tion is'in the direction of bringing art instruction into more direct
. and intimate connection with school and home and community ihtesr-
eats. The specific points of contact most emphasized are the fol-
16wing:
11.111111111111=11111M/
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
229
1. More use of drawing to illustrate other school subjects.
This
indicates a tendency to go to tile other school interests for themes for
drawing, instead of selecting -themes arbitrarily for the purpose of
developing a logical but detached course in drawing. In this way
the correlation with other subjects becomes the first business of the
art supervisor, and is not left to chance.
2. An especially close correlation with the manual arts.
This
means that much of the drawing and design is directly concerned
with problems in imIstrial work and in the household arts.
In many
places this correlation is being promoted in an administrative way
by uniting the departments of drawing and of the industrial arts
under one supervisor.
3. More definite attention to developing appreciation of good
pictorial art and of excellent constructive and decorative deign.
The majority of returns indicate that the sort of appreciation desired
is that which will increase the range and (nullity of one's enjoyment
in his surroundings. and especially will enable one to exercise good
taste in home planning and furnishing, in promoting community
projects, and in'produeing material for the market:
These purposes are n41 new in elementary art instruction.
Pub-.
fished courses have long stated them more or less definitely_as aims,
but an analysis of, recently formulated courses shows an essential
difference in method, namely, a tendency to abandon a detached course
of instruction planned mainly from the point of view of logical pro-
gression in the subject in the hope that the principles and practice
gained thereby will be carried over and pint to use in fields where
they are needed.- This somewhat formal work is being displaced by
courses in which principles and practice are concerned mainly with
problems selected fito
the field of immediate needs.
This pro-
cedure appeals to the instant interests of a far greater number of
children, and its direct result is to make drawing a general rather
than a special school, subject.
The history of drawing in public education has been such as to
create a tradition that it is a special subject in the sage that it is
possible of attainment only for those who have special talent; and
that it has value mainly for those who may later have occasion as
artists to use it.
This tradition has tended t, take the vitality out
of the instruction given by grade teachers because- they felt that
drawing was neither possible nor worth while for the majority.
It
has also tended to some extent at least, to concentrate the enthusiasm
of the special teacher with art-school training upon the few pupils
wIto displayed unusual artistic apitudes.
The last two years have contributed considerably toward. making
drawingla general school subject as regards its availability and value
for the majority of children. Thic. contribution has been. made
230
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
partly through psychological study of special talent and partly
through results obtained by applying general pedagogical prin-
ciples to the teaching of drawing.
Observation' shows that the
mere sight of nature's appearances awakens in certain children a
peculiar type' of experience and of interest, one characteristic of
which is a strong desire to represent graphicially what they have seen.
In the case of these children the simple presentation of objects
arouses this peculiar interest, together with a corresponding desire W
express it by reproducing the appearances in drawing or pilinting.
They are the Children who have what is termed " special talent."
When antilyzed, this talent appears to be essentially a special type of
interest in appearances of things and not a special intinual ability
or skill. The skill in drawing which these children display scents
to be a natural outgrowth of the practice which this peculiar interest
in appearances and the consequent desire to draw them promotes.
This view is supported by the fact that if an interest of another
sort, but equally strong can be awakened in connection with the
appearance of objects, for example an interest in their construction,
which can he expressed best by drawing, as in the frequent cases of
children greatly interested in engines. bridges, boats, etc., the draw-
ing will beAqually good, although different in type.
Experim'Fnts indicate that if we can awaken an equal, although
-- different, interest on the part of children without so-called " talent "
for drawing, they will develop equal skill, provided the interest is of
a sort that can be most adequately expressed by drawing.
Fre-
quently children who show under ordinary circumstances no indica-
tions of talent, when the appeal to their particular interest is found,
equal or surpass in skill those who appeared at first to he gifted
artistically.
Elementary school courses in all subjects are appealing
to interests many of which demand drawing of some sort, for their
expression and practical realization.
aln geography and history,
shapes of countries, types of mountains, means of transportation and
numberless other topics need for their description drawing as well as
language.
School and home gardens are planned by diagrams.
It
has become the common language of the school shop and of the house-
hold art department.
Drawing as a means of expression for this widening range of in-
terests is rapidly supplanting the drawing of a few years ago, when:
frequently the only interest appealed to was that of representing ap-
pearances for their own sake. Lack of special talent in drawing, as
an excuse for low grades in that subject,. is coming to be regarded
in the same light as is lack of special talent in mathematics and in
1141,
language when elementary school attainments in those subjects are
under consideration.
.,N
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
281'
A survey of recent discussions regarding the purposes of drawing
in elementary schools indicates that the familiar statement that
drawing is a language is now being taken in its full significance.
Educators are pointing out that any new medium of expression
furnishes a fresh kind of experience with things studied, and starts
a type of thinking that a medium of expression different in diameter
does not stimulate. The kind of thinking exercised when a pupil
describes a subject by drawing does not duplicate to any great degree
that involved in description by writing.
The first appears rather to
supplement the second.
Each lays hold of aspects which the other.
ne4lects and fails to grasp. The terms used in drawifig are essen-,
tially different from those used in writing and describe things in a
different way.
Each has its own psychology and compels its own
charactdristic type of analysis and synthesis.
As an outcome of these discussions one finds that art instructors
are stating with increasing clearness the function of drawing as an
important and unique means of approach to subjects; a means of
dealing with topics in a way which supplements that furnished by
verbal language and consequently gives a kind of experience with
them that is otherwise unobtainable.
The changed attitude regarding drawing and design may be
broadly summarized in the followiihg statements:
1. That the tendency is less toward trying to interest children in
drawing as a subject, and more toward using drawing as an effi-
cient and unique means of expressing and promoting whatever inter
ests school and home and community life have awakened.
2. That instruction in design deals less with formal exercises, in
arrangement, and more with problems directly and practically con-
cerned with school and home surroundings and with industi4141 life.
The methods of instruction are coming to include. in addition to prac-
tice in producing designs, much etperience in Choosing as one must
choose when he makes actual purchases.
Although an examination of recent courses and of the reports of
conferences on the subject of art instruction gives abundant evidence
that courses are being reorganized upon the same basis as other
subjects; and are being graded so that there is definite progress from
year to year' and that the expected results are within the attain-
ment of the majority of children, and also that the psychology of
drawing and Of art appreciation is being investigated by educators,
nevertheless such a survey of.courses and of reports of conferences
discovers little in the way of attempts to state what standards of
attainment may reasonably be expected in each grade and at the end
of elementary school work.
Indeed,. expressions suggestive of hos-
tilitytoward attempts to establish tests and scales of-measurement
232
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
of achievement in draw.ing are frequently evident. These objections
appear to result from misunderstanding a desire to secure some sys-
tem in presentiffg the language of art expression, as being a wish
to mechanize the thought and feeling expressed thereby.
For-
tunately, however there is a growing recognition of the fact that sys-
tematic' mastery of a means of expression means increased freedom in
communicating thought and feeling.
Prof. Edward L. Thorndyke called attention to the desirability
of some scale fOr estimating attainment in drawing,
n article
published in the Teachers College Record in November, 1913, et
led
".The Measurement of -Achievement in Drawing." He says:
Each person uses a settle of his own.
Consequently, although we give in
verbal statements and on report cards many millions of measurements of
achievement in drawing every year, almost no use is made or can be mode of
them. A child may learn that his drawings are, in his teacher's estimation,
better than those of other children in the same class who get lower " marks,"
but be does net know how much better they are.
He may be told that his,
drawings are better than those of last week, Mit not how much better they
are.
As to learning front
ll these millions of measurements how much Letter
drawings are obtained from 100 minutes of training per week than from 50. or
how much better drawings are obtained by or
city's system of instruction
than by another's, or how much better drawings nre'obtalned in the same city
now than were obtained a decade ago, it is impossible.
Prof. Thorndyke then explains a scale which he worked out, de-
scribes and illustrates some of its uses, recounts the principles of its
derivation, and makes clear its limitations.
Further careful woric
in the same field is being carried on by other investigators, and addi-
tional contributions will doubtless be available soon.
The effect of the war, which has greatly influenced industrial work
in elementary schools, is also evident in art instruction. Many of the
problems for design have included the making of posters. for food
conservation, war-savings and thrift stamps, liberty loans, gardening,
Red Cross and Y. M. C. A. work, etc. Other design projects have
included covers for scrapbooks for soldiers, designs and decorations
for toys for refugee children, and the patterns and ornamentation
of .itarious objects to be sold for war funds.
ART INSTRUCTION IN HIGH SCHOOLS.
High-school courses of the past two years indicate some signifi-
cant and a few radical changes. Two influences
others have
been particularly strong in bringing about these developments. One
is the wigespreed organization of junioi high-schools, which has re-
sulted in a closer articulation of elementary and secondary schools.
The other is the rapid progress of vocational %ducation,
The organization of junior high - schools has brought into proini-
nence many psychological as well as administrative questions. Edu-
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
888'
cators especially interested in these questionshave contributed, among
other things, important considerations regarding some of the dif-
ferences in the attitude of high-school students toward school work
as compared with that of elementary school children.
One difference appears to consist in greater need on the. part of
pupils for, some practical or intellectual justification for the work
undertaken.
The. fact that certain studips appear in the accepted
curriculum no'longer appeals to the majority of the pupils as being
a sufficient reason for undertaking these studies with enthusiasm.
In addition the significance of the course to them and to their prosy
poets must be understood if it is to engage their whole- hearted en-
deavor. New social and vocational interests are awake and must be
ministered to.
Another interest which influences 'art instruction directly and
which appears to be much stronger in high-school pupils then in
those of elementary school age is the interest in the theories and
principles of the subjects of study and in the historical- development
of things and 'of events.
Accompanyingthis interest is an increased
capacity.for developing some genuine appreciation of ateistic styles
and of the different possibilities of Aierious mediums of expression.
The progress of vocational eduction is recognized in the recent
tendencies of art instruction in high-schools as noted by school super-
intendents ind by instructors in art.
Almost without exception the
changes reported are toward a more direct and concrete application
of art.
The following quotations, entirely typical of the expressions -
found in a wide range of returns, are merely statements kti different
terms of this tendency:
The primary purpose of our act is to relate it to the entire life of the
children both in home nial in their occupotionl.
.
Anseffort to adopt Instruction to the rennireinente of local industries.
Tends more nod more toward Industrial work.
Vocational art courses, art'related to printing, courses in home testhetics.
Have started such work as art in window dressing With practical application
In stores,.
art in dress.. --
dress appropriate to occasions.
Collection and study of good illustrations of furniture.
,
Much emphasis recently given to having. designs worked out In material. ,
Advanced courses are highly diffsrentlated with 1110 technical stand-
ards demanded.
In addition to this concrete tendency, there is on the other hand
an increasing recogMtion of what are commonly called the -cultural
valhes of art study, its importance as historical material, and its sig-.
nificance, in common with Music and literature, as an embodiment of
the testhetic experiences of the rate.
.
.
The following extracts from a report by Dr. James P. Haney, di:
rector of art in the high schools of New York City, put in clear twins
some of these tendencies.
284
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,I016-1918.
This training In what may be called "practical restheties" has thus become
n subject of keen Interest on the part of many who are engaged in the business
of creating_ materials for home or personal adornment.
Both " the
public" and "the trade" understand more clearly with every passing year the
need of this training ; the public that life itself may be made more pleasurable;
the trade that its standards may be raised in every aspect wherein art touches
industry. The milliner, the dressmaker, and jeweler are interested on the one
hand; the furniture manufacturer, the well-paper denier, and the textile mer-
chant on the other.
Many additional trades are concerned.
" Now, as
never before, these merchants and dozens more are asking, "What are the
schools ci&Ing to make their art teaching practical?"
The older barriers which eeparated the school studio from the industrial art
studio outside the school have been breached and in some eases quite torn down.
Art teachers in numbers have visited "the trade" and have brought back a
course of practical suggestions to the classroom.
Counter visits have been paid
by merchants and mauufa&urers to the schools, and many have sent their trade
designers to see the school work and to give to the teachers tied meals the indus-
trial point of view.
Practical problems have been worked out In material, and
not a few competitions have been instituted by trade representatives that pupils
might see how Immediately useful M business is the information gained In the
school.
Every one. must patronize the industrial artist, for all must have chnirs.and
tables, dishes toat from, and clothes to wear; and emphasis has been placed on
the professional nature of the Work of the school that the student might be
made keener to scrutinize the'professional hand which hp sees about him at
every turn.
,
Many thousands of pupils are thus reached every year and are encouraged
to visit the museum frequently to enjoy not only the pictures and sculpture,
but the splendid carvings, beautiful enamels, the glowing porcelains and the
priceless tapestries. Thus they are given what may he called " museum habit."
They are taught not only where to look but how to look nud are given something
at least of the satisfaction of " the knowing one," the connoiss eur whose nifee-
ilon is drawn by InstglIt Into the beauties pf the craft which are displayed In
jeweled cup or damascened armor. This interpretation of the museum to the
schoofpupli, this revelation of what pleasure may be had In this scrutiny Is
held to be one of the functions of the art department of the city school system.
It can little profit a city to have within its borders priceless collections, If these
for whom the collections are shown see its beauties as through a glass darkly.
This training, it Is manifest, is not to be given by talking about it, but rattier
by continually, offering to the learner problems in which choice must be ex-
pressed in terms of Immediate need.
Shall one, for example, In designing a
flower bowl, turn the curve thus, or shall it be so?
The decision as to which
line best expresses the quality of the clay and the purpose for which the bowl
is shaped is the decision which makes for taste.
Taste in other words is a dis-
criminative judgment born of many oppbrtunitles for choice.
Some grow In
taste rapidly, some slowly, but the process is always the same. One must learn
to choose and to choose by virtue of the knowledge of what makes for .better
line or color or pattern. Taste is thus not a thing of definite standards. It is
rather an Intellectual quality.
It is a habit of mind which seeks always to com-
pere the better with the poorer and which strives continually to sharpen its
own perceptions that it may judge more truly. It has a britIca function but a
constructive'lme which alms not only to see that the thing
bett
but alma
to know why It is better.
IP
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN ME UNITED STATES.
235
The merchant who Is a bad designer will seldom be cured by admonition.
The only way to cute him is to catch him while he is still a lad ut school.
But
granted, on the other hand, that such practical teaching can be givenand It
surely canit must be plain that there resides in the teaching of the schools
enormous force to affect the art ideas of the public for the better.
This force
undoubtedly is at work. No one who knew the American home and 'its decora-
tions as it stood in the early seventies and now sees the home of the persons
of equal social standing will doubt for a moment that great progress has been
made.
It is a change which has taken place all over the country, but most sig-
nificantly where the art teaching of the schools has been nett\ e.
Something of
this idea that everyone is an artist in his own right has dawned upon thou-
sands of men and women.
*
But with the development of that which we have called the modern art
teaching there has been a great change in the attitude of the school toward
talented pupilsthat little group which we have called "the few." It has been
plainly'seen that it is to the advantage of the school to hold those gifted boys
and girls within the character-shaping boundaries of Its walls. On the other
hand, it has been seen that it is to The pupils' interest to stay rather than to
leave half trained In all that makes for general culture and to p
at too
early an age Into the ceaseleps grind of business life.
For thest
ms the
modern high school seeks to retain the talented pupil through its entire course.
Instead of fitting the pupil to the course, it now devises specjal eourses to fit
the pupil.
It recognizes that talent is precious, and when it finds it, does all It
can to cultivate the gifted and to school them to high technical experience.
Certain difficulties are evident in the organization of high-school
courses in art, especially in the case of small schools.
1. There are seldom any accepted standards of attainment in art
instruction in elementary schotAs which can serve as a dependable
basis upon which high-school courses may be planned.
2. A large number of high-school instructors have been accus-
tomed only to' art school ways of teaching drawing and design.
These studio methods are generally adapted only to those who .possess
special aptitudes for drawing. This. difficulty is being remedied be-
cause cities and towns in increasing numbers are requiring that the
instructor in art shall have some normal training, including general
principles of education and practice teaching under skilled super-
vision.
8. Except in the larger high schools, where a number of classes
exist, it is difficult to arrange a course which offers progress from
Year to year, because frequently pupils from each year in high school
may register in a given class. For example, an introductory class in
drawing may be made up of pupils from the first, second, third; and
fourth year groups. Under these circumstances difficulty is found
in relating art instruction to other school interests and to varying
degrees of maturity with any sort of definiteness.
This condition,
tends to encourage the treatment of art as a special subject. The in-
creased amount and better organization of vocational and industrial
courses is improving this situation rapidly and definitely:
236
BIENNIAL SURV4Y OF. EDUCATION, 1918 -1918.
4. In the past the amount of credit allowe'd in art toward gradua-
tion and for enitrance to higher institutions was often small.
Conse-
quently, registration for art instruction was likely to be limited to
those who had very i.rong natural desires in that direction and those
who had leisure for extra courses.
This hindrance is rapidly disap-
pearing.
High schools are tending to give the saute credit toward
graduation for art subjects as for any others in the curriculum. To
a corresponding degree, higher institutions have become liberal in
the umber of units in the arts allowed for entrance requirements.
In addition to these obstacles, which are largely administrative in
character, courses planned to realize the aesthetic values of what are
commonly termed the fine arts encounter another difficulty which lies
in the nature of the subject.
In 1915 Dr. C. II. Judd pointed this
out clearly.
The following extracts are the first and the last para-
graphs of his discussion:'
The fine arts, like the manual and Industrial arts, have stood apart from
the conventional academic subjects and have been given onto a halfhearted
recognition in the organization of school programs.
From one point of view Ads
Is difficult to understand, for civilized nations have always regarded training
in music and drawing as higldy desirable accomplishments. We in America
have been subjected to criticism by foreign visitors and we have freely criti-
cized ourselves for our meager cultivation of the fine arts in our schools.
Willie
thus recognizing the arts as desirable, we have found it a very difficult problem
to make them available for school purposes., liow can one formulate a course
In these subjects?
They seri to be highly individualistic and vague In their
results.
There seems to be so large an element of chance in the outcome that
we turn by preference to those courses of instruction which seem to be more
definite
and
capable of
impersonal
formulation.
Whatever
the
method of Instruction, Irt teachers must glye up the practice of indulging in
rhapsodies over art and its value, and must learn to define the types of ap-
predation which they wish to cultivate.
They must show that they know
when they have produced one of these aiproved types of appreciation.
Finally,
they must by practical demonstration convince the world that there is no funda-
mental opposition between the habits of mind and action cultivated in the arts
and those cultivated in the scientific courses given in the schools. The present-
day conditions are a challenge to art teachers and to all of us.
Vaguely we all
believe in art; practically we are not able to bring It into the schools in any
form which we regard as satisfactory for the training of students.
To bring
it forcibly into the course without heeding_ the objections raised Will he unfor-
tunate.
To omit it altogether' is to deprive the student of one important
aspect of civilization. The challenge to deal with this situation intelligently
pereMptory.
.
The much closer relation which has recently been estabiisted be-
tween art courses and industrial and vocational education has gone
far toward defining the typo of appreciation and of technical ability
'which art Nourses thus related aim to develop.
This result has not
only determined the aims and justified for both pupils and instructors
'From tha Psychology of High School Subjects, pp. 845 sod 864.
4*
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
287
the place of these art courses which accompany industrial work, but
it has alscf led to a scrutiny of the aims of courses not so related. In
consequence, these courses, in revised form, have received new justifi-
cation.
The revision of these so-called fine -arts courses ha's been mainly in
the line of a better presentation of the unique historical material
which the field. of lift possesses, of a development of appreciation of
the fine arts as a source. of esthetic enjoyment, and of the discovery
and conservation of special artistic talent as a social asset.
Under present conditions high-school art courses may be broadly
classified as follows:
I. Courses in drawing and design which are'organically related to
industrial and constructive work, including household art.
2. General art courses, which correspond somewhat to traditional
art-school courses and which appeal particularly to pupils with
special art interests.
3. Courses consisting of illustrated lectures, readings, and class
recitations which present a survey of art.
The character of these three types of courses is indicated more in
detail as follows:
1. Ili0-school courses in drawing and design are coming to be
more and more closely correlated with industrial and constructive
work.
Formerly this correlation was expected to result from a
presentation in the' art classes of general principles of drawing and
design and an application of these later to the specific problems of
shopwork. printing, household art, etc.
The relation is rapidly becoming more organic.
The problems of
the drawing and -design classes are now largely the actual current
problems of the industrial and vocational classes.
In many cases
the pupils spend alternate periods in the shop and the art class-
-room, dealing with the same problems. in both clpses.
Sometimes
the industrial departments take over much of the art instruction
dealing with 'their projects.
Working drawing, appearance drawing,
and design have become intimately related.
A common use of drawing closely related to home planning and
interior decoration is illustrated by this extract from the course in
art and industrial training of the Binghamton (N. Y.) schools:
TOPICS FOR DISCUS/MI" AND ILLUSTRATION.
1. Building site: Location, exposure, drainage, water supply, fertility of
soil, etc. 2. Building materials: Wood, brick, cement, etc.
3. Freehand sketch
of plan of home kitchen, for class discussion of conveniences and necessities in
wall openings and furniture. 4. Study of mounted illustrations of plans of
kitchen, pantry, and dining room, to scale.
5. Drawing to scale, with custom-
ary conventions, of kitchen, pantry, and dining room, show g plan and eleva-
tion.
6. Freehand or instrumental sketch showing the PoLble remodeling of
238
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
the home kitchen to secure greater convenience or better lighting and ventila-
tion.
7. Study various styles of door and window openings, from the view-
point of convenience, beauty, and expense.
8. Floor coverings: Material, color,
and wood finish.
P. Wall finish: Paint, paper, and color scheme.
10. Neces-
sary and convenient furniture for kitchen.
The pre.ent tendency to articulate the teaching of design with
shopwork is described in this extract from the course of study of the
West Ilohoken (N. J.
schools:
We must deal with design, whether we will or not. Every hour calls for us
to settle some problem in design, some arrangement of form, some disposition
of lines and masses, some choice and disposition of colors.
Man's whole life is
a series of designs. The relation is wide, the laws are widespread.
Pure or nbstrnct design is not a science.
It has one decided lack, it fails
to give the constructive vieiv of design. There must first be a problem of con-
struction, and second one of decoration wherein we consider balance, rhythm,
harmqny, ete.
The function of applied design is to add interest to construction.
Therefore
applied design is conditioned first by structure, second by use or purpose of the
thing decorated, third by the convention required, fourth by the symbolic eie-
ment that in:
In this con
tions set forth
Introduced, and fifth by the personality of the draftsman.
f Instruction we endeavor to plan the work so that the condl-
the preceding paragraphs govern the subject matter.
The following recommendations regarding the general scope of
high-school industrial drawing in connection with shopwork has
received the approval of the faculty of the soldier training ireTart-
inent of the University of Chicago, and also of that section of the
committee of the high-school conference of the University of Illinois
which has in charge the revision of high-school courses in drawing.
MOH-SCHOOL INDUSTRIAL DRAWING AND DESIGN.
I. Freehand drawing of appearances to describe construction.
1. Sketches directly from objects to show the appearance In perspective.
2. Sketches for the purpose of experimenting with and perfecting ideas
of construction and design.
To do this two things are required:
(a) Ability to judge proportions and angles rapidly and with fair
accuracy.
(b) Mastery of a few basic constructive forms so that these can be
drawn in any specified position or modification or combina-
tion from imagination. 1
Since a rectangular, a cylindrical, and a hemispherical solid
are basic to most forms of construction, the drawing of these
from imagination according to specifications should be tb(14.-
oughly mastered.
Tests Indicate that theories of perspective, including prin-
ciples of convergence, and foreshortening are not the
et
way of introducing the study of these forms. The mos
pfd
and effective progress appeared to depend upon developing
the pupil's ability to judge as to whether the drawings ap-
pear geometrically consistent or distorted (that Is, as to
whether they look right or not), rather than upon the knowl-
sI
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
289
edge of formulated principles of perspective.
It should be
noted that this method differs radically from the old-time
teaching of geometrical type forma by principles of perspec-
tive.
(o) Knowledge of an effective method of procedure in drawing con-
structed objects. I. e., what lines are the basis of the form
and *termine the length and direction of the others.
For
example, in a rectangular solid standing on a horizontal
plane. to draw one vertical edge, preferably the nearest, de-
termines the scale of the drawing.
To draw one main edge
extending to theright and one to the left, so as to show their
apparent slants and lengths, determines the proportions and
apparent position of the whole object. These are the key
lines and by them are determined the direction and propot4
tion of most of the other lines, even if the form is consid-
erably complicated.
II. Dra.ving of plains and patterns to describe construction.
.
1. Freehand sketches of patterns and orthographic projections directly
from objects to record constructive data.
2. Freehand sketches of patterns and orthographic projections for the
purpose of experimenting with and perfecting ideas of construction
and of desirm.
To do these requiies two things:
(a) Ability to rend orthographic projections rapidly and to trans-.
late facts of appearance and structure into the 'shop con-
ventions of working drawing, with complete dimensioning
-
according to shop practices.
In other words, given an actual
piece of construction, to make sketches in orthographic pro-
jection which shall include all data necessary for
con-
structing the object.
For all practical purposes it is necessary to understand
projection only, In the third angle.
An introductory itliseus-
Edon of all four angles is generally confusing.
(b) Ability to put one's own ideas of a piece of construction first
into freehand working drawings with complete specifications,
and then into accurate instrumental drawings.
Most copying of, instrumental work should be eliminated.
Only a very limited amount is valuable to give standards of
technique.
Much detailed instrumental drawing should be avoided.
Freehand working drawings and appearance sketching are
the chief channels of constructive thinking.
The finished
Instrumental drawings hold somewhat the same relation to
these that the stenographer's copy does to the author's manu-
script.
Much instrumental drawing tends
to substitute
manual dexterity for constructive thinking.
(o) Ability to sketch the appearan& of an object from the working
drawing.
This is particularly valuable in enabling pupils
completely to visualize and understand structures when only
the working drawing is given, It requires much of the same
mort of constructive thinking that is employed when objects
are actually constructed from working drawings.
In both appearance sketching and orthographic drawing,
speed as well as accuracy should be cultivated.
240-
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
III. Constructive and decorative design.
1. Choice of materials and processes best suited to meet the specifications
2. Choke of styles of construction and decoration most appropriate to
the piece of work In hand.
These require:
(a) Acquaintance with a reasonable range of materials and
processes, and some knowledge of the history of industries
more or less closely related to the immediate project.
This
calls for class discussions, visits to Industrial plants or
other places where constructive work of the sort under con-
sideration is going on, and assigned reading planned to open
up an Industrial and historical outlook.
(b) -Study of artistic styles of construction and decoration and
the adaptation of these to the problem In hand.
In any par-
ticular instance, as for example in furniture. this Involves
smile study of the history and development of styles and a
knowledge from books and museums. of the best that the
past has prodUced and also a practical'acqunIntance with
modern products and current faShions as displayed in trade
literature and advertisements and in stores.
Appreciation and discrimination ore developed by selecting
and by CIIISSifyIng examples according to various styles and
also according to degrees of excellence In things ol the same
general styles.
Ni el look collections of sketches and of Illus-
trations from advertisements, trade journals, etc., are prac-
tical helps.
After the chrracteristlem of a style have been
given it Is helpful to select, classify, and discuss examples
accordingly.
(c) Supplementary practice In making good space arrangements
and In drawing with ftwilIty fi few typical curves; for ex-
ample. arcs of circles, ellipses, and spirals of varying degrees
of eurve ure.
should he trained to self-reliance in analyzing a
problem s' us to outline effective methods of going to work,
and to dqhle along what lines investigation or reference
material All he helpful.
.
2. General art courses. These courses are usually planned to train
ability in representation along two lines.
One Of-these is descrip-
tive drawing, to enable pupils to meet readily the ordinary demands
for illustration in connection with any school or home interest not
reached by drawing in connection with the industrial arts. Sketches
and drawings in connection with history, geography, literature, and
the natural sciences are examples of this sort of drawing.
The use of drawing as a means of. illustratior. of other high-school
subjects has recently received careful attention. It has been found
that pupils can be taught methods of procedure in illustrating a
theme, which will make their drawing n genuine piece of study in
selecting the particular aspects. essential to the points to be described,
in choosing the medium, hard' or soft pencil, pen and ink, water
colpr, or colored crayon,. or whatever other medium is best fitted 'to
give the characteristic effect, in consulting sources of reference mate-
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
241
Hal, and in gradually elaborating sketches which are at first usually
crude and inaccurate, but which are gradually perfected hrough
many experiments and the accumulation of skill and of data.
By working up pictorial themes in this way, pupils gain by experi-
ence some appreciation of the manner in which pictures develop.
They learn that a work of art, however spontaneous in appearance,
is usually the culmination of a long series of sketches, observations,
and experiments. This experience contributes to the understanding.
of art, something comparable to what the production of themes in
English is expected to add to one's appreciation of literary methods.
It has been shown that certain methods of drawing may promote
keen observation and analysiap whilt other methods may actually
hinder these mental processes. In a study of drawing in relation to
its use in science laboratories, Prof. F. C. Ayer, of the University of
the State of Washington, says:'
Representative drawinedoe#1,lot insure a consideration of the scientific Rs-
pecty, or an analytical study of an object. The preconceived purpose of repro-
ducing a visual copy narrows the scope of observation, and the attention, at
best, is directed to itiqa of form and ardor.
There is nothing to call up ass-
ciations Nu hich have to 410 With scientific ends. The attention is, in fact, kept
away from the associations that have to do with science as such.
Even in the
province of form, sustained attention is not necessary. The pupil's drawing Is
always sqbject to direct comparison with the object at hand, so that extended
study and reflection over its proportions are not necessary.
It is a waste of
time for the interests of scientific thinking to require pupils to spend extended
periods'of time at representative drawing.
In fact, It is worse than a waste of
time, for it encourages bad habits of analytical study, which are opposed to
InterestEsigf scientific thinking and constructive research. It is no wonder that
so few &Four picture-laden notebooks give evidence of scientific grasp or initia-
tive.
The excessive use of representative drawing is a serious pedagogical
formalism which produces copyists instead of scientists and which creates dis-
taste instead of enthusiasm for science.
After analyzing descriptive drawing in a similar fashion, Prof.
Ayer says of analytical drawing:
The preconceived purpose of analytical drawing supplies the direction of at-
,tentlon which is lacking fu spontaneous description.
The attention is directed
to the particular characteristics of the object which are of immediate scientific
concern.
The successful type, schematic, or diagrammatic drawing can not he
Made without analytical study. The student who attempts to make a diagram-
,-
matte drawing
has before him a definite problem in analysis which
necessitates sustained mental effort to the end of the process of representation.
A second purpose of these general art courses is to meet the need
of pupils with special art interests.
This'group of pupils includes
these to.whom the practice of art is a continual source of pleasure
of a high sort.
They may never make art a profession, but it will
'The Psychology of Drawing, V. C. Aim, pp. 163-165.
171029°-21Flull. 88-18
242
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
always be to them a means of discovering n3winterests and enjoy-
ments.
It includes also those talented few 1Who will make art in
some form their life work.
For these pupils the courses are-voca-
tional in character and help to discovsr and guide their ability into
the lines for which they are best adapted.
These are the pupils who
become industrial designers, painters, sculptors, illustrators, archi-
tects, etc.
3. The courses in the history and appreciation of art.
Courses of
this sort are becoming 'fairly common in high schools.
They give
acquaintance with the salient characteristics of styles of architecture,
painting, sculpture, and industrial design, of the chief historic
periods of art.
They also bring to the attention of pupils the more
important masterpieces of these periods.
In such general surveys it
is of course impossible to make an exhaustive study of any one topic.
Nevertheless, the general features of the arts of different times which
express Most intimately the life and artistic ideals of the peoples can
be-shown: The pupils become acquainted with many of the greatest
masterpieces in a way which gives new meanings to history, litera-
ture, and current events.
Modern art gains added significance when
viewed in the light of a knowledge of past art, and modern life is
interpreted from another point of view when the arts of the present
are recognized as being its inevitable expression.
The effect of war conditions upon high-school art-has been evident,
especially in its influence upon the subjects chosen for design;
For
instance, war posters hay. been produced all over- the country. An-
other and more general effect has been the quality of directness and
concentration that has come into work connected with thi war.
There is in it all an element of emergency which tends to ehiminate
steps of doubtful value and to produce desired effects with the great-
est economy of time and means. For example, in the drawing con-
nected with constructive work in classes of enlisted men, it has
been found possible to give in a much shorter time than has pre-
viously been considered necessary, a working knowledge of the sub-
ject. A considerable part of the teaching in these classes is being
done by high-school instructors, and the facts brought to light will
inevitably affect their regular teaching.
The Instruction Manutils
issued by the War Department committee on education and special
trainink contain many stimulating suggestions which will doubtless
influence all the teaching of the instructors who use them. The fol-
lowing sentences from Instruction Manual No. 1 indicate the spirit
of directness which dominates them:
Methods of instruction must be used which in the time available will best
train men to do these jobs.
In order to provide for the development of originality, initiative, and real
thinking power and also to prevent a ruteot-thumb method, the teaching should
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
243
he almost entirely through Jobs, questions, problems, and guided. discussion
about the work
The accomplishment of a Job is both the end to be attained and the means for
Instruction.
Another incidental effeet of the war upon high-school instruction
has been the widespread discussion of art values that has been occa-
sioned by the destrfiction of so much of fine art. that can not be
replaced.
ART INSTRUCTION IN UNIVERSITIES.
Courses in art instruction in colleges and universities may he
broadly classified as follows:
(1) Courses in history of art.
(2) Courses involving studio work related as laboratory work to
academic courses. and dependent- fol credit,upon association
with these courses.
(3) Studio work credited independently.
The. trend of recent development in these 'groups of courses has
been as follows:
1. Courses in history of art.
Historical and archaeological
re-
searches have steadily increased the range and value,of the material
for these courses, especially in the fields of Egyptian, Cretan,
Chinhe, and priMitive American art.
Very large additions to the
number of original examples of art available for study- in this
country have been made during the past 10 years.
There is pretty
general recognition now of the fact that art supplements literary
documents in a special way, because it not only furnishes material
in additional quantity, but its records are peculiarly different in kind.
The arts of form with their vocabulary of visible shapes and colors
can embody and preserve certain significant human interests which
literature, from the nature of the indirect terms which it uses, can
not express in quite the sante .way. :These records of art are inti-
mate and illuminating ill a unique sense, because in many cases the
student has before-him the actual forms and surfaces which the
artists and craftsmen produced.
For Chig reason original art ma-
terial is peculiarly confidential in transmitting, in addition to the
actual subject Matter, an element akin to what inflections and gesture
add to words.
In addition to a wider'range of historical material, the courses
offered show an increasapin the time...devoted to modern art. -The
historical value of the records which pat has left has always been
recognized.
The fact that the art of to-day is an'equally illumi-
nating factor in interpreting certain important aspects of the present
has not been as generally evident.
Moreover,4he aesthetic standards
of historic art have been comparatively well established, so that in-
lb
244
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
structors can feel fairly safe in expressing their appreciation without
hesitation.
On the other hand, the higher type of critical judgi
nt
and testhetic appreciation required to discern the tendencies to'
rd
significant expression and the germs of future perfection in 0104 art
of to-day have frequently made instructors dils.tent about dealing
with this complex subject. An increased willingness to attempt it
is, however, observable.
The following comments on, the study of modern art are extracts
from a paper by Prof. George B. Zug, of Dartmouth College :
A professor of (reek once said to me.that he thought most people are really
Interested only in contemporary literature.
I am Inclined to think that with
most people an interest 111 1111
With an interest in contemporary art.
Ac-
cordingly, in some of my smaller ex.hiitions I have interested the h9ys in the
art of Downier, hy means of dralvings of Boardman Robinson. From Downier
they were easily
it'd to Delacroix, and the latter prepared for a study of
Michael Angelo.
In the same way. drawings of the cartoonist Cesare have !ell
the means Of opening tip the subject of pictorial satire, and CAB has led to
Downier, to oya. ond to Hogarth.
It
Students are interested in the 111PC1121111eS of art. They enjoy seeing the tools
and studying the prItess4,' used in the making Tf etchings, engravings, litho-
graphs, and other prints.
Colleges could attract more students to the subjeet
of art by means of exhibit bins of the materials nod, tools and stages in pro-
duction 441 various kinds of prints. such as those In the New York Public LI-
hrary on "How Etchings Are Made," "How latthographs Are Made," " how 11
Mezzotints Are Made," "The Making of a Wood Engraving." or "The Making
.
of a Shpanese Wood Block Print."
Few professors would want all of these
exhibitions, and perhaps none of us could secure material and prints for such
complete displays as Mr. Weltenkampf has arranged.
But modest exhibitions on one or two of these lines would arouse a new in-
terest among the students and would cost a comparatively small sum. At least
one such exhibition should he part of a permanent collection of every college
art department.
Regarding an exhibition of paintings, etchings, and illustrations,
he says:
.a
The latter were chosen not in order to represent any special illustrators, but
o p
ent selected examples of high quality of work in black and white, of oil
tU ful
color, water color, charcoal, 'pen and ink, pencil, and etching.
Con-
siderable Interest was aroused in the class by assigning a paper which s4uld
compare and contrast the use of illustration in Harper's, Scribner's, and the
Century, and the use of Illustration in the cheaper magazines, such as
Cosmopolitan' and the Metropolitan.
The best of the essn0 on this subject,
which showed decided originality, was entitled "The Big Three and the Pro-
letariat." Tliv advantage of this theme was that it lent a vital interest to the
subject In that it had to do with the interpretation of contemporary life and
*specially that the work was based on the observation of originals and of the
relation oi their reproductions to the text. It was a subject, therefore, which
. could not be cribbed from books or articles.
Some of the best essays by undergraduates were published in the Boston
-Trangcript and the. Springfield Republican. The chief aim of a course in fine
arts 18 Da to furnish copy for metropolitan newspapers.
It is to enhance the
4Ib
lc
INSTRUCTION IN MKT IN THE UNITED STATES.
245
appreciation of art. The point Is not Only thct these undergradtmte essays
were good enough to be accepted by newspaper (mlitors, but also that tikey were
the result of personal appreciation, of first -hand observation.
Its regurd to the uses to which college exhibitions are turned, I wish tc; speak
first of what the instructor can give the students by tins of lectures, personal
explunations, and gallery tours; and second, what the student can hint?;etf gain
from such exhibitions.
The teacher has an opportunity to show such qualities and CharaCteriStIS
do not appear adequately in any reproduction.
For painting ht can ex-
plain hnd actually show such things as tone, bruslmork, harmony of voila-,
and other qualities for different periods, and different groups within the same
pe4iod.
For instance, the handling of color and tone of iivressionist pie-
tides, of tonalist pictures, and post-impressionist pictures.
For sculpture, of
course, there are qualities of color, modeling, and patina which can be abpve-
i
elated only in originals.
The direct appeal of originals, is one explanation of the success of welt:
Selected art shoWis among undergraduator.
Moreover, exhibitions make tlie
student body feel as they never have the importance of ,the study, of tine arts.
The feeling of Proprietorship of personal interest is encouraged by having the
undergraduates perform actual work, whleh Icings its own reward in experience
and appreciation.
Students get valuable experienco in the kind of manual
labor done in nuuseuws ; they unpack, hang, and repack pdinting4 and sculpture;
they make pedestals for sculpture, design labels and posters ; they gain some
knowledge of the problems of framing, hanging. and installation.
A few also
learn something of the business side of exhibitions, where and how to borrow
pictures, selec Al of works of art for exhibition purposes, and matters of
insurance.
Undergraduate correspondents have reported the exhibitions for city papers
and for college publications.
They have also shown competitive interest in
writing es.sayS for small money prizes.
But perhaps one of the most happy
results of the exhibitimiS has been their use by other depstrtments.
The pro-
fes§ors of psychology and of English composition have required themes based
on direct observation of the originals.
Accordingly, over 500 students In three
departments had required exercises based on the works of art in one exhibition.
0
. 2. Courses involving actual practice in drawing, painting, model-
ing, And designing and directly related, as laboratory work to aca-
demic cotirses. The character of these courses is naturally determined
by the pirticular departments. to which they minister.
Prominent
among the dePuttments,under whose auspices courses oikthis type are
organized are those of history of art, education, architecture, and
engineering.
The following quotations fi:om a paper by Miss'Ediih R. Abbott,
of the Metropolitan Art Museum of New York, indicate the characr
of many of these courses, organized in connection with courses in
history of art:
In discussing this question, I have assumed that the term nontechnical lab-.
oratory work may properly be applied to laboratory drawing .n -vhich the
object has been to develop the power of observation, not to achieve technir:al
proficiency. Prof. Moore, of Mount Holyoke, says, "The term ' laboratory work,
borrowefl fromithe sciences, is not a misnomer here.
In science the laboratory
fotms the basis of theory; facts are observed, and by, induttive.and deductive
246
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
reasoning general principles are froin them affirmed.
In a study of historical
art, too, laboratory work is used as a method of close analysis.
Such work
should be.not merely an accompaniment, but an organic part of the study of
the history of art.
Our purpose in its use is to enable the student to devote
his attention for a time to one or another feature of a picture;
the
student tries, by drawing or modeling, to copy or suggest these points, and in so
trying he is obliged to analyze them with a peculiar concentration that he
woilid hardly attain by any other method."
The study of this form of expression, I believe, should not differ essentially
from that of innate or literature. The work itself must sPeak directly to the
observer w: bout any intermediary.
The art student should be encouraged to
make his own Investigations and to draw his independent conclusions from
analysis of the masterpiece itself. Ile may examine the structure of the picture
in the same way that he would examine the structure of a symphony; he may
look for the idioms of the painter or draftsman taut learn to recognize them
as he would recognize the terins of speech which characterize the style of a
great writer.
In any such analysis, I believe the use of drawing to be invaluable. With the
student and beginner, drawing has the important advantage of holding the at-
tention focused upon the object for an appreciable time.
Let us consider the advantage of laboratory drawilig in the study of compost.
Don.
Compositions might be called the study of the interrelation of the parts.
Baldwin Brown says, "The temptatiOn to consider the parts in themselves
rather than the effect of the parts in their relation to the whole Ja to most peo-
ple irresistible,"
The untrained eye finds the plan of composition difficult to
odecipher, and yet the artist has based his arrangement upon a carefully eon.
struett.sd scheme. Mr. Cox thought it worth while in his analysis of Veronese
to tire* n diagram in order to demonstrate-the severe laws of balance upon
which Veronese relied for his effects.
It seems beyond question that the pic-
ture has a greater Interest when this fundamental structure is understood,
since it gives the clue to the whole complex scheme.
A similar analysis may be made a class exercise, the students being re-
quired to sketch from lantern slides the structure lines of simple composition's.
A time limit of 8 or '10 minutes may beset, or the student may be left in un-
certainty when the light will be extinguished. By this means they learn to think
logically and
p the "anatomy" of the picture in an organic fashion.
Whatev
ay be the results on paper, the exercise necessitates concentration
ructure and upon logical development.
College teachers of English have
told me that the clear analysis shown in these drawings was eiactly what they
were trying to get in their work in English composition.
Laboratory drawing
holds the attention concentrated upon form rather than upon any extraneous
Interest or associated idea.
It facilitittes the understanding of compositional
problems with all the delicate adjustniht of forms to spree which they involve.
A more intimate acquaintance is gained with the expressive language of art,
and the foundation 'is laid for the appreciation of "quality," so that in the
final analysis one should be able not only to distinguish the line of this or that
painter, but ale° la /iris vivante which characterizes great art.
Laboratory
work to essentially a means to an end. For the student with artistic ability it
can never become a substitute for real studio practice. But once initiated into
this new world In which the senses pia, so large a part, the student experiences
keen enjoyment.
8. Studio courses not planned primarily as laboratory work for
academic courses.
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
247
There is an evident tendency to credit wciLk in art which is more or
less independent of an organic relation Uo academic courses, but
which is nevertheless considered as an appropriate part of a major
in art.
In some cases these courses are carried on in an accredited
art school.
The affiliation' between Brown University and the Rhode
Island School of Design is an instance of this type of arrangement.
Many colleges and universities have their own department of fine art.
The steadily increasing amount of recognition accorded to well-
organized studio courses in art as appropriate for academic credit is
paitly the result of a realization that art expression is more than a
matter of manual dexterity in making a record of what one sees. It
involves in addition, the translatign of one's impressions into terms
of expression which have been slovAy evolved by the race, and which
demand careful analysis and selection, and the knowledge of a body
of principles and recorded experience. In the same sense that the
test of excellence of themes in English is not their exactness as dic-
tographic records of actual conversations nor as literal statistics of
observations, so the test of college art work is not its correctness
as a record of forms and colors, but its reconstruction of the re.: ma-
terial of visual sensation into artistic ekpression.
The recent steady increase in the number and size of departments
of fine art in universities is destined to exercise an important in-
fluence upon American art in two directions; namely, by giving to
the future.citizens who will he the patrons of art and the promoters
of the standards of civic beauty an early acquaintance with artistic
interests and ideals of excellence, and also by offering to those who
later will be professional artists an opportunity to Continue. through
. college the contact with art which in many cases was begun in high
school.
Notwithstanding the high degree of skill in handling materials
which drawing, painting, modeling, and designing involve, they ate
in their higher forms allied to the arts of expression more closely
than to the arts of construction.
In universities where art may be
selected as a major subject,. the student who plans to use Art as his
form of expression has the same opportunity as the student who in-
tends to enter the profession of literature, to tiegin his work under
conditions which will give him a broad intellectual background and
stimulating. contact with other vigorous interests.
The artistically gifted student in a college or university which has
no art department generally finds, early in his course, that he must
choose, in. a manner that. the student who .plans to make science or
literature his profession is not called upon to do, between a college
course and a highly specialized art course. Too early technical
facility, unaccompanied by constantly enlarging intellectual.outlook
.
.
248
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
is as bad for the art student as too late a knowledge of the use of his
means of expression.
The organization of college art courses is steadily improving. The
work of the College Art Association of America is contributing
effectively to this end.
ART MUSEUMS AND ART SCHOOLS.
Art museums have always been a. most important factor in art
education in America, and their influence is extending rapidly. This
development is due in part to the increase in number of museums and in
the size and quality of their collections, and in part to improved means
of making their collections available.
Most modern museums have
established close relations With the communities in which they exist,
and have put forth every effort to make their collections of use as a
stimulus and guide to the art student and industrial worker and as a
means of artistic pleasure and inspiration to the general public.
The older museums have existed long enough to be able to weed
out much ordinary, but space-filling and mind-confusing, material.
The newer museums learned by the experience of older institutions
to protect themselves tactfully from mediocre but generously offered
material, so that a satisfyingly large proportion of the works ex-
hibited in the permanent collections of the museums of to-day have
a genuine artistic significance.
Where means are limited, it is generally considered more import-
ant, in extending the list of permanent acquisitions to have a, small
collection of a high degree of excellence than one which is large but
only fairly good.
It has become customary to regard a sum of
money as more wisely expended in the purchnse of one or two ex-
cellent examples of a given style or period of art than in procuring
many ordinary illustrations of a wider. range of styles.
Photographs,
and in some cases casts, are generally regarded as better smktitutes
for unobtainable fine things than original productions of indifferent
merit.
In consequence of this policy, the number of commonplace
productions on permanent exhibition in American museums is rela-
tively small.
Besides the regular dkalays of collections owned by the institu-
tion, nearly every museum has a succession of exhibitions of works
of special interest, including turrent productions of pictorial and in-
dustrial art.
Societies now exist for the promotion of American art,
and their patronage in the form of prizes and purchases is an added
influence in bringing to these exhibitions much of the best in modern
American* painting, sculpture; and design.
While the collections
accumulated from current exhibitions by these associations dOubtless
contain many things that will not stand the test of time, nevertheless
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
249
after a hundred years the really excellent material they contain
promises more than to justify the policy, without taking into account
the encouragement that has been given to American art during that
time.
Besides making art productions of the past and present available,
museums are organizing further educational activities with increasing
effectiveness.
In the galleries, docents and guides are available;
literature, lantern slides, photographs, and color prints of good
quality are provided; and lecture courses and classes are organized.
Mthly museums have their collections of lantern slides selected and
arranged so as to be of use in the community, especially in the
schools.
Carefully prepared lectures in manuscript form, together
with appropriate slides, are frequently available for the use of
schools. A few museums have collOions of slides which, for a small
rental fee to cover packing, will .be sent to various 1 arts of the
country. The Metropolitan Museum of New York and the Art Insti-
tute of Chicago are notable among the institutions which offer this
wide opportunity.
The bulletins published periodically by many
museums have become important art documents. By diem the acqui-
sitions and opportunities of these institutions are made known to
the public.
The educational activities of museums and _special art schools
differ considerably, because each is experimenting with methods of
meeting the needs of its locality.
Reference can be made here to
only a fei', but the following are fairly typical of the various lines
of effort.
Seine of the lectures and classes announced in the bulletin of the
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, September, 1917,
are the following:
For the public. Sunday aftemoon.lectures, illustrated and followed by visits
to the galleries through the winter season.
Story hours for thildren and adults, illustrated and followed by visits to
the galleries.
Artistic problems in Greek sculpture; five illustrated lectures.
For students of sculpture and painting in the art schools of New York. Four
informal talks by painters and sculptors, with illustrations.
For teachers in the public schools of NewYork City.
Gallery talks by the
museum Instructors.
For elementary and high school pupils.
Four lectures in cooperation with
the American Museum of Natural History. Textile industries of the United
States.
The garment makers of primitive times.
Historic fabrics and cos-
tumes.
For sales people, buyers, and designers, three seminars.
For the deaf. Four illustrated lectures for those who can rend the lips.
Fur the blind.
Three talks for children, illustrated with objects from the
collection which may be handled.
250
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.,
The Art Museum of Worcester, Mass., has set an admirable ex-
ample in the activities of its children's department, the informal
work in drawing, the Saturday story hour, and the gallery visiting.
Inevitably, the most important results of this work can not he measured In
figures: they are observed by those whe know the children as individuals, in the
increased capacity for spontaneous enjoyment of beauty wherever seen. and the
deeper interest in the museum, leading even to a certain sense of part owner-
ship in the collections which, through Intimate association, have come to mean
much to these " younger citizens,"
A large number of museums carry on systematic work in direct
connection with the public schools and offer to teachers and pupils
free admission to the galleries.
The plans followed by the Museum
of Fine Arts in Boston, the John Herron Art Institute in Indian-
apolis, the Carnegie Instittite at Pittsburgh. and the Cincinnati Mu-
seum Association are typical of these activities.
The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, among numerous other oppor-
tunities which it furnishes, has established in another section of the
city a Children's Art Center. Here children may see loan exhibitions
and be helped in the study of them and guided in their own efforts to
draw.
Some 18,000 persons annually take advantage of the opportunity
for free admission offered to school children and teachers by the John
Herron Art Institute, of Indianapolis.
It maintains a series of illus-
trate talks for grade-school children on popular subjects closely
allied to art study. For high-school students a two-year lecture course
is given on the history of art (one term each covering painting, archi-
tecture, sculpture, and the decorative arts), a full high - school credit
being awarded to each student attending through the two years. A
course in "museum study," planned to develop a fuller knowledge of
museum material and a better understanding of how to make use of it,
is a required part of the Indianapolis Normal School curriculum. In
addition to these regular courses, all given at the museum, numerous
classes come for special study or for a general museum visit, and fre-
quent lectures are given in the various school buildings on the prac-
tical application of art in the hOme, the city, the community, and
along similar directly helpful lines. In the art school which it main-
tains for professional training in drawing, painting, and the deco-
rative arts, classes are conducted for teachers at special low prices
and free classes for elementary and high-school pupils.- In addition
it offers scholarships for advanced work in art to pupils who show
special ability.
Recently, the free scholarship has been extended to
cover the whole State of Indiana and a scholarship offeeed for each
of the 92 counties in the State.
The Cincinnati Museum announced. its plan in its report for 1909
as follows:
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
251
The question of education on a large scalethat is, of bringing the general
public into intelligent and agreeable acquaintance with objects of artis a
matter which is occupying the attention of eiwery museum at the present time.
It is being variously dealt with. There is, of course, no difficulty in answering
the needs of an intlivAgual or of a small group who come with a definite ques-
tion or a common want.
It is a pleasant and profitable task, for example, to
talk over the Greek sculptures with a group of children who know their
mythology. But it is doubtful whether the needs of large visiting classes of
school children can ever be adequately met by instruction inside a museum.
Certainly to attempt locally the systematic instruction of great numbers would
be an impossible tax on a small and tWisy staff
s.
There are times
when the request for guidance must be reluctantly refused.
Volunteer service
of the right sort would be a great boon and would hardly run the risk of becom-
ing stereotyped, a real danger to any employing the function too frequently.
By far the best results, however, are to be gained by the school-teacher who
possesses sufficient knowledge to use the collections.
She can reinforce her
own work by drawing on an inexhaustible fund for illustration, and by reason
of her knowledge of the child's degree of preparation she need waste nothing.
If she possess, in addition, a love of beauty, either native or acquired, the
conditions for success could hardly be in4roved upon.
The museum, then, is putting its main strength along this line Into its work
for teachers.
Another not uncommon affiliation is illustrated by the opportunity
offered at Cincinnati, where high-school' students may elect an art
course which is arranged to allow five afternoons of work each week
in the museum academy.
Each afternoon's 'program includes three
hours of drawing and painting. Instruction in the history of art is
given to these students at the museum.
The museum circulates
through the schools certain sets of lantern slidps with a synopsis.
The subjects for 191S are: "A Review of the Museum," " The History,
of Painting with Special Reference to the Characteristics of the
Great Periods," " Metal Work." " Design as Studied and Practiced
To-day." A lecturer from the museum is sent to the schools occa-
sionally.
The way in which the Carnegie Institute comes into touch with the
school children is described as follows:
The problem presented to us by visits to our galleries of groups of children
from the public schools, and the way in which we have undertaken to solve It,
may be briefly stated.
Through the interested cooperation of the superintendent of schools in Pitts-
burgh, and the director of art instruction, and the exceptional liberality of the
board of education, the students of the entire eighth grade of the public schools,
numbering 5,000, and ranging in age from about 14 to 10 years, come three
times during the school year, with their teachers, as part of their regular work,
to visit the halls and galleries of the department of fine arts at Carnegie Insti-
tute.
Each visit is limited in time to an hour and n half, and the three sub-
jects, Painting, architecture, and sculpture, are studied, but each period is
devoted to the study of one subject and of on', a few works of art.
These
works are used for the purpose of Illustrating some of the fundamental qualities
defined.
252
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-1914.
As a result of many years of observation the problem presents itself to me
In this way. We have, on the one side, groups of interested and intelligent
children, eager to see and hear and understand.
They come to us from 5,000
homes scattered throughout the entire city, and the majority of theta have had
no opportunity to learn anything about art, or even to see works of art.
They
have had nothing beyond the elemental art training offered by the public
schools, and their sole means of observatliin has been practically limited to
Illustrations published In books and magazines telling stories or illustrating
incidents.
This side of art Is,. of course, so obvious that it may be readily
understoOd by a child.
On the other side of the problem, dPe have the entire realm of art with which
to deal, in three sessions of an hour and a half each
the history of art, of
painting, of architecture and sculpture; the wide field of biography, of painters,
of architects and sculptors; the technical side of art, the peculiar or special
methods adopted, especially by painters, In the production of their work; and
the various elements or qualities which enter Into a work of art. The problem
might be approached from any of these angles.
It will be seen at once how futile it would he to attempt to give the young
people any Idea of the.tistpry of the art of painting in the space of an hour
and a half.
It might be possible to ``real briefly with the life of .a single artist
within the time, but the hapossibilitr of dealing adequately with the wide field
of biography within the hour and a half is apparent.
And while the technique
of art is an interesting field of inqui4 and study, the peculiar manner of doing
a thing is unimportant. Supreme examples of art have been produced by
various technical methods. Technical methods are of little more hopm Lance
than the handwriting of the author.
Moreover, these students do not come
seeking technical knowledge.
They simply want to know why this or that work
Is good, to the end that they may better
II
erstand and enjoy mt.
The folly
of attempting to teach these young peep
tl
history, biography, or technique
of any art in an hour and a half is evade t.
Therefore, it will be readily seen that if we are to give these students any-
thing worth bringing them to the institute for, we must select for them with
discriminating judgment and concentrate their attention upon some important
quality or qualities of the subject.
Our chief purpose, then, is to give the
student a point of vices from which to examine and study, not one work of art,
but all works of art.
The scholarship plan'of the Cleveland School of Art illustrates
some of the types of scholarships which art schoi)ls offer to talented
public-school pupils. This school offers working scholarships] and a
few money 'scholarships. Last year the "Mutual service fund" was
inaugurated.
This is made up at present of eight purses of $350
each. A talented pupil can have the benefit of one of these purses
on condition that as soon as his earnings begin, the money be re-
turned without interest, in installments to be paid either by the in-
dividual or by his employera certain percentage of his earnings
monthlyuntil the whole is returned for another to use. The purses
are given by individuals or organizations who come into personal
touch with the beriaciary.
The pupils whose abilities are recog-
nized by the award of these scholarships are usually discovered in the,
high schools.
Application is made through some special teacher of
drawing who knows the facts about the pupil and his work.
INSTRUCTION IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
258
The Cleveland Museum, in addition to its regular gallery displays,
has exhibitions of selected works of art in a place of honor and under
special illumination, each for two weeks only. Illustrated leaflets are
issued interpreting these selected works and giving references to
helpful literature about them and the artists who produced them.
In connection witlr the difficult matter of appropriate gallery talks
a much better understanding is evident regarding the ways in which
genuinely artistic appreciation is promoted. Sonic fundamental con-
siderations on this complex problem are set forth with admirable
clearness in the bulletin of the Art Institute of Chicago for Febru-
ary, 1918, front which the following paragraphs are extracts:
There is no form of art lecture capable of greater value to the interested
public than that ilelivert4i in the presence of the works under discussion. Here
qualities are seen and 'minted out rather than described, and here the emphasis
can he laid on a statement of the principle governing the manipulation of those
qualitiesthe essential prtwesses of art.
And yet there is no situation In which the lecturer can more easily be
tempted from the straight and narrow path of scientific truth/ than in the gal-
lery talk where the acquiescent pictures seem so ready to corroborate any word
he limy utter.
The exercise of individual taste and the play of individual
fancy have a right to play their part in the appreciation of works of art, and
something very like these often stimulates the amateur critic into strange 4:
!lenience of statementeither of denunciation or of praiseIn channels. of
purely peminal thought whose value for his audience is certainly nothing and
may be less.
Now this leads to the single deadly sin of the picture talkerthe creation of
prejudice.
It is precisely the function of the gallery talker to help
us to find the artist's angle of vision. The greatest gift he can offer us is to
make us sympathetic with the colwepilons which are new to us. His best means
of nevomplisbing this is to help us to rid ourselves of the flints of prejudice
through which we all are obliged to some extent to peer.
For we can not receive our reathetic experience second hand. With the open-
minded attitude which is ready to accept a "message" from any work, how-
ever old or however new, there must, be combined an Insistence upon receiving
that message at first hand and for ourselves. The gallery lecturer who In any
way attempts to come letween us and the superlative delight of growing
into the love of a work
art through our growing acquaintance with It, shows
us at the start his (or her) failure to grasp the first essential of leadership in
art appreciation.
Practically all modern museums carry on one or more of the kinds
of educational activity here mentioned.
The foregoing examples
have been cited only to illustrate types of work, all the specific in-
stances of which are fortunately much too numerous to allow of indi-
vidual mention.
Art education related to industries has,been prominent in America
for, many years. It is receiving a fresh impetus at present from the
prospect that, after the war, the United States 'will have to depend
upon its own resources more than in the past, not only for designers
but also for styles of design. A kind of originality must be developed
264
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
that can produce things which are not only new but fine in quality.
With this necessity in mind, older schools have been improving their
facilities, while new schools intimately related to local industries have
arisen. The Grand Rapids School of Art and Industry, in Michigan,
and the Federal School of Commercial Designing, in Minneapolis,
are types of these newer schools. Most of the schools of industrial art
offer special opportunities for school pupils whose vocational inter-
ests in this field have become evident.
The scheme of affiliation
worked out by the School of Industrial Art in Trenton, N. J., is
typical of this sort of arriingement.
Ilere pupils from the city
schools may take courses for which the fees are merely nominal.
Technical art courses are provided for pupils who have completed the
junior high school, and an art teachers' course is offered for students
in the normal school.
American students of textile design have only recently discovetikl
the value to their work of the extensive collections of primitive art
which are gathered in the anthropological museums of this country.
These students are recognizing the fact that primitive art is often
very good art and that it offers a vast source of suggestion and
inspiration for designs that are original, in the sense that they are
unlike those to which we have become accustomed. In an article en-
titled "Museum Documents and Modern Costume," if the American
Museum Journal for April, 1918, Mr. M. D. C. Crawford writes:
Above and beyond the artistic merit of these costumes, however, they illus-
trate in a definite manner a very important feature of the educational possibili-
ties and public usefulness of the American Museum.
Every single garment In
the collection was founded on a specimen In the collectIon'of this museum.
In
certain instances, the inspiration is perhaps difficult to trace, but in others it Is
quite obvious.
These garments represent the first fruits of what I may term
"creative research" by the American costume industry. The documents in the
museum were studied with the view of applying ideas, either in decoration or
In line, to modern costumes. Instead of the usual method of importing modern
foreign costumes (themselves based, generally, on foreign museum collections),
our designers, familiar "%kith the practical needs of to-day, have gone direct to
original documents for their inspiration. The work, therefore, marks one of
the most Important movements in the deyelopment of a truly American type of
. industrial art.
-
It is not difficult to understand how important a part our great museums and
libraries mast play in the proper industrial expression of art.
They are for
the artist inexhaustible mines of suggestion. The art of each people and age is
an evolution from some former type.
The artist, especially the decorative
artist, is concerned not alone with purely original creation, but with-the in-
spired selection of certain Ideas ind motives of ancient origin that may have a
fresh significance for his own time and People-
The national need for itadustrial design is strongly influencing the
art departinents in high ichools and art schools. In the past, many
students have entered art work because of theirstrong liking for that
work, but in only a Poi institutions has the training been directed
INSTRUCTIOX IN ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
255
and vitalized by any definite knowledge of the actual demands for
the product.
Consequently, many art students with marked abili-
ties in design but not in pictorial art have received only formal
training in design or have given their time to painting pictures,
thinking that overcrowded field to be the only place for art expres-
sion. Many with valuable talent have turned to work other than art
because they had no knowledge of the opportunities offered.
Prom-
inent among the agencies which are remedying this condition is the
Art Alliance of America.
This association was organized in New
York City in 1914, with headquarters at 10 East Forty-seventh
Street.
One purpose of this association is to promote working rela-
tions between art producers and the industries.
It brings artists
and art students into personal touch with industries whith need art
products. The New York division of this association was organized
in New York City in 1914.
Galleries are maintained in the heart
of New York's shopping district, where exhibitions, organized in
close cooperation with artists and with the trades, are held every
month.
Positions are secured, work sold, and advice given by artists
and educators. Hours are assigntrd daily for personal interviews and
examination of work. The Central States division was organized in
the fall of 1918 in Chicago, and maintains an office in the Art Insti-
tute. At each monthly luncheon the artistic possibilities of some
industry are discussed. The movement has the friendly cooperation
of the Illinois Manufacturers' Association, and plans for a compre-
,hensive exposition in the fall of 1919 which will illustrate the neces-
sity of art in industry are under way. Additional divisions are being
organized in other centers in the country, so that the alliance is likely
to exert a strong and direct influence upon the methods of teaching
of design, and upon the vocational guidance of students of warked
artistic abilities.
CHAPTER IX.
INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC.
By WALDO S. PRATT.
CONTRNTR.--Depletion In the number of tenches and pupilsSome decrease among lode-
pendent schools -The transference of music teachers into Army workMilitary band
developmentCamp singing and community musicDiscussions about standardlaa-
tionSchool credits for outside musk studyOther points of progress in public
schools--Notable features in private Instruction.
In instruction in, music. as in other related fields, the outstanding
feature of the biennium 1916-1918 is the interference or readjust-
ment occasioned by the European War. On the whole, although
there has been sonic serious disarravgement, the direct or indirect
benefits overbalance the Josses.
In the present rapid summary it
will be convenient to mention .(l) one or two lines of disturbance from
war conditions; (2) several. dirktions in which these conditions
have induced novel efforts; and (3) certain points of discus,sibn or
progress not connected with war conditions.
DEPLETION IN THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS AND PUPILS.
Depletion in the active staffs of music schools, both independent
and affiliated, in the large body of music instructors in public
schools and in the host of private teachers has been notable during
the past two years.
The drain has come not only from direct enlist-
ment or drafting into military service, but from the manifold de-.
minds for indirect service.
Institutional faculties have been much
affected by calls tti members to give up their usual forms of work
for temporary activity in otther-directions.
The same causes have
operated to produce a decided decrease in ninny instances in the
total number of students, both in institptions (except public schools)
and under private instruction.
Pupils have been considerably in-
fluenced by the economic stringency of the war/period.
The small
private teacher and some of the detached musiqschools seem to have
been the most affected. Some individuals ha? suffered badly.
SOME DECREASE AMONG INDEPENDENT SWOOLS.
A considerable number of the independent music schools have
ceased to exist during the past two or thee years. It is not clear
whether or not this is due to war conditions. But the fact is notice-
able enough to call for a-word of comment.
1710295-21Bull. 88-17
257,
258
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
.
There is no accepted criterion as to what constitutes a "music
school." Ten years ago, when Dr. Arthur L. Manchester prepared
for the Bureau of Education his bulletin on "Music Education in
the United States" he was constantly confronted by this problem
of definition. The name of a "school" is occasionally claimed by
an individual, or a married couple, or some-casual combination of
two or three.
It is common when a larger number agree to pool
expenses and exchange clientage. A surprising proportion of the
"music schools" of the country are not .much beyond this rudi-
mentary stage of organjzation.
Comparatively few have a cur-
riculum, or require anything from students except regular attend-
ance and prompt payment of bills.
The large majority of these
'students would in any other analogous professitmal institution he
classed as "specials" or." irregulars."
.
-
But all small and loosely organized schools are in competition
with two other kinds of institutions.
One is the strong conserva-
tory in the large'city, drawing Students from a wide area, with a nu-
merous, and diversified faculty, offering many collateral advantages
in the way of recitals, concerts, and lectures, and having traditions'
that favor breadth of 'raining. so as to gain some degree of general
musicianship. The other is the department or school in a college or
university system, where the organization and spirit of the total in-
stitution naturally control the work of each constituent. part.
Both
of these types offer much that small and isolated private schools can
not give. It appears that the stress of/war conditions has heightened
this contrast. Of course, a small school is rtot to be 'disdained be-
cause it is small.
Some such are efficient and useful.
There is also
no objection to cooperative unions of teachers for business reasons.
The criticism is to using the name "school" for that which has no
clear scholastic purpose or pOlicy.
If the pressure of war condi-
.
timis is reducing the number of these institutions, the progress of
musical education Will not be much damaged.
THE TRANWERENCE OF MUSIC TEACIIERS INTO ARMY WORK.
A conspicuonseffect of theaway has been the widespread summons
to teachers of singing, particularly supervisors in the public schools,
with many instrumentalists as well, into constructive; musical work
at army cantonments, with the forces abroad, or in public situations
related to these.
The basis of all this 'has been the recognition by
the Government of the recreational an moral value of music in
life, and the parallel recogniiion-by the Young Alen's Christian As-
sociation and similar organization_ s engaged
welfare. work among
soldiers and sailors. The effect of all thiS has been twofoldIthe
effect upon theSe this called as individuals, and the effect upon those
among *hom they have worked.
INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC.
259
It is clear that the army experience of the scores of teachers thus
drafted into novel service will be of lasting benefit to thensperson-
ally.
Those who came from the public schools, and many others as
well, had been dealing almost wholly with children or adolescents,
and more with girls thanwith boys.
In their new work they were
confronted by throngs off'., growii men. This experience has been
wholesome and broadening, since the work must justify itself to
minds of a critical and impatient order. No doubt in most cases the
authorities regarded musical drill mainly as a means of intensi-
fying martial ardor, while the men themselves accented merely jolly
goodfelloship and heedless diversion.
Yet every serious musical
worker has seen the chance to turn even camp music into a real
educational force.
Particularly has this been stimulated in some
situations across the sea, where American troops have been in close
contact with Frenclj or Italians, and could catch from them a readi-,
ness and delicacy of artistic appreciation that is rare in this country.
It
much too soon to say what will be the result of all this army
work when demobilization has been accomplished. It would be
foolish to expect universal or spectacular consequences.
But con-
sidering that perhaps four millions of young men have been more or
less touched by-this musical work, it is likely that large numbers
have discovered in it what they had not realized in-the way of emo-
tiohaluplift and also of associational value. It is probable that their
attitude toward- music for themselves, for their families and for
their communities will be more sympathetic and enterprising than
in the past.
Even if the percentage of such recruits in musical -in-
terest is small, their absolute number will be large and their geo-
graphical distribution wide.
.
-
MILITARY BA ND DEVELOPMENT.
At this point a few words should be said about the development
of bands and band music in the Army and Navy.
Not having had
any extensive military e4ablislnent, the United States for half a
century has given slight attention to this subject. When the Expe-
ditionary Force was first gathered and dispatched there were neither
leaders nor players nor instruments available properly:to equip the
various units.
Yet it was speedily seen that band music was of more
than decorative importance.
But it could not be instantaneously
created.
All sorts of expedients were tried, both here and abroad.
What has been accomplished was creditable, considering the difficul-
ties.
For a period Walter Damrosch, the well-known New York
conductor, served efficiently in France as a center for some inten-
sive training.
But the problem has had only a partial solution.
Although we need not look forward to the long maintenance of
/
4
260
BIENNIAL SU VElt OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
the last year or two, yet for a conside-
remain larger than anything that we
For these careful provision of band
ediate need, with regard also to the
e establishment of one or more gov-
eaders and phiyers or to arrange-
special instruction.' Something
imperfect form.
One large New
uraged successive classes of pu-
rnor's Island, sand other institu-
cilities.
Now, we may hope,
elop the cultural possibilities
ds, to be used both in min-
such huge forces as during
able time their number will
have had since the Civil War.
music is demanded.
This imm
future, will probably lead to th
ernmental schools fOr training I
ments with existing agencies for
of this sort has long existed in an
York school, for example, has enco
pits from the military post at Gove
tions are well equipped with band fa
still' further steps will be taken to dew
of many permanent and well-drilled ba
tars connections and in public service.
The value of this can be seen by re cal
meant for generations in the military and
ing European country.
Great Britain, Fre
have been solicitous for this and have ma
popular education.
It is interesting to refine
forerunners of the Paris ConservatoiSe was t
founded in .17021swhich was primarily a school
master Surrette, became the' first director'of the
maining in office for 20 years.- In every garrison
the military band is one of the established agencies
sentation. We have something analogous to this in
city bands, but these have not yet attained the influe
generally that is possible.
ling what band music has
social life of every lead -
nce. Germany, and Italy
de it a real branch of
tuber that one of the
ie Institut National,
for military music,
is head, the band-
Conservatoire, re-
town of Europe
of musical pre-
our town and
nce or dignity
CAMP SINGINO AND COMMUNITY MUSIC.
At first sight the cultivation of singing in soldiers' camps and the
far. more general interest known. as community music have little
\dinwt connection.
It is n fact, however,-that the efforts put forth
imarily for the former have had a marked influence upon the
a
ante of the latter. The two will therefore be treated hbre softie-
wh
in combination, as has already been done by the Secretary of
War 'n his Annual Report for 1918:.
A gr t deal of attention has been given to music through mass singing In
camps n 1 communities, singing on the march, Competitive regimental and com-
pany singing, recreational singing in soldiers' free time, the organization of
quartets, glee clubs, end choruses, and the training of company and.r(Vmental
-song leaders to aid the camp song leader.
In order 'to have all the men singing
the, same songs, songboOks containing patriotic songs, folk songs, popular and
service song*, and some Ilymns were published and distributed, Experiments
with vocal null les4umentar music in hospitals proved so effectiie with certain
types of calsel and no acceptable_to the hospital authorities that the matter was
t.
IIISTRt/CTION n; MIJS/Ct.
261
referred to the Surgeon General's Office with a view to it
transfer to this
department. The services of the camp song leaders have frequently been
borrowed by nearby communities. Community singingthe singing of songs
the soldiers have been singinghas spread all over the country, and the
pOssibilities, as to both military and civilian morale, are highly significant A
singing nation will emerge from the war.
The immediate educational influence of the soldiers' singing
has been widely recognized.
Although the grade of music attempted
has not often been specially good, to many men it has been a revelation
that they could sing, that choral music has a singular fascination and
power, and that music thus produced is worth working for. Chorus
practice is always impressive as a practical illustration of cooperative
effortas a demonstration of democracy in action.
Hence, in addi-
tion to the artistic development that it brings, it has important social
reactions. The universal testimony is that the system that has been
put in force in all cantonments and camps has been immensely valu-
able.
One reason for its success is that many leaders of superior
quality have been secured, that they have seried under authoritative
commissions and with the full support of the commanding officers, and
that from the firSibtheir efforts have net with enthusiastic welcome by
the majority of the men.
Directly radiating from this camp music have been two or three
undertakings outside.
One has been the supervision to some extent
of the recreational opportunities in the neighborhood of cantonments
and camps, including both musical and theatrical features. The mu-.
sical importance of this has probably not been great, except in the
exclusign of some inferior performances.
Another, which is of de-
: cided significance, is the organization of so-called." liberty choruses"
in towns and villages generalry.
Comprehensive statistics about this
are not yet available.
But in Connecticut, which was more or less a
pioneer in this work, some 90 choral centers were established last sum-
mer in the space of abOut three months. Many of these seem likely
to continue active for a long time, perhaps even to grow into per-
manent choral societies.
This line of effort is so promising that it
is now being supervised and systematically promoted by a commission
called the War Camp Community Service (1 Madison Avenue, New
York City), conducted by the PlaygAund and Recreation Association
of America for the War Department and Navy Department Cotn-
'missions on Training Camp Activities.
Besides a general director
there are State directors already in service in a. large number of
States.
All this hat obvious relation to every other. enterprise that looks
tow* the stimulation4f community music.
Such music has been
promoted more or less for a considerable time. , The methods used
have varied' mach according to Circumstances.
In some cases rather
262
BIENNIAL rRVEY
EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
large community choruses have been set up, with regular rehearsals
and some concerts, occasionally with soloists and orchestra.
In
other cases neighborhood "sings" of a much humbler variety have
been the goal.
Municipal orchestras and bands, supported by public
authorities, are growing more commonslightly resembling in func-
tion the old "Town Musicians" that -once flourished in Germany.
A number of cities maintain regular series of free organ recitals
by a resident city organist.
The most comprehensive plan just now
seems to be that of Flint, Mich.; which has appointed a city director
of music on a liberal salary, expecting him to devote his whole at-
tention to developing community music in every possible form.
Here reference 'should be made to the fact that more than one of
the State universities is giving special attention to this subject.
The
University of Illinois announces that one of its main objects in cur-
rying on its large and well-equipped department of music is to
encourage and uplift the plane of community music.
This univer-
sity has for years made a specialty of band music, and its bands
circulate more, or less through the State for educational purposes.
'the University of Wisconsin has long emphasized the holding of
local singing assemblies
distantly' related to the old-fashioned "mu-
sical conventions "and the training of teachers co
etent to act.
as leaders in popular music.
The opportunity for This-sort of in-
fluence is beginning to he recognized by some independent music-
schools, as well as by an increasing number of private teacherik.
The movement is still very much in its infancy.
It has no tra-
dition behind it and not yet an organized momentum. Many would-
be supporters are in the dark how to proceed.
In some places
there is a Jack of suitable leaders.
Everywhere there is a lack of
varied music for singing. A few small collections of " familiar "
pieces have been put forth, which are good enough as far as they
go, but they do not go far.
The circulation of much material of
present interest is hampered by copyright restrictions.
Our Ameri-
. can population really has no body of traditional songs. This is partly
due to our racial and national complexity.
And the custom of
singing has not been general among us, nor that of frequently gath-
ering.for the hearing of music.
Yet what has always been affirmed
by thOughtfurmusicians 'is being demonstrated more and more, that
there is latept in people generally a large capacity both for song and
for appreciation, provided that the proper opportunity can be sup-
plied. It is increasingly Clear that difficulties will be overcome and'
that true community music will spread throughout the Union..
This movement has a vital relation to formal education in music.
The latter can never safely allow itself to become exclusively pro- '
fessional.
Adyanced musical culture cannot be Supported except
on a basis of popular interest, and it will be unhealthy in quality
INSTRUCTION, IN Ammo.
268
unless it refreshes itself by contact with the unconscious and even
homely sources of all universal fine art.
Before leaving the subject, brief mention should be made of one
phase of the military work that stands slightly apart from what has
been mentioned above.
This is the development of singing in the
Students' Army Training Corps. Here the men in view were mostly
from schools or universities.
Musical work adapted to them was
hardly organized and pUt in motion before the signing of the armis-
tice opened the way to their demobilization.
But it is felt by those
who have been specializing in this work that the response to it was
so promising that a way should be found to continue it nationally.
Whether i'suitable method for doing so can be found is not yet clear.
But if such a method is feasible, the result would be to connect the
well-known zest for singing among students with the larger. move-
ment for community music.
DISCUSSIONS ABOUT STAN DARDIZATIQN.
Turning now to matters disconnected with war conditions, there
is probably no question more discussed among musical educators
than that of standardization.
This question especially concerns pri-
vate teachers and those working in the public schools.
It- may
progress to results that will profoundly affect the entire circuit of
education in music.
A few years ago much emphasis was put by some upon the value
of fixing a minimum standard of qualification by requiring all music
teachers to secure a State license or certificate.
This aimed at debar-
ring ignorant and incompetent teachers from " practicing," as it is
called in medicine or law.
Detailed efforts to secure the enactment
of such restrictive statutes were made in more than one State, but
without much result except to demonstrate the extreme difficulty of
the enterprise.
This line of effort seems lately to be less prominent.
It is to be hoped that it will not be presSed, at least in the form
thus far advocated.
There may come a time when some restriction
of music teaching by law may be both practical and useful. That
'time, however, has not yet come.
Meanwhile two or three other lines of effort under the name of
standardization are being actively discussed or undertaken.
In gen-
eral, these divide into two "classes: Those that aim to standardize
teaching proficiency, though not by statute, and those that aim. to
standardize methods of study and credits to students. ,Both of these
are more. or less before the national and the several State music
teachers' associations. and some of these bodies have worked out
plans that are in operation.
Both are voluntary in nature rather
than coercive, and both therefore appeal, primarily to ambition as a
motive. Whether or 'not either of them results in the adoption of
!
.
264
BIENNIAL SURYEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
a system of wide application, agitation of the subject is proving
profitable because it increases the thoughtfulness and precision of
music teachers as to the aims and methods of their work.
In England and Canada the certification of music teachers has
long been carried out with great thoroughness, especially with refer-
ence to work in the board schools, but extending by popular favor
more or less to all teachers.
It accomplishes. nearly the sue results
as have here been sought through legislative action.
Something
parallel to it is gradually being established here.
Established music
schools, music, departments in certain colleges and universities and
many normal schools have courses for teachers that lead to certifi-
cates whose value is recognized, and applicants for some positions
are expected or required to hold such certificates.
Efforts have re-
cently been made by more 'than one of the State music teachers'
associations to setup a system of examination and certification of
their ownas was done years ago by the American College of
Musicians.
This line of effort is now engaging the thought of many serious
musicians, and it is leading to the formulation of interesting and
valuable schemes of knowledge and accomplishment to be demanded
for teachers of singing, playing, and theory.
Its reaction upon those
who are discussing it is evidently stimulating, and also its effect as
concerns those to whom it is applied.
But whether it is to have
large influence depends upon, two incalculable factors: The number
who will be moved to take advantage of it, and whether the public
will'value such certificates.enough to demand that teachers generally
shall hold them.
Another practical question is as to the persistence,
patience, and wisdom with which the aSs(wiations pursue the matter
from year to year.
Dependence upon unpaid officinis who shift more
or less is precarious. And at present there is no State association
that includes any dominant proportion of the music teachers in its
territory. Though this fact detracts somewhat from the authority
of such associations. the moral influence of what they undertake
Vtuld be considerable if steadily and strongly exerted.
Rather more practically hopeful are the constant debates about
tipulated courses of study in various musical subjects, with the
rking of successive grades of attainment desired.
From the
na ure of the public school system it follows that where music is
intr*luced in parallel with other subjects the course of study in it
must\be marked out with much precision.
Hence formulated courses
have long been establishing themselves in public school music.
Amilogiutii conditions exist wherever music is introduced into the
'syittem of colleges or universities, though the nuniber and variety.
Of 'Peel& topics considered are much greater, The difficulty of the
problem. in higher education is obviously More serious. There seems
INSTRITCTION IN IMMO.
265
to be a growing conviction that formulated
or standardized
methodseither of the ordering of topics and material or of peda-
gogical presentation, or bothshould be urged upon private music
teachers, generally, if not to a degree demanded of them. The ques7
tion is in part whether private teachers should be expected to follow
the system that is somewhat necessary in public schools and colleges.
In part it is whether music as a subject of teaching should be made
to conform in method to various other subjects.
In either case, it is
claimed, its methods should be standardized.
It can hardly be said that the discussions of the past two years
have contributed vitally to the solution of the very complicated
problem thus outlined except in one direction, that will be separately
treated in the next section of this survey.
Yet they have been fruit-
ful in clarifying thought. On the one hand, foolish notions of an
immediate and rigid scheme. that would regulate everything and
everybody have been discountenanced. On the other, many rational
and suggestive plans of work have been drafted, and these have
doubtless served to correct the slipshod or eccentric methods of some
.individual teachers.
There is certainly a growing understanding
of the nature and elements of the problem. But there is no obvious
consensus as to final details.
It is natural that the interest in this matter should have stimulated
the promulgation of series of textbooks or other manuals that claim
to embody .a " standard " course and method of study. This idea has
been often exemplified in the history of modern musical education, as
in ocher education. It always serves to increase the store of literary
contributions by what certain workers can use to great advantage,
and kepresents the mature thought of one or more experienced
authors or editors.
All such publications are tkerafore to be wel-
comed
But they are liable tb bring in commercial elements of
doubt4l value, especially when improperly promoted.. It should be
clear tlist authoritative "standards" can not be established by pulig
lishers merely as a business proposition.
Anil, in general, the .sub-
sidizing of teachers to use "exclusive" systems is to be deprecated
la ,demoralizing.
It is to be noted, finally, that through all discussions about stand-
ardization there runs a line of persistent objection.
The basis of
this is that music is not a thing nor even a precise muscular or logical
discipline, but a psychological experience. It has its objectiveor
physical aspects, of course, which can be somewhat.precisely stated
and can be learned or acquired like other technical matters.
But
these, it is well known, are external or accessory to the art itself. It
is because of this that so much of musical instruction has always been
individual rather than by classes, by the personal impact of a teacher
upon a pupil rather than by means of iMperional textbooks. Much.
266
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-19IS.
I
of the .current talk about standardization seems to overlook or mini-
mize this fundamental peculiarity of all art education as compared
with science education.
And, at all events, the range within which
standardization can hope to operate is small.
It can do little more
than fix some irreducible minima of purpose or attainment.
With
the reaching of the possible maxima it can have little place, since the
higher the level of advance the more infinite and intricate become
the paths that may be followed.1
SCHOOL CREDITS FOR OUTSIDE MUSIC STUDY.
In public-school music the most notable event in the past two years
is the interest in plans fof granting credit for music study with out-
side teachers. This idea is not new, but at present seems likely to be
put in practice in various places and ways as soon as war conditions
are over.
The elements of the case for such credit are readily understood.
It is generally agreed that musk study, to be educationally effective,
should begin during " school age," and this is true not only for the
few who may choose music as a life work, but for others.
Investiga-
tion shows that a very large percentage of the boys and girl; in the
public schools, especially in cities, are taking, or much desire to take,
music lessons while attending school.'
If such outside work is edu-
cationally worth while, or can be modified so as to be so. pupils ought
to gain credit for it toward' school advancement rather than be
forced to get it as an extra.
With these propositions as a basis the
practical questions have been two: (1) How shall the educational
value of such studies be guaranteed?
(2) Will the school authorities
allow credit for such study thus guaranteed? The onus of defense
has been thrown back and forth between the parties in interest
some musicians feeling that the schools must show cause why the
innovation is not auk pled forthwith, and some superintendents feel-
ing that either all music study is frivolous or the method of it is too
*loose to be deserving of credit. But during the past two years there
has been an increasing disposition to turn from vague presupposi-
tions pro or con and consider soberly in precisely what ways outside
study could be allowed school credit. This has forced school authori-
bles and music teacher's to combine in drafting specific plans.
The most carefully elaborated plan now accessible is one drawn
.
up by a commission of 15, appointed by the National Education As-
sociation, most of whom are also active in the Music Teachers' Na-
tional Association, and which represents the best views of both
I gpettany useful papers upon this subject are contained in the last two volumes or the
Proceedings of the Musk Teachers' National Association, namely, 1916, pp. 165-185;
1911, pp. 199-228,
See also further references to these volumes under next section.
a see a remarkable account of an Investigation made In Hartford, Conn., In 1912 In the
Proceeding. of the Music Teachers' National Association, 1913; p. 179.
INSTRUCTION or mum.
267
sides of the question.' It makes provision for special registration of
the students eligible for such courses, for periodic reports from
the outside teachers to the school authorities, and for examinations
before credit is allowed.: Data are not at hand as to how far thiti
plan, or some moaification of it, has actually been put hi force. But
that the idea it embodies is now meeting with extensive interest is
evident, especially in the East and the Middle West.'
Incidentally this movement in school music is effecting some defi-
nite results in the way of standardization.
The subjects that have
been specially considered are the playing of the piano, the organ, the
violin, or any drchestrtll instrument and singing.
In each case it
has been necessary to work out in detail a definite plan of study that
shall be satisfactory at once to outside teachers and to school author-
ities, and this plan has had to be adhered to firmly in order to meet
conditions.. Every such effort does something toward erecting prac-
tical "standards" by experiment rather than by theory,
Another excellent result of this line of effort is that it brings to-
gether the interests of private music teachers an
he tenche
the schools. Each group may learn much from the other,
st a pro-
fessional musicians generally, as a group, and the teachers of ad-
vanced music in colleges and universities, as a group, may also learn
from each other.
There has been too much division of the music-
teaching profession into separate camps, each jealous or suspicious
of the other.
OTHER POINTS OF PROGRESS IN PUBLIC SCIIOOLS.
Many signs indicate that several forms of class-instruction in the
public schools have made decided advance during the past two years.
Conspicuous among these is work in music appreciation, in ad=
vanced chorus singing, and in orchestral playing. The gain in the
first .two is simply in detail of method and in scope of influence.
Both are well established in high schools and are being handled in
many places in such a way as to render genuine artistic service. The
institution of school orchestras, not as an outside feature of school
life, but as
some way a part of school instruction, is more recent.
But this, too, is commending itself as peculiarly valuable.
This
latter promises to develop in most of the larger cities.
All of this
mass instruction in the public schools has an evident relation to the
future advance of community music. The orchestral instruction also
may prove to have an interesting vocational aspect..
'This report, so far as relates to this suhJect. was first printed in the Proceedlop of
the /dusk 'Vertebrae' National Assoeistion, 1916, pp. 103-1A/7.
It is also given in the
Proceedings of the National Education Association.
t
a Besides the Proceedings of the National Education Association and the Musk Teach-
ers' Nationol'AssociatIon, to which refereuct has been made, the Music Supervistirk
Journal of the Notional Conference of Music Supervisors rupplit.s many practical notes.
268
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
NOTABLE FEATURES IN PRIVATE INSTRUCTION.
The pagftwo years have not seen many notable changes in the aims
or methods of private instruction.
Regarding two points, however,
a brief remark may be made.
There is a steady increase in the emphasis put by intelligent teach-
ers upon the careful training of little children. Many teachers spe-
cialize in work for them, and these have often developed methods of
their own that are effective in evoking permanent musical interest
and ability. And all teachers of thoughtfulness are realizing that
true artistic life may begin in the child's mind before it is ready for
effort of a logical or scientific order.
It may be .ti at the comparative
rarity of evident musical enthusiasm or .aipacity in the general
American public is partly due to a failure hitherto to give due atten-
tion to the education of younger children.
In the teaching of harmony. there is a marked tendency to desert
the paths that once were considered regular and to experiment with
all the new speculations concerning musical construction that have
appeared in recent years. It is evident that musical thought on these
matters is passing through a period of reconstruction.
Procedures
that were once condemned its unlawful or barbarous are being freely
used, not only by composers for effect, but by teachers for technical
development. So far as this serves to break up mere academic rigid-
ity and the notion that composition is a matter of rule, it is whole,
some.
But when it produces an exaggerated interest in chaotic ar-
rangement or eccentric melody and harmony for mere oddity, it may
be unhealthy. The point of general interest is that leading teachers
are showing a fine balance of judgment about the subject in its pres-
ent stage. They- are generally ready to consider and use all of the
new theories that are being proposed, but they are also conservative
in believing that these theories are tenable only so far as they can be
connected organically with the procedures of the past.. It seems likely
that in the next decade there will' be many textbooks prepared that
will offer judicious combinations of things old and new for the
guidance of future teache; and scholars
CHAPTER X.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION,'
I
WILLIAM T. ISAwmtx,
Specialist in Industrial Education, Bared of Education.
CONTENTS.- Importnntfnetora of progressThe Federal Board for
Vocational Educe-
tion--The Students; Army Training CorpsVocational training in Army hospitals
Special training in the shipbuilding industryVocational eduction in the Navy
Conferences on special phases of industrial educationThe continuation 'school
Prevocolionni education and the Junior high schoolManual training In secondary
schools receives new impetus- Criticism examined.
IMPORTfANT FACTORS OF PROGRESS.
The tivo yeai-s under review constitute a period of unprecedented
progress in vocational education, since it is probabjy conservative to
say that the tangible results accomplished equal those of any decade
preceding. The important factors in this development may here be
noted, briefly, as follows:
(1) Most important of all has been the culmination of a 10 years'
campaign for securing Federal aid for vocational education, resulting
in the enactment of the Smith-Hughes law and the creation bf the
Federal Board for Vocational Education.
(2) Second in importance only to the activities under the Smith -
I-lughes.Act has been the gigantic experiment in industrial education
conducted by the Committee on Education and SpeCial Training of
tlrelVar Department. The practical working out of this plan for
traitiing the " fighting mechanic " will undoubtedly be regarded as
one of the achievements of the war.
(3) The Emergency Met Corporation of the United States Ship -
ping Board developed a unique and comprehensive plan for greatly
increasing the available supply of skilled mechanics for the ship-
yards.
The need assumed such large proportions and the emergency
was,so.threatening that those in charge of the work were forced to
devise a\ special system of teacher training, which involved original
and suggestive methods aril plan of organization.
14) Important contributions were also made by a number of other
governmental and other agencies, including: The'Navy Department:.
the Department of Labor, through its Training and Dilution of
Labor Service; the Council of National Defense, through the War:
Industries Board and other channels; the National War Work
-240
270
BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Council of the International Young Men's Christian Association, and
related. organizations; the Bureau of Education through a series of
conferences, by bringing about the formulation of a constructive pro-
gram of industrial arts instruction, and in other ways.
(5) During the past two years there has been an unprecedented re-
liance upon the machinery of popular education for the accomplish-
ment of undertakings of the gravest importance, riot to this Nation
only, but to the world. This has been true not only in official circles,
but nearly every individual and every organization that has had a
program for helping to win the war has conceived of the public-
school system as an indispensable and prominent feature of the meas-
ures proposed for bringing about the desired results.
It is signifi-
cant that a conception of the intimate relation between education.
our recent achievements as a Nation, and the future security of the
Republic has caught the popular imagination, and is reflected in the
public statements of responsible officials and other leaders of thought.
Itelof the greatest significance also that the great bulk of this con-
d educational effort, certainly one of the phenomena of history,
has found its inspiration and its expression in terms of the vocational
phases of education.
(6) There has been an observable increase in both the amount and
the proportion of attention given to the problems of vocational edu-
cation in pliblic discussion.
In this increased tendency to think and
talk and write in terms of vocational education, it is believed that
evidence can be found of a disposition to consider " practical " educa-
tion and so-called "cultural" education as complementary, rather
than alternative, as sonic alarmists would have it.
(7) This widespread popular interest in educational matters has
been accompanied by a new and more critical appraisement of school
programs and courses of study and an inquiry as to just what. service
is being rendered to children. New emphasis has been given to the
meaning and aims of education; education is being thought of more
and more as something having a definite purpose, other thten simply
preparation for more education; there is increasing demand that this
purpose shall have more definite relation to life and the means and
manner of living. The increased emphasis on definition of aims-and
purposes of types of school, curricula, and special subjects of study,
has undoubtedly been stimulated by the operation of the Smith-
Hughes Act. The very fact that schools of certain types have been
set up, with definite aims declared, has raised these inquiries as to
aims and purposes with respect to other schools which have been
accepted hitherto without question.
(8) Another significant evidence, of progr
is to be noted in the
gradual diffusion of-the idea that seconds
education should be
thought of as .something to be adapted to the needs of young per-
,.
VOCATIO AL EDUCATION.
/(
271
sons of ages 12 to 18' years approximately, rather than something
whose content and methods should be determined by the fact that
its students are expected at entrance to have completed the prescribed
routine of ascertain' number of grades, and are expected at graduation
to meet the arbitrary entrance requirements of higher institutions.
Out of this conception comes the growing interest in the junior high
school, the continuation school, the cooperative school, and, in part
at least. yrs:at lona) guidance.
(9) More general recognition of the fact that the work of teaching
demands special fitness and preparation is one of the encottraging
signs to be noted.
There is a technic in teaching, as there is in a
skilled trade. As an indication of the extent to which this view is
spreading. it is worthy of note that during the summer of 1918 there.
were special classes for the preparation of teachers of vocational
subjects conducted under the direction of State boards or depart-
'
atoms of education in 20 Slates, with length of session ranging from
2 to 10 weeks. At the same time it is becoming more and more ap-
parent that the average mechanic, with his lack of education and
limited opportunity for acquiring a broad outlook 9n life, can not
with certainty be made into a skillful and inspiring teacher through
the medium of these short courses alone.
-,
(10) Our experience in the great war has served to emphasize one
serious national weakness, to which, however, attention had fre-
quently been called before. The old-time, all-round apprenticeship
system has been allowed to disappear in certain important trades,
without any adequate provision for something to take its place, either
in industry or in education. No effective steps were taken to insure
a
tinual supply of all-round mechanics, even in those trades in
the need was recognized.
lb
11 One of the serious shortcomings in the program for voeft-
tional educnt ion in this country is that, as.yet, no adequate measures
have been taken looking toward the proper coordination of compul-
sory-education legislation, vocational-education legislation, and child-
labor legislation. There can be no justification for neglecting the fact
that in most States a hiatus exists between the close of the period of
Compulsory schooling and the beginning of the period when young
persons are permitted by law to work for wages. The dangers, both
to society and to the youth are obvious.
(12) There has been a noticeable tendency in public school manual
training shopwork toward the 'industrial point of view, in subject
matter as well as method.
"Projectsi shop experience, community
service, jobs, not models' are the common objects of discussion" on
the programs and in the conferences of manual'training..directors
.
mid insteuctors.
.
272
BIENNIAL SURVEY Of EDUCATION, 1910-4918.
(13) There has been a notable increase during the pait two years
in both the volume and the quality of textbooks and reference mate-
rial in practically the entire field of vocational education.
A number
of special activities during the war period had the effect of stimu-
lating immensely the production of this material.
-
(14) Some indication of the development of industrial education
in the United States during the past few years may be obser.ved by
comparing the "Directory of Vocational Education" issued by 'the
Bureau of Education in 11)14 with that issued in 1918.
The former,
*us a leatict consisting of 6 pages of names and addresses; the latter
contains 29 pages and a supplement. Obviously this comparison does
not give a direct measure of the progress in vocational education,
since the pilhiibhed lists of both dates are known to be incomplete.
Nevertheless; certain facts are quite suggestive.
In 1914 a systematic attempt was made to compiler complete list
of "Schools in which trades are taught." This designatipn was used
in preference to "trade schools," for the reason that a considerable
number of schools which are not properly classed -as trade schools
maintain departments or Classes in which real trade instruction is
given. The list as published is accompanied by the following note:
In the above list are included schools offzing one or more courses which
prepare students for thi inedianical tradeswand industries, by teaching the
technic oplie occupathM IF whole or in port, with the expectation that the
training gina In such ConDie shall serve to Shorten the usual period of learn
ing or apprenticeship In the occupation.
The number of schools listed 'on the basis of the returns
om a
widely distributed questionnaire, was 86, located in 19Sta
s.
A similar inquiry made in 1918 resulted in the li
ng of 285
schools, located in 40 States.
Rechgnizing the diffici
y of defining
a trade school or a trade class in such terms as wil
ield figures giv-
ing an accurate account of the progress taki
place in this im-
portant field, the-1918 inquiry was accomp
ied by the following
note:.
It is intended to include in this list those
pools, public and private, which
offer one or more (lay coufses which pre
students, male or female, for the
mechanical trades and industries, by teaching the technic of the occupation in
whole or in part, with the expectation that the training given in such course
shall serve to shorten the usual period of learning or apprenticeship in the
occupatkin.
This expectation should be justified by the provision of conditions which
look definitely toward this end, and should Include at least the following:
(a) Th9 students should spend notiless than 10 tiours (AO minutes each) per
week in thepractieal shopwork or other technical processes of the occupation;
and (b) the instructor should have had practical experience as a wage-
earner In the occupation for 'which he is giving instruction.
In 1918 also; for the first.time, an attempt was made to compile a
complete list of "Trade continuation schools."
Of these, 144 are
VOCATIONAL EDIWATI
273
listed, located in 29 States. The inqu' y was accompanied by the
following note:
It is. intended to include in this list t
se schools, public and private, which
offer one or more coursest, day or eve ng, for the benefit of students, male or
female, who seek, by means of thee
courses, to' prepare themselves for ustful
employment or for prordotIon In
elr preseni employment, including schools
offering cooperative or part:ti
classes, In which employed persons attend
school a certal4 number of h' rs,per week during working hours, or alternate
between school and emplo
suet.
also includes a list of State officials having
nistration of 'vocational education in the several
ther of persons listed in tiliS section is 157, represent-
48 States, as well as the outlying possessions of the
es.
With the exception of perhaps a score of positions
eight States, this entire official personnel has come into ex-
during the past four years. The same statement.is trute also
The 191R directo
charge of the:Itil
States. The nu
ing all of ti
United St
in six o
istenc
of ie official staff of the Federal Board for Vocational Education,
w numbering upwards of 500 individuals.
'
THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
The Smith-Hughes Act was signed by. President Wilson on the
afterno9n of Friday, February 23, 1917, while the National Soc ay
for the Promotion of Industrial Education, to whose efforts this
legislation is largely' due, was holding its tenth annual convention
in Indianapolis.
The appointive members of the board were nomi-
nated by the President on June"4/9434 the same year, and confirmed
by the Senate on July .17.
The first meeting of the board was herd
on Saturday, July 21, in the office- of the 'Secretary of Agriculture
in Washington.
Under the Smith-Hughes Act Federal aiipropriations ultimately
aggregating over $7,000,000 per annum have been made available for
cooperation with the States in the promotion ofvocational education
. in agriculture, in trades
d industries, and home -economics, in-
cluding the preparation of
achers.
The principle of 'Federal. aid
through the States to educati n in institutions, of subcollegiate grade
has been established.
Its early. enactment was strongly urged by President Wilson in
addressing. Congress in December, 1916, as
of vital importance to the whole country because it concerns a matter too long
neglected, upon which the thorough industrial preparation of the crrntry for
the critical years of, economle,development immediately ahead of. s In very
large measure depends.
It contains plans which affect all interests
and all ports of the country, and I am sure that there is no legislation now
pending before the Congress whose passage the country awaits with more
thoughtful approval or great
impatience to see a great and admirable thing
set in the way of being done
88---18
274.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
NEW EDUCATIONAL POLICIES.
As an expression of educational polity, the new act embodies some
important departures from previous legislation.
It makes provision
for the training within the schools of a large group of our popula-
tion unreached directly by the Federal Government. On the other
hand, by offering instruction along vocational lines and of subcol-
legiate grade, it supplements the Morrill Act, the expressed purpose
of which is to maintain colleges "to teach such branches of learn-
ing as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts
*
in
order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial
classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." On the other
hand, since it contemplates a system of training in the schools, it also
supplements the Agricultural Extension Act of ]91-1, in which the
service provided is "the giving of instruction and practical demon-
strations in agriculture and home economics to persons not attend-
ing or resident in State colleges in the several commpities.'" Since
it impoges definite requirements as to the training of teachers, it also
represents a material extension of authority over the purely plirmis-
sive provisions of the Nelson amendment of 1907.
The Sqiith-Hughes Act creates a Federal Board for Vocational
Education.
This board consists of seven members, including the
Secretaries'of Agriculture, Commercea.nd Labor, and the United
States Conirnissionr of Education, ex officio, with three members
appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, ultimately
for a term of three years each.
One of the appointed members is a
representative Of the manufacturing and commercial interests, one
of the agricultural interest* and the third of those of labor. The
board selects its own chairman each year.
The Federal board is charged with Ore administration of the act,
the details as to the care of funds, the certifying of the States, etc., in
general plan resembling the legislation for the agricultural colleges
and turptaiment stations.
In addition it is empowered to make, or
have made, investigations and reports to aid the Stafes in the estab-
lishment of vocational schools and clas:s'es and in giving instruction
in agriculture, and the trades and. industries, .commerce and coin.-
mercial pursuits,. and home economics.
These studies include agri-
culture and agricultural prockysies and the requirements upon
vricultural workeq, shnilar studies a>3 regards the trades, industries,
and commerce, home
unagement, dotnestic science, and the study
of related -problems, and the principles and problems of administra-
tion of vocatio
is and of, courses of study and instruction in
vocational subjects. In the discretion of the board, the studies con-
carting agriculture may be made in cooperation with or through the
Department of Agriculture. Similar cooperative arrangements ntay
d'
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
275
be made with the Departments of Labor and Commerce for industrial
subjects, while the studies of the administration of vocational schools,
curricula, and piethods of instruction in eocational subjects may be
taken up in cooperation with or through the Bureau of Education.
An appropriation of $200,000 per annum, available from the date of
passage of the act, is made to the bbard for its expenses.
STATE BOARDS FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
to cooperate with the Federal board in carrying out the act, eadh
State when accepting its provisions is to designate a State board of
at least three members.
The State board of education or some board
having charge of the iidministration of public education or of any
kind of emotional education may be designated as the State board,
or an entirely new board may be created. Of the 48 States, 35 have
designated the State board of education or the State department of
public instruction ; 11 have desi
atedip. State board for vocational
education or industrial educatio
1 a State board of agriculture;
and 1 a State high school board:
The State board is to prepare plans for the approval of the Fed-
eral board, showing the details of the work for which it is expected
td use the appropriations.
These plans it is specified must show the
kinds of vocational.educationcontemplated, the kinds of schools and
equipment, courses of study, methods of instruction, and the quali-
fications and the plans for the training of the teachers and agricul-
tural supervisors.
In all cases the work must be conducted under
public supervision and control.
The plans of expenditures for salaries in agricultural and indus-
trial subjects must show that the controlling-purpose of the education
is to fit for useful employment, that the training is of less than col-
lege grade, and that it is designed to meet the needs of persons over
14'y-ears of age who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter
upon agricultural or industrial work.
'
The Federal appropriations to the Stites are divided into. three
'distinct groups, providing, respectively, for the payment of Aalaries
of teachers, supervisors, or directorsof agricultural subjets; for the
payment of salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and indus-
trial subjects; for the preparing of teachers, supervisors, or directors-
of-agricultural subjects, and of teachers of trade and industrial and
home economics subjects.
The main initial appropriation for salaries in agricultural sub-
jects is $500,000.
This is Increased by $250,000 per annum during
the next six years and then by $500,000 per,annum during the next
two years, ttiakiDg an, appropriation of $3,000,000 for the fiscal year
1926 and annually threafter.
Like. appropriations pre made for
talaries in industrial subjects.
.
,
276
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The main appropriation for preparing teachers and supervisors
is likewise $500,000 for the first year, but increases to $700,000 and
$900,000, respectiVely, for the next two years, and then becomes
$1,000,000 per annum thereafter, The Federal- appropriations for
teacher training must be divided among agricultural, trade and in-
dustrial, and home economics subjects, no one of these subjects being
granted more than 60 nor less than 20 per cent of the Sire's allot-
.
ment for any year.
The training of,the teachers provided for will.throw a very heavy
burden of responsibility on our higher tech*cal institutions and par-
ticularly the land-grant colleges. These institutions have been'very
successful in training technical experts who have contributed in large
measure to the success of our industries.
They have'not as yet paid
any large attention to the training of teachers for secondary schools
of the strictly vocational type.
The pedagogy of this class of edu-
cation is yet in its preliminary stages.
It evidently will not do sim-
ply to copy what has been workgd out abroad.
There is therefore
great incentive foi men (If original thought and inventive skill to
enter this comparatively new ,fieldof teacher training.
ACTION BY THE STATES.
Up to January 1, 1918, 48 States accepted the gmith-Hughes Act
either by specific provisions of the legislatureNor by acts of the gov:
ernors and by that date the plans of the 48 States had been, examined
by the Federal Board for Vocational Education, approved, and. the
board had certified to the Secretary of the Treasury that these
States were entitled to receive the allotments for the year 1917-18,
. apportioned by the terms of the act.
Federally aided vocational courses have been set up in agriculture
in 41 States, in trade and industrial subjects in 32- States, and in
.-borrla economies in 29 States; 22 States have 'organized courses in
each' of these three fields; in 46 States.tealher-training courses have
been organized.
V
The record of the States in this .work is impressive, especially
when it is borne in mind that the record covers an initial period of
only 10 months.
In Massachusetts, for example, vocational agricul-
ture is taught\ in 19 .secondary schools with Federal aid; trade and
industrial subjects, in 86 schools; and home economics, in 29 schools.
In NBA,' York, the number of Federal-aided secondary schools is 4,
4griculture, 60, and for trades and indestries, 40; in Pennsyl-:
vania, for agriculture, 88; for trades and industries, 131; and for'
home economics, 69; in California, for agriculture, 12, for trades and
indbstries, 14, and for home economics, 14; in Indiana, for agricultUre,
87, and for trades and industries, 21; in Mississippi, or agriculture,
r
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
277
34. for trades and industries, 1, and for home economics, 3.
These
States are illustrations of the widespread development of secondary
vocational education.
The chief handicap in the promotion or introduction of vocational
instruction was the lack of qualified teachers.
This was dre,largely
to the war'emergency, many of the teachers being drafted or volun-
teering for service in the Army.
THE 83ITTH-8EARS ACT.
In June. 1918, Congress passed the Smith-Sears Act, providing for
the vocational rehabilitation and return to civil life of disabled per-
sons discharged from the military or naval forces of the United
States.
The act delegates to the Federal Board for Vocational Edu-
cation the, responsibility of reeducating the disabled men in some use-
ful employment, after their discharge from the Army or Navy, and
provides for a plan of cooperation-between the board and the Surgeon
General's Office, covering the 'work done in hospitals, in order that
the men may have the advantage of a continuous and coordinated.
plan.
4t is provided that there shall be full and bomplete cooperation of
the several Government offices concerned with the future 'welfare of
discharged from the Army and Navy,, includingthe medical and
. surgical services of the War Department and the Navy Department.
the Bureau of War Risk Insurance in the Treasury, and the labor ex-
changes in the Department of Labor, and the Federal board.- Each
will render service in retraining and returning to civil employment
men disabled in the war.
The Federal board will act in an advisory capacity in pro,viding
vocational training for men during their convalescence in the military
hospitals, before their discharge from the Army and Navy, and will
atitinue such training to finality after discharge, as the civilian
agency flauehabilitation and placement in industry.
THE STUDENTS', ARMY TRAINING CORPS.
.
The StudentS' Army Training Corps represents a unique educa-
tional undertaking on he part of the Government. The work was
under the direction of the Comtnittee on Education and Special
Training of the War Department.
A circular of informationigsued
by the committee stall the purpose in view as follows:
The prtnia' ry purpose bf' the Students' Army Trainitig Corps is to "utilise
the executive and teaching perionnel and the physical equipment of the educa-
tional institutions to assist in the training of ou'r new armies. Its aim is to
train , officer- candidates and ,technical experts of all kinds to meet the needs
of the service.
This tratiOg is conducted In about 560 colleges, universities,
professional, technical, and trade schspola of the country.
4.1111,
278
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The corps was divided into two sectionsthe collegiate or "A" sec-
tion and the vocational or " B " section.
Of these the former is
discussed elsewhere in this report under higher education.
Concerning the latter, it is to be noted that the experience of three
years of war in Europe demonstrated the need, f large numbers of
skilled mechanics and technicians of many kinds. When the United
States entered the war, therefore, and undertook the organization
of an army, it soon became apparent that a plan must be devised to
train mechanics quickly and in large numbers. To accomplish this
result the War Department did not depend on the establishment of
new schools, but utilized existing institutions Which had the neces-
sary facilities.
The men, in uniform, were assigned to institutions
in units of 200 to 2,000, where they were housed and fed under mili-
tary discipline for periods of two months each. Military drill and
industrial instruction, including shop practice, were provided in an
intensive form as the regular daily Tontine.
The initial assignments
of men began worTE on Aprill, 1918.
Some idea of the magnitude
of the undertaking is conveyed by the announcement that on August
1, 1918, there were 52,025 soldiers under instruction, in 35 different
trades or occupations, in 144 institudens, located in 46 States and the
District of Columbia. It was estimated that by the close of the fisca.1
year, June 30, 1919, if the plans had been carried out, more thari
300,000 men would have received instruction in these courses. suffi-
cient to make them definitely serviceable in some mechanical or
technical duty in addition to their training as soldiers.
EFFECT ON EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
Without' question the work of the Section J-3 units of the Students'
Army Training Corps will prove to have been the most significant
experiment in vocational education thus far undertaken under a
democratic form of government.
It is too Soon to appraise the results
in full, but as soon as adequate, reports are'available, educators, aid
especially students of industrial education, are urged to examine
them with the greatest care.
It 'is believed that our public-school
system may with profit learn a number of valuable ltssons from the
experience of these Army training units.
In this connection it is possible to refer briefly to two points only,
but these will serve to suggest others that will develop later: (1)
The experience of the Army training units seems to demonstrate the
futilik of short shop periods; that is, shop periods too short for the
ittident to see work processes in complete wholes.
The amount of
ground that can be covered in a short course, eight weeks in length,
.00nsiling of daily periods of six or seven hours in shop, drafting
room, or laboratory, proved to be greatly in excess of all expectation&
VOCATION Ag EDUCATION.
279
Numbers of competent observers have predicted that the results of
this experience will revolutionize educational practice, not only in
trade instruction classes, but in colleges and universities as well.
(2) Experience seems to indicate also that small classes, with a
reasonable amount of individual instruction, are essential to accom-
plish the best results.
Individuals vary greatly in capacity and per-
formance, and can not be instructed efficiently in mass.
VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN ARMY HOSPITALS.
The subdivision of education in the division of physical reconstruc-
tion under the Surgeon General, United States Army, was begun in
October, 1917, for the purpose of devising plans for providing educa-
tional facilities for disabled soldiers and sailors during the period
of hospital treatment and convalescence.
On May 20, 1918, Dr.
James E. Russell, dean of Teachers' College, Columbia University,
New York City, was appointed chief of the subdivision.
The work undertaken has been'Practical, so far as possible, and
has inNuded work needed for the hospitals.
Activities include, be-
sides repair work of various kinds, basketry, typewriting, telegraphy,
academic studies, agriculture and gardening, bookkeeping, free-hand
and mechanical &cawing, auto repair, carpentry, cobbling, and other
handicrafts.
In all, more than 100 different activities have been in-
troduced into the hospitals.
Sixteen general convalescent and,re-
construction hospitals have been provided for, or one in each of the
16 military districts.
Tho records of 516 cases which have been treated in four hospitals shoW 184
men able to return to full military duty, 210 fit for return to limited service,
and 172 who are eligible for discharge.
In the last group, 12 are classed as helpless or institutional cases; 121 are
able to return to their former occupations; and 39 will need further training
to fit them for earning a livelihood.
These figures show the division of responsibility in the work of reconstruction.
The task of fitting men for further military service is at present the most urgent
need, because wherever an able-bodied man behind the lines can be replaced by
one less fit physically but vocationally.capable, a soldier is gained for active duty.
4
.
SPECIAL TRAINING IN THE SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY.
In October, 1917, a comprehettsive project of the greatest interest
and importance, looking toward the training of instructors and
skilled mechanics for the shipbuilding industry, was undertaken by
the Emergency Fleet Corporation of the United States Shipping
Board. For this purpose, an industrial training section was organ-
ized, and at its head was Egbert C.'MacNary, who obtained' leave of
absence from his pogition as director of industrial education in
Springfield, Mass.
><
_
.
280
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The object in view was to organize a training dipartment in each,
shipyard, at.the head of whicji was placed a director in full charge of
all matters pertaining to the training or breaking in of workers and
general supervision of the training department.
It was understood
that it would be necessary to allow the director and his staff of
inkructors to be free from the usual duties of production foremen, in
order to devote their entire time and energies to training men.
'
It early became apparent that the necessary expansion in the ship-
building program depended absolutely on the creation of increased
forces of skilled and semiskilled men. The country was scoured for
-Thme having knowledge of any branch of shipbuilding, and yet the
supply of mechanics proved utterly inadequate to meet the demands
of the Shipping Board.
It was decided, therefore, tlet the necessary
increases of working forces must be made through training men, and
that the task must be undertaken immediately and on an unprece-
dented scale.
EXTENT OF DEMAND.
The extent of the demand for skilled workers in the shipbuilding
industry was not at first generally appreciated by the public.
until
recently the largest shipyard in the United States was one containing
five ways. When running at full capacity each way provides em-
ployment for approximately 1,000 men, including the contributing
shops and drafting rooms. At the time this training plan was under-
taken, there was under construction at Hog Island, near Philadelphia.
one shipyard consisting of 50 ways. The Emergency Fleet Corpora-
tion. announced in October, 1918, that fully 60,000 additional men
would be required within a few months in the Philadelphia Aistriat,....
alone.
The solution of the problem evidently was to take skilled and semi-
skilled men from kindred trades, in. large numbers, and give them
short intensive courses of instruction in selected fragments of the
shipbuilding trades.
Since the typical foreman possesses no special
skill in giving instruction to the men who work under him, the first
step was to organize for the entire chain of shipyaids a source of
supply of trained directors and instructors.
For this purpose an instructors' training center was established if
the plant of the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co., New-
port News, Va. Asgriated with Mr. McNary and hi charge of this
training center was Charles R Allen, of Massachusetts.
To this center the cooperating shipyards sent relays of selected men
for courses of instruction six weeks in length. In most cases the yards
sending the men paid their wages and expenses whjle in attendance.
For one-)ilf of each deg the Men were instructed in the methods and
devices of teaching.
During the other half they were employed. in
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
281
*1.
actually instructing groups of workers in the yard, under the supervi-
sion of the training, staff. When the men completed this preparation
they returned to their yards to set up training classes for break-
ing in new men and for advancing employees from their present jobs
to those requiring greater skill.
Students of- industpal education' will await with great interest
detailed reports of the means and methods employed in this project
and the results achieved.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE NAVY.
The section on education in a recent report of the Secretary of the
Navy presents a phase of activity not generally appreciated by the
civilian. The following passages are quoted:
Every man in the Navy is a student, from the Admiral in the War College
to the midshipman at the Naval Academy and the apprentice in the training
station and afloat.
The, beneficial result of the whole educational system in
the Navy is that theoretical knowledge is almost immediately put into prae.
Lice. .
The man why does not wish to go to school ought not to
knock at any door in the naval service. The Navy Is the greatest educational
institution in America, and in it theory is valued only as it Is put into
practice.
The Navy offers a wide variety of industrial courses to ambitious young
men. 1
In the electrical schools at the Brooklyn and Mare Island
Navy Yards the course of instruction comprises machine-shop work, reciprocat-
ing steam engines, steam turbine engines, internal-combustion engines, mag-
netism and electricity, dynamos, motor geneTators, alternating currents, and
.the like. In the radio group there is thorough practice in the radio mechanism
for receiving and sending.
In the Artificer School at the Norfolk Navy Yard
men are taught to be shipwrights, shipfitters, blacksmiths, paidters, and
plumbers.
Both at Newport, It. I., and San Fiancisco are yeomanry schools,
where the men are perfected for the clerical work
e Navy, to become
expert stenographers, typewriters, bookkeei
L etc.'
In addition, there is the Hospital C
, with schools at Newport
and San Francisco. Schools for musicians are located at Norfolk and
San Francisco. There are schools for machinists and coppersmiths
at Charleston, and commissary' sellools at Newport and San Fran-
cisco. The school of aeronautics is located at Pensacola, and the
'gunners' school at Newport.
Referring to the outlook for the blue-
jacket, the report well says,. "He has the fourfold opportunity of
serving his country, learning a trade, improving his mind in study,
and travel."
CONFERENCES ON SPECIAL PlirASES OF INDUSTRIAL
EDUCATION.
During the period under review the Bureau of Education had
conducted a series of important 'conferences of specialists in indus-
lAnnual,Rwort of thi Secretary lf the Navy for.the year ending Dec. 'I, 19111.
282
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. _
trial education, superintendents of city. schools, and others. The le
conferences were organized for the purpose of discussing certain spe-
cial problems.of industrial education and related topics, and of mak-
ing the conclusions arrived at available to students of the subject by
means 'of published reports.
(1) RAISING THE STANDARDS OF MANUAL ARTS INSTRUCTION IN THE
PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
The vital relation between the right kind of manual training in the
public schools and subsequent industrial education has been em-
phasized constantly by the Bureau of Education -since the beginning
of its interest in these fields.
For the purpose of studying certain
phases of this relationship, a conference of specialists engaged in the
training of teachers was held at Peabody College for Teachers, Nash-
ville, Tenn., December 7-9, 1916. Twenty-two institutions, from 11
States, were represented./
The topics discussed included: (1) Analysis of the contacts with
possible future vocations that should be represented in the manual
arts work, as a basis for determining the task of the institution that
, is to prepare the teachers.
(2).How wide a range of shop subjects
may a_ superintendent reasonably expect one teacher to handle of-
ficiently in combination?
(3) Tao what extent should preparation
for vocation be 9 motive in the work of the elementary school?
(4)
. Definite standards for manual arts work, and means for testing the
. results of teaching.
(5). 'Problems of practice teaching in preparing
teaohe
of manual training.
(6) Qualifications of teachers of
man al arts subjects.
The following conclusions may be noted:
'S
(1
he develoliment of the manual arts has made a real contribu..
tion to other phases of education, in that the units of construction,
Serving as units of ing/ruction,
are setting good examples of organiza-
tion for other subjects.
a
(2) The whole development of the manual arts seems to be pointing
toward a solution of the problem of vocational education. - Inevitably
the majority of boys and girls are going into other than professional
occupations, and we must recognize the importance of the " prevoca-
tional " value of manual arts work in the elementary school, furnish:
ing, as such work does, a basis for the education of the whole people
much brohder and more complete than has been hitherto available.'
To discover how to assist young persons ifibthe adjustment to possible
future vocations 'is one of the most important educational problems
before us.
(8) It is important to distinguish clearly: (a) Manual arts subjects
' offered primarily for general educational purposes; (b) subjects of-
di
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
283
fered primarily for the purpose of affording experience in practical
activities fundamental to a variety of occupations, to be utilized as a
basis for choice of vocation or of subsequent vocational courses; and
(c) technical subjects offered primarily for the purpoSe of affording
definite preparation for specific vocations.
(4) By opening the high-school shops during vacant periods to
special classes of pupils of less than high-school preparation, the high
schools should become the centers for whatever training is needed in
many cities for some time to come.
(5) No manual arts teacher can reasonably be expected to teach
more than two acliclemic subjects in connection with the usual shop
subjects demanded of hurl.
-
(6) The coursepf study in manual training is not to be thought of
as simply a series 9f " stunts." The student should be confronted with
a series of " problems " to he solved ; and the solution of a problem
should involve not only (a) study of materials, and (b) manipulation
of tools and processes, and (c) the construction of some finished ar-
ticle, but also, and very important, (d) the 'planning and working Out
of the solution.
(7) There is need of more definite standards for measuring or test-
ing the results of teaching. and for determining the progress of pu-
pils in manual arts subjects.
(8) The work in manual arts affords a better opportunity for the
preparation of lesson plins (in practice teaching.) and careful analy-
sis of processes and procedure than rs to be found in any other subject
in our training schools. Furthermore, through the emphasis on de-
,
sign an intellectual content has been put into manual arts work to
the extent of making it stand out among all the intellectual studies.
(9) The tendency to employ teachers in manual arts and vocational'
subjects who are not properly qualified for the work to be undertaken
is unfortunate, alike for the school, the teacher, the pupil, rind the
subject. Present methods of aim ining and certificating teachers, in
some localities, are manifestlyefot udapted to insure the appointment
of competent teachers of special subjects.
(10) It is worth while to call attention to the magnitude of the
problem involved in producing a person who is a graduate of col-
lege, a broadly educated and cultured citizenoitid at. the same time
a professionally tiained.educator, as. well as a specialist in certain
technical lines or in certain special vocations. In -this we are at-
tempting a tremendously difficult thing. There are involved here cer-
tain types of knowledge and skill that have never been required of the
school-teacher heretacire; and-; furthermore, these are to be measured
by standards usually set up only in the various occupations concerned.
-
284
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1K6-1918.
`( 2) POLICIES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.;
.
A conference of specialists was held in Indianapolis, Ind., February
23, 1917, to consider plans and policies ih vocational education, and
especially the types of investigation which Should be undertaken.
( 3
'ItEV)CATIONAI. EDUCATION IN. THE SMALL CITY.
A conf ence of superintendents of public schools in cities having
a popula on of 10,000 to 25,000 was held in Kansas City, Mo., Febru-
ary 28,
17, to consider the problems of prevocational education in
the smal
city.
Twenty-four States, the District of Columbia, and
Canada were represented by superintendents, p'rincipals, and teachers.
The general topic was " assisting pupils in the upper grammar
grades to plan ahead." There were 371 cities in this population group
according to the 1910 census, and the problem becomes complex when
the great variety of conditions is considered. The small city can not
expect to offer the same variety of work given in the larger centers,.
but if the State be taken as the unit, types of experience may he
selected from the various industries of major importance, which are
especially emphasized in the community.
The conference resulted in the following conclusions : (1) A larger
. amount of time is necessary for prevocational .work than is now
usually 'allotted to manual training or home economics in the grades.
It is, further, not only a question of time, but of what is done in the
tithe,: hence (2) conditions must resemble those of industry with re-
spect to materials, methods, and speed. A more formal procedure in
the school is necessary, however, because of teaching large numbers.
(3)" The teacher has the responsibility of selecting 'the " type " ex-
periences, and his success in this depends upon his knowledge and
insight.
Upon the superintendent rests the responsibility of select-
ing teachers who can do the job.
r4) The equipment now used for
manual training and home economics may be used for prevocational
work, but there must be a ,wider range 6f work than is possible in
woodworking and cooking and sewing in a 90-minute period weekly
if the work is to be truly worth while as a basis for intelligent choice
of future vocation.
(49 nor.s.u. AID UNDER THE SMITH-HUOHES ACT AND TILE PREPARATION
OP TEACHERS.
of specialists was held at the University of Missouri,
December 18-15, 1917, to consider the genkal question of Federal
aid under the Smith7fiugheis Act, and the preparation of special.
teachers.
Eighteen institutions' engaged in thetraining of teachers
in 12 States,as well gs three State departments of public instrao-
t4on, were represented.
The topics.discussed included: Feder-al aid
.
.
1
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
285
under the Smith-Hughes Act
the preparation of teachers of trade
and industrial subjects; curriculafor the preparation of teachers of
the manual arts; present conditions in respect to practice teaching;
n proposed kogram for practice teaching; problems connected with
the examination and certification of special teachersi- content of
technical courses of study in the intermediate or junior high school.
The following conclusions may be noted:
(1) The selection of properly qualified candidates for the teacher-
training course is an important matter.. Many difficulties will be
obviated, and the line of action in specific cases will frequently seem
more clear, if it be recpgnized that no individual may claim an in-
herent right to teach. 'The burden of proof, so to speak, should rest
on the individual.
He should be required to d'Tmonstrate his fitness
for special service, rather than simply permitted to pursue an-ex-
pressed desire to secure a position.
(2) New machinery and a new basis for the examination and cer-
tification of teachers are urgently needed. These should include
means for testing and evaluating:
(a)
Vocational
experience;
(h) education and professional training; (c) personality; (d) ability
to teach.
(3) For some time to come the scheme should include some effec-
.tive provision for the training of teachers in service.
(4) 'Adequate time must be allowed in any curriculum in order to
Kepare teachers who will be competent to tend', and do the given
line Of work.
(5) The institution should define more clearly (in terms of pros-
pective teaching position) the aim or goal which it is proposed to
assist the student. to attain as the result of following any given cur-
riculum.
(6). Observation and practice teaching are'essential factors in the
preparation of every teacher, and adequate provision'should be made
for them in normal-school curricula.
(7) It is more important to have a supply of the teachers needed
in these new 'types of school than it is to enforce and perpetuate tra-
ditidns in the matter of teachers' examinations and certificates.
(8) The discussion of the last topic,on the prograin served to em=
phasize the following advantages and-disadvantages of a school. pro-
gram involving a range number of "acquaintancecourses," designed
to afford the individual pupil opportunities for shopworkain each
of several vocations:
Adranteiges.(a) Wide vocational acquaintance; (b) remarkable
basis for the cultivation of appreciation;. (c) gets the interest'scif..
pupils in real we&.
Dioadilantage8.(a) Danger of lowering -:fitandards of workman-
ship (compared with a program attempting fewer lineS of shop-
C
286
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-MS.
work); (b) technical processes in all lines necessarily confined to the
beginning stages; (o) impossible to pursue any one line to mastery:
(d) difficulE to obtain teachers qualified to conduct the variety of
shopwork proposed, especially in a small school or system.
(5) EXAMINATION AND CERTIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS.
in order to consider the problems of examining and certificating
industrial teachers, a inference of specialists was held in Philadel-
phia, February 22, 1918.
Nineteen States and the District of Colum-
bia were represented. Theteneral topic was " Prelitaieary sugges-
tions as to desirable basis and machinery for the examination and
Icertification of special teachers." The followingconclusions may be
noted: .
-
(1) Measures which depend on industry to supply teachers ready-
made, or approximately so, must be regarded as merely temporary,
and the machinery necessary for detecting such prospective teachers
should not be permitted to determine the ultimate forms which such
measures should take.
(2), A teacher capable of doing the job effec
sly represents an ,
indiVidual of a high type, who is'already making a distinct success of
the vocation in which he is engaged. To divert such persons into the
work of teaching will require the payment of adequate salaries.
(3) Tests to be applied, must be free from'the defects of existing
plans'for examining and certificating teachers.
(4) Existing methods of examination should be modified so as. to
include adequate tests of personal characteristics.
(5) Suitable use should be made of practical tests and demonstra-
tions of sky and ability of various kinds.
(6) It is essential thab provisidn be made for examiners who are
themselves competent in the field covered by the examination in each
case, and whose ratings will thits command confidence and respect in
that field.
.(7) Every plan for examining and certificating teachers should be
supplemented by a systematic and effinent plan of probationary
tes4hing andtraining in service.
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL.
One of the notewbrthy factors in recent progress hikocational edu-
cation is the continuation school.
During the past decade a number
of the States have enacted legislation encouraging the organization of
. schools of this type.
Massachrettsi, Wisconsin, and Vennsylvapia,
especially, have developed strong systemsof continuation schools on
a etate-wide basis.
,
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
287
During the past two years a new stimulus has come from the Federal
subsidies made available under the Smith-Hughes Act.
As already
noted, in 1918 there.were 144 trade-continuation schools reporting to
the Burenuof Education, located in 29 States and the District t)f
Columbia.
The program of the National Education Association commission
on the emergency in education contains a strong plea for a more
general development of the continuation school, on a broader and
more serviceable basis than has hitherto been characteristic of this
institution in this country.
The following paragraph' is quoted from
the recommendatigns of the commission,:
The continuation .school is not an experiment In this country.
In maw of
our industrial communities it exists add has proved its usefulness.
But it needs
extension up al a much larger scale than has as yet been contemplated if it Is
to counteract the danger that threatens. It needs a broadening of Its scope,
as well.
With us the continuation school has developed as a phase of the
movement for vocAtional education.
As It exists In this country to-day, it is
essentially a vocational school, limited In its Instruction to those subjects that
are directly related to employment of the student.
This is a narrow conception
fur narrower than the conception of the continuation school that has been
taking root in England and France. without sacrificing in any essential way its
service to industry. the scope of the continuation sche 3 should be broadened to
include those elements of general and liberal education that are so fundamental
to sound democratic citizenship.
It should supply to the boys and girls who
must leave school and go to work something of the insight, something of the
broader outlook, something of the stimulus to mental growth that the full-time
high schools and colleges provide. It should be not a thing apart, a cheap
makeshift for the unfortunate, but rather a recognized and well-supported unit
in democracy's public school systema terrrary unit, let us hope, serving
a useful purpose until the day when democracy decrees that every boy and girl
to the age of at least 18 years shall have the privilege of attendance win
a full-time school the work of which is adapted both to his capacitiesas a learner
and tohheneeds as a citizen'
TIIE COOPERATIVE SCHOOL.
Much attention has been given recently to a special type of continu-
ation school which has come to be known as the " cooperative school."'
Deyelopekfirst in connection with the administration of the coils&
of engineering, the plan has been successfully adapted to secondary
school conditions, and is in operation in a number of cities.
The essential features of the plan seem to be:
(1) A definite cooperativ
arrangement between the educational
institution and one or more in
rial plants, by which the theoretical
instruction is given by the instil ion and the practical experience is
A National Program for EducationA Statement issued by the Commission on the
Emergeney in Education and .the Program for ReadjUstment; National Education Asa*.
elation, Washington, D: C. June, 1918, 'pp. 24, 25,
288
BIENNIAL SURVEY -OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
given by the industries, and both are coordinated in a systematic and
progressive educational program.
(2) Willingness on the part of the indittrial plant to make such
adjustments in equipment, processes, and metliods as are necessary
for promotion of the educational aim.
(3) 'Willingness on the part of the educational institution to elim-
inate nonessentials and to base theoretical instruction on what act ually
happens, and sufficient skill in organization to secure " realization of
theory through its pnictical applications."
(4) Careful selection of employers-. instructors, and student:work-
ers, who are capable. of being inspired with a vision of the responsibili-
ties as well as the possibilities of the plan.
(5) Administration of the device of alternating periods in such a
way as to secure continuous and progressive action on the process or
job in the factory, as well as in the work of the student and the in-
structor in the school.
SPFrIAL ADVANTAGES IN SECONDARY SCITOOLS.
In considering the advantages of the cooperative plan in the high
school it is necessary to recognize that the first appeal is made to
boys and girls not now in schoolto those who,. because of economic
necessity or indifference, have left school to go to work or to loaf.
The number of these has been variously estimated by different au-
thorities, but it can hardly be Soubtedithat it is in excess of 75 per
cent of all minors over 14 years of age. If any considerable number
of these can be brought back into the schools, it must be regarded as
worth the effort.
In the next place, a strong appeal is made to many boys and girls
who are in high school at the cost of much real sacrifice and self-
denial.
If some way can be found to meet a part of the cost they can
and will remain in school.
Again, some lessons can be learned only through practical experi-
ence in the ways of the world.
Some of these lessons include the
proper relation between the material and the spiritual phases of life,
the meaning and value of money, the meaning of work and 'wages,
and the relation between them, the importance of life motives.
The
lenrning of these lessons is of as much consequence to one individual
as to another, irrespective of economic, intellectual, or social status.
The cooperative plan is a cmitribution to the solution of. some of the
problems involved, and hence its advantages should be placed within
the reach of all youth.
With these considerations in'mind, the special adviintages of the
cooperative plan in the high school may be summarized as follows:
(1) The safeguards thrown about the young people in their places
of employment, through the supervision exercised by the school- and
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
289 ,
the cooperation of employers, chow an almost unbelievable improve-
ment over the conditions hitherto characterizing the employment of
minors in many places.
(2) The cooperative plan makes it possible for some boys and girls
to continue in school, because of wages earned on half-time. Pro-
longing the period of active connection with the school, and of con-
tact with sympathetic teachers and advisers, confers an incalculable
benefit on growing boys and girls, and should lead to a permanent
impetus to better things.
(3) The plan will doubtless induce some to remain in schoo l be-
cause the school work is thus made more interesting, and the student
can see a more direct relation between schooling and the promotion of
his own interests.
(4) The experiences involved promote a more earnest and thought-
ful attitude toward work and the.responsibilities of life.
(5) The plan discourages idleness and unwholesome use of time,
since the longer school day and year are fully occupied with inter-
esting activities.
(6) The opportunity to engage in gainful employment son half-
time, under suitable auspices, has a definite prevocational value,
assisting young persons to discover their tastes and probable apti-
tudes.
(7) The successful operation of a cooperative school or class sf-
ford a convincing demonstration that.a reasonable amount of work,
under proper conditions, can be made to contribute definitely to the
development of youth, instead of being, as frequently heretofore, a
demoralizing, disheartening, and stuiting influence.
(8) The plan gives the student, at the very least, a foothold in
some industry or occupation, so that he does not *feel'lost when the
time conies to letrie school and take up the responsibilities of self-
support.
(9) It should be emphasized that this plan does not neglect thii
need for general education, but insures to each individual an amount
of cultural and liberalizing education sufficient to serve as a founda-
tion for further study if he later finds it possible to continue his
education. He certainly gets more of the cultural sideof education
than he will if he leaves school entirely to go ,to mirk.
PREVOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
One phase of progress in vocational education has resulted from
' the enforced examination of proper methods and procedure in the
preliminary or preparatory stages, which have come to be included
under the generally. accepted term of " prevocational education."
This development is taking the form of a new interest in the special
171029°-21Bull. 88-19
290
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916l918.
educational problems presented by boys and girls during the last
year or two of the period of compulsory schooling and the year or
two immediately following.
During the past few years certain propositions seem to have been
emerging above the surface of discussion: (1) The amount of school-
ing prescribed by law in most States is not sufficient to guarantee
the general diffusion among the population of those qualities of high
intelligence. sound health, good citizenship, and economic inde-
pendence which are regarded as indispensable to our national life;
(2) too many of our children for one reason or another, or for no
reason, fail to go beyond the legal requirements in the matter of
schooling, or even to attain themfor too many, boys and girls the
minimum has become the maximum; (3) modifications in school
programs and methods have induced many children to remain in.
school beyondthe age of compulsory attendance, who otherwise would
have left, and doubtless will retain many others if made effective;
(4) if we must accept the fact that many children will leave school
at the earliest legal opportunity, we can at least give them some-
thing during the last year or two they are in school which will be
more serviceable to them than the traditional formal citrriculum of
the elementary school.
In discussing this phase of current progress, Dr. Snedden says:
The efforts now being made in various States to reorganize currirula of
training and instruction for children 12 to 14 or 15 years of age constitute un-
doubtedly the most significant and important of contemporary movements in
education.
The educational needs of pupils of 12 to 14 years of age are variable to such
an extent that, if conditions of educational adtninstration permitted, a number
of courses of training and instruction, dissimilar as to many important elements
and also even as to quality of results expected In common studies, should be
provided.'
One of the concrete expressions of this new inter" and an attencipt
to realize the aim herein referred to, is the intermediate school, or
junior high school. On this point Prof. Noyes well says:
It is the glory of the junior high-school plan that it has arisen out of the
study of the needs of the adolescent child, that it is a constructive effort to
bridge the gap between the elementary school and the high school, by vitalizing
the curriculum.'
THREE TYPES OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Prof. Noyes distinguishes three types of junior high school: (1)
In this type the teaching is departmentalized, each teacher having
I David finedden: Manual Training Magasine, Vol. XVIII, No. 4, De ember, 1318.
p. 158.
*WIllisai Noyes: The Juotor High School and Iodnertal Education.
ManualTrainina
Magiasine, Vol. XIX. No. 6, Jamul,. 1918. pp. 153-157.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
4'
291
but one or two subjects.
In some cases there have been notable
changes made in curriculum, but in many such schools there has been
no change in either the amount or the method of industrial work.
(IL) In this type specialization has been the determining factor. The
boy and girl and their advisers decide. so far as possible. upon entering
the seventh grade whether he or she is to go to college. to the farm,
to the countinghouse. to the kitchen. to the factory, or to the studio.
That such courses arecalled optional should not divert attention
from the fact that the effect of such an arrangement is early choice
and specialization in vocational lines."
(3) This type is founded on
the principle that the boy and girl should have as great variety of
experience as is practicable, and that definite vocational choices
should be deferred us long as possible.
In its extreme form, the pupil would pass through a cycle, not only of Indus-
trial but also of commercial. agricultural, artistic, and academic activities.
It assumes that at the are of early adolescence it is impossible to foresee what
the predilections anal abilities of any child, boy or vigil. are goiat to be.
In America more than in anY other country in the world free vocational
choices arc possible. and examples are constantly brought to our attention of
men. and to a less decree of women. who try one vocation after another before
settling into their life work.
And if we grown-ups keep changing for so many
years, by,hat right should we impose a-choice on children under 15'0
ImvotITANT F.LEMENTS.
In the conduct of the industrial work in the junior high school it is
important to maintain what Mr. Bowman calls the " vocational guid-
ance flavor."
By way of further atudysis be points out three im-
portant elements which should characterize the work t
(II The boys should become familiar with tools, form habits of good work-
manship, a ad come in (konlact with edicient shop organization In each line of
work.
(2) They should learn how these constructions are made in industry, how the
things they do in the shop are placed "outsik," and gain some industrial intelli-
gence evld insight.
(3) They should gain information through studies, discussions, talks, visita-
tions. and readings about wages, chances for advancement, working conditions,
and the like, in the work outside related to that which they are doing in school.
This work will lend to investigations of lines not represented in the school'
The junior high-school organization provides, or may provide, most
favorable conditions for the vqcational guidance and prevocational
phases of education.
That the movement Co introduce the junior
high-school plan seems to be spreading, as noted elsewhere in the
Report of the Commi,sioner of Education, is significant of further
developments to tte expected in these fields.
I William Noyes: The Junior High School and Industrial Education. Manual Training
Melamine, Vol. XIX, No. 5. January, 1918, pp. 158-157.
s Clyde A. Bowman : Industrial Education tor the Moeller Community, Manual Train.
lag Mega:Ina Vag. XVIII, No. 6, January, 1017, pp. 177-180.
292
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
As has been pointed out by a number of students of current ten-
dencies in secondary education, however, it is possible in this as.in
other things to have the form without the subsornce.
Some such
......_...Systems have advertised the introduction of the junior high - school
plan, whereas examination. will show that nothing thore has been
done than to take the seventh and eighth grades from the elementary
school, and the ninth grade from the high school, and put the three
together in a building of their own.
It is of the utmost importance that there shall he a more definite
and authoritative determination of the purpo,cs of prevocational
education, the junior high school, and other departmental or special
schemes or organization, and then a careful che-king up of the
means employed and the results secured.
Formal reorganization
is of no avail if actual results desired are not secured.
MANUAL TRAINING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 'RECEIVES NEW
IMPETUS.
It has been well said that there are two products of the war which
we should not willingly relinquish from our national life:
"One
is the spirit of thrift which has been brought out by the Liberty Loan
-campaigns: the other is the enthusiasm for education which has been
developed by our training camps."
THE NEW EDUCATMN.
This enthusiasm for education will necessarily be colored by the
experienves through which we have passed., and will reflect the new
spirit of patriotism and service.
Education must continue to pro-
vide for culture and self-development, but from now on it must
do more. It has been shown that it is possible for education to de-
velop efficiency of the most rigorous and exacting type, and at the
same time to generate idcalism and nobility of motive.
Even the
educational program of our training ramps, which many thought of
only in terms ofinexorable military discipline and short cuts to well-
defined ...objectives, made definite prOvision for the humanistic ele-
ment-0 "morale." of the troops.
It has been discovered that education can be vocational, and cul-
tural; henceforth we shall not be satisfied with education that is mot
both. The OW point of view that seems to be making definite head-
way suggests' again the essential unity of the thing we call educa-
tion.
Vhe immediate effect upon education of the war and its concomi-
tant events unquestionably will be a new emphasis-on certain special
phases: .(1) Education for health, (2) education for vocarron,- and
clutlook, edltorlal; Dec. 18, 1019, p. 019.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
298
(3) education for citizenship.. The urgent need for attention to
these matters has been brought home to the consciousness of the
people as never before.
It is interesting to note that. contrary to
the prophecies of some of our educational leaders, the Nation has
been afforded a most convincing demonstration that these objectives
are positively attainable without the sacrifice of those finer qualities
of human life and relationshipsthe humanistic elementand, what
is even more to the point, the machinery and methods 'for reaching
these ends were iii process of being definitely worked out.
One of the most helpful and constructive contributions, most
needed at the present time. would he the formulation of policies of
vocational education which will show clearly and definitely the rela-
tionships which a program for vocational education should bear to
a program for health education, to a program for citizenship educa-
tion, to a program for complete education.
In the past this country has suffered and been handicapped by the
- lack of engineers, scientists. and skilled mechanics, and took no ade-
quate actiop. During the war the point Nlas reached where measures
for remeding this lack became an nape
tive necessity, and hence
schemes for vocational and technical training were developed on an
unheard -of scale.
We came to realize that we must make a more
determined effort to secure for a much larger proportion of our
people a serviceable amount of technical and scientific training. In
the accomplishment, of this purpose we must vitalize the work of the
elementary and secondary schools, as well as the higher engineering
and scientiOk schools, and stimulate them to do their part in this
great pro; .am.
SUGGESTIONS OF EDUCATORS.
For the purpose of aiding and guiding this development, the Com-
missioner of Education summoned to Washington during the-week of
May '20, 1918. a group of educators, and requested theinto cooperate
in the formulation of the outlinesvof a definite program that might
be submittedatrthool authorities for adoption.
The committee in-
cluded men from the staffs of city superintendents of public schools:
principals of high schools, representatives of trade and technical
schools, and teacher-training institutions.
This group was repre-
sentative alike of the technical, administrative, and instructional
phases of the problems involved, and pooled the results of extensive
a;td varied experience in both education and industry.
Consequently; the program and, recommendations of this commit-
tee, as set forth in a report published by the Bureau of Education,'
fto
1 Industrial Arts In Secondary Schools, etc.; Secondary School Circular ND. 4, Sept4tov
Der, 1918; Bureau of ii4lucation, Washington, D. C.
M.
4!
*294
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
carry great weight, and deserve the careful study of school authorities.
Included within the brief compass of 30 pages may be found defitiite,
practical suggestions, some of which may be carried out in the seventh
and eighth grades and high-school years in almost any 'school system
in the country.
RECOM M ENIATIONS.
The recommenAtions of the'committee may be summarized briefly,
as follows:
(1) Boards of education should make it possible to offer training
preparatopy,to'some of thetrcupations specified, at least the founda-
tion work courses, in practically all high schools.
(2) Wherever practicable time cooperative shopwork plan (part-
time division between schooling and employment) should be intro-
duced, under the direct supervision of the public-school authorities.
(3) The daily, weekly, and annual school sessions should be length-
ened.
(4) Wherever practicable a number of elective two-year vocational
courses should be offered, with the following division of time: (a)
15 hours per weeit in shopwork; (1,) 15 hours per week in related and
general subjects.
(5) For industrial arts work in the general high school. the mini-
mum amount of time should be 10 hours per week, for a period of
three tears.
(6) From 4 to 10 phiods per week in the seventh and eighth gratts
should be devoted to handwork, with the olnphat:is on pract seal shop,
work in wood and metal preparatory to the work suggested for the
high school.
Other recommendations relate to consolidated and rural schools.
and to the'importance of securing properly qualified teachers to con-
duct the work.
The underlyir'r purpose of the program and .the recommendations
presented in this report is twofold : (a) T9 increase greatly the num-
ber of boys and young men receiving instruction in technical and in-
dustrial work; and (b) to increase the practical effectiveness of the
instruction by bringing about a more definite coordination between
the work of the schools and the needs of the individual and the Nation.
CRITICISM EXAMINED.
In conclusion, it seems desirable to refer again to certain objec-
tions which have been raised to the philosophy underlying, the voca-
tional phases of public education.
There are still those who appeai
to be unable or unwilling to perceive that education must he some-
thing more than mere cultivation of the intellect.- 'It is difficult to
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
295
argue with such persons on the basis of the current conception of
publicly supported education in a democracy, which is that educe-.
tion should include at least : (1) Education for citizenship and
civic responsibilities; (2) education for health; (3) education for
economic self-support, the vocation; (4)' education for the human
relationships, culture, refinement, use of leisure time, the spiritual
values.
In particular, the notion t' lat children who are about to leave
school permanently, or who. having left, are recalled for the purpose,
may safely be given specific, instruction that will assist in getting
an' sinomic start in lifethis notion has proved a stumbling-
bl
to
'me who believe that this process involves the sacrifice of
nettling of supreme value to the child and to the State.
An at-
tentive reading of certain criticisms which have appeared suggests
that the argument, if reduced to the form of a syllogism, would read:
Major premise: Many children leave school as soon as they are legally free
to do so, regardless of whether they-are qualified
to look after themselves
or not.
Minor premise: An effective program of vocational education may Induce'
numbers of such children to remain In school longer than they otherwise would
in order to prepare for some wage-earning position.
Cone/a:don: This additional schooling definitely and permanently prescribes
the future careers of the children, making it Impossible that they shall ever
be other than " hewers of wood and drawers of Nter," and Is therefore an
offense against both the Individual and society.
The principal defect in this argument is that the process of reason-
ing is invalid, and the conclusion non sequitur. Students of edu-
cation have repeatedly pointed out the fallacy of assuming That a
vocation once entered upon by a young person must be followed
through life.
. Furthermore, the obvious alternative, and the only one seriously
proposed, is to accept the fact that the overwhelming majority of
boys and girls will continue to drop out of school before attaining
adequate peparation for life's dutiei.
And it is precisely against
amiable acquiescence in this ineffectual alternative that ciirrent popu-
lar interest in education, has been aroused.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION NOT AN ENCROACHMENT.
One of the most conclusive summaries othe case against the criti-
cism referred to is a statement recently, prepared by Dr. Snediten.
It is in answer to the thoughtlessly repeated charge that xocational
education seeks (1) to destroy or supplant the public school, and (2)
to establish or subititute a ncrow type of education which, by teach-
.
ing mere skill of hand, will limit the
ssible futures of youtig people
and prescribe for them qareers without porospect of growth aid
development.
296
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
In reply to these two charges it is aptly pointed out that, whereier
vocational schools have been established, the entrance conditions are
substantially .the completion of the requirements of compulsory
school attendance.
In most States these requirements are expressed
in terms of age of pupil and school grade completed.
in other words. no youth may enter u vocational school until he has reiled
the.pOInt where he Is equally free to enter the shop or office as a full-time
worker, or to spend Ills (or her) days exclusively at farm or home work. To
the entrge sometimes made that the specialized vocational school Is "narrow-
ing,"'It is a fair retort to question whether It Is more "narrowing." than the
place in the department store, the specialty In the factory. or the daily routine
of office, farm, or home.
For these are certainly the prevailing alternatives.'
In this connection the following.statement made by the Secetary
of Commerce in President Wilson's Cabinet, and member of the
Federal Board for Vocational Education, is pertinent:
Let me say that Industrial education is not educating men into the mill.
I
have been told that It was..and that what was sought was to train a working
class; that it attempted not only to train our children Into the mills. but also
to develop class legislation on their account.. The allegations are., utterly
Untrue.
Industrial education Is for every .phase of inilustry, and those who
teach it most and urge It strongest are against confining It to any narrow groove
of single processes.'
Instead, there-fore, of being chargeable with limiting the oppor-
tunities or prescribing the future careers of youth, the vocational
school must fairly be credited not only with providing a substantial
extension of educational opportunity, but also with equipping boys
and girls witintthe means to mike th..careers whatever they will.
Every. step taken in the diection of p oviding practical education
preparing for wage-earning efficiencyhvill lessen rather than increase
the handicaps which beset those boys and girls who can not look
forward to college or.. university education.
Snedden: Public!), Supported Vocational Education: Is
It Undemocrnticr;
Manual Training Magazine; Vol. XVIII, No. 8, April, 1017, pp. 321-324.
I William C. Reddeldi Manual Training Magazine, Vol. XVIII, No. 6, April, 1017,
p. 252.
'
CHAPTER XI.
AGR
RAli EDUCATION
.
By C. II. LANE.
Federal Agent for Agricultural Education, Federal Board for Vocational Education.
Cognacs.Agriculture in secondary schoola---The elementary schools Agricultural Wu-
cation at ineetIngaAgricultural education la other countries
EdueatIonal work of
the Department of AgrIculture--The agricultural eollenes AppropriationsExtension
and short courses The graduate school of agriculture.
AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
In the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act another important step
has been taken by the Federal Government in its relations to educe-
tion.
Under the new measure, Federal appropriations ultimately
aggregating over $7,000,360 per annum have been made available for
cooperation with the States in the promotion of vocational education
in agriculture, the trades and industries, told home economics, includ-
ing the preparation of teachers. The principle. of Federal aid
through tlyStaies to education in institutions of s-tibcollegiatA grade
has been established,
nd an additional set of administrative ma-
chinery has been devised to operate the new stein of education
which is provided.
As Z pioneer measure, the new legislation inevitably recalls the
original Morrill Act.
Primarily both laws were apparently intended
to provide training in agricuaiire and the industries, the one in col-
legiate, thp' other in subcollegiate institutions.
They were thus both
designed to develop a type of education of the utmost importance to
our country, but previously never directly supported by the Federal
Government and to only a limited degree by the States mid local
communitieel Likewise both acts involved the introduction of a new
system of education into the existing system.
It is somewhat remarkable that these two measures, separated in.
time by a period of over half a century, should both have been enacted
in a period of great national crisis.
The -Morrill Act. of At was
of course signed in the midst of the Civil War, while the vocational
education act of 1917 antedated by only a few weeks the formal
297
298
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918;
entrance of the United States into the present conflict.
The coinci-
dence is the more striking since both measures were designed to foster
agriculture and the industries, foremost among the arts of peace. and
since both had been,pending 4,,Congess for years before the outbreak
of hostilities.
The measure ultimately adopted was introduced into the Sixty-
fourth Congress by Senator Hoke Smith on December 7, 191.1, and
was passed by the Senate with amendments .11
1911i.
Its early
enactment was strongly urged by President W ikon in addressing
Congress at its reopening' in the following December, as
of ;dial importance to the. whole country because it concerns a matter tooling
neglected, neon which the thorough industrial prepanition of the countrt for
the critical years of econonde development immediately ahead of us in very
large measure depends
*
It contains plans which affect all Interests
and all pnrts of the country, and I am sure that there is no legislation now
pending before the (longres; whose passage the country awaits with more
thoughtful approval or greater impatleime to see a great and admirate thing
set In the way of being done.
As an expression of educational tad icy, the new net embodies some
important departures from previous legislation.
It makes provision
for the t raining within the schools of a large group of our popula-
tion hitherto unreached directly. by the Federal Government. .0n
the one hand, by offering instruction along vocational lines and of
subcollegiate grade, it supplements the Morrill Act, the expressed
purpose of which is.to maintain colleges '' to teach such branches of
learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts
*
*
in order to promote the liberal and practical education of
,
the indus-
trial classes in t
several pursuits and professions of
Oil the
other hand
e it contemplates a system of training in the schools,
it also supplements the agricultural extension act of 1914, in which the
service provided is "the giving of instruction and practical demon-
strations in agriculture and home economies to persons not attending
or resident in State colleges in the several communities."
Since it
imposes definite requirements as to the training of -t4chers, it also
represents a material extension of authority over the purely permis-
sive provisions of the Nelson amendment of 1907.
The most radical innovation in the act deals with the method-of its
administration.
Previous legislation along these lines has ligarded
the college of agriculture and mechanic arts as the State unit, whether
for college inst.ruction under the Morrill Act and acts supplementary
thereto, the preparation of teachers under the Nelson amendment,
the conducting of research, in agriculture under the Hatch and
Adams Acts, or the- carrying on in cooperation with the United
States Departinent of Agriculture of extension work in agriculture
and home eco<cs under the extension act..
The adminieration of
AGRICULTURAL EDITATION. IDIG-1918.
7 2.99
those measures dealing with college instruction has centered in the
Department of the -Interior, and Of those dealing with research and
extension work in agriculture in the Department of Agriculture.
The vocational education act in-both respects establishes a new ad-
ministrative system.
As its head there is provided a Federal Board for Vocational Edu-
cation.
This board consists of seven members, including the Secre-
taxies of Agriculture Cornmerce, and. Labor, and the United States
Commissioner of Education, ex officio, with three members appointed
by the President and confirmed by the Senate, ultimately for terms
of three years each. One of the appointed members is a representa-
tive of the manufacturing and commercial interests. one of the agri-
cultural intere,ts. and the third of those of labor. The board selects
its own chairman each year.
-
The Federal board is charged with the administration of the act,
the details as to the care of funds, the certifying of the States, etc.,
in general plan resembling the legislation for the agricultural col-
leges and .experiment stations.
In addition it is empowered to-make,
or have made. investigations and rejairts to aid the States in the
establishment of vocational schools and classes, and in giving in-
struction in agriculture, the trades and industries, commerce and
commercial pursuits, aqd home economics.
These studies include
agriculture and agricultural processesboond the requirement upon
agricultural workers, similar said ies as regards the trades, industries,
and -commerce. home management, thnnestic science, and the study
of related foods. and the principle4 and problems of administration'
of vocational schools and of courses of study and instriMion in vo:..
cational subjects.
In the discretion of the board, the studies con-
rerning agriculture inaly be made in cooperation with or through the
Department of Agriculture. Similar cooperative arrangements may
be made with the Departments of Labor and Commerce for indus-
trial subjects, while the studies of tla\ administration of vocational
schools, curricula, and methods of instruction in vocational subjeAts
may be taken up in cooperation with or through the.} ureau of Edu-
cation. An appropriation of iP.00,000.per annum, available from the
date otpassage of the act, is made to the board for its expenses.
To cooperate with the .Federal board in carrying out the act, each
State when accepting its prOvisions is to designate a State board of
at least three members.
The State b
rd of education or some
board having charge of the administrati n of public education of
any kind of vocational education may
e designated- as the ,State
board, or an entirely new board may be created.
T
.
The !State board is to prepare plans for the approval of thel,Fed-
eral board, showing the details of the work for which it is exp1ced
.
,
300
BIENNIAL SURVEY. OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
to use the appropriations.
These plans, it is specified,*rmist show
the kinds of vocational education contemplated, the kinds of schools
and equipment,' courses of study, methods of instruction, and the
qualifications and the plans for the training of the teachers and
'agricultural supervisors. -In all oases the work must be conducted
under public supervision and control.
The plats of/expenditures for salaries in agricultural subjects must
in addition show that the controlling purpose of the achication is to
.4t, for useful employment, that
training is less than college grade,
and that it is designed to meet the needs of persons over 14 years of
age who have entered upon or"-ho are preparing to onter upon the
work of the farm or of the farm home.
' The Federal appropriations to the States are divided into three
distinct- groups, praiding respectively for the payment of salaries
of teachers, supervisors. or directors of agricultural subjects: for
the payment of safaries of trade, home economics, and industrial
subjects; and for 'the Preparing of teachers. supervisors, or directors
of agricultural subjects, and of teachers of trade and-industrial and
home economics subjects.
-
The main initial iippropriation for salaries in agricultural subjects
is $500,000. This is increased by $250,000 per annum during the next
.six years and then by $500,000 per annum during the next two years,
making an appropriation of $3,000,000 for the fiscal year 1926 and
annually thereafter.
The main appropriation for preparing teachers and supervisors is
likewise $500,000 for the first yar; but increases to $100,000 and
$900,000, respectively, for the next two years and thee becomes
$1,000,000 per annum thereafter.
The Federal appropriations for
teacher training trist be divided among agricultural, trade and in-
dustrial, and home economics subjects, no one of these subjects heft
granted more than.,60 nor less than 20 per cent of the State's allot-
meift for that year.
Tlie act embodies a system of Federal and State administration of
vocational education which is a compromise between the views of
those who thought a separatesystem of public education should be
organized for vocational purposes and those who beliel,eat that the
unity of our present public-school system should be maintained.
Each State is left free to establish a separate system or to make the
..voeational schools and courses a part of its existing system.
It is probably very fortunate that so much flexibility of organiza-
tion has been incmforated in this act.
This btoad measure, which
will affect the educational system of our vast country with its great
. variety of industrial conditions and possibilities, gives an uneclhaled
opportunity. for the study and trial of curricula, methods of' teaching,
yr-
AGRICULTURAL pUCATION, 1916-4918.
801
practical work, equipment, etc., adapted to a wide range of vocations
and very diverse environments.
The training of,the teachers provicktd for will throw a very heavy
burden of responsibility on our higher technical institutions and par-
ticularly the land giant colleges.
These institutions have been very
successful in training teohnical experts who have contributed in largo
measure to the success of our industries. They have not as yet paid
an:c large attention,to.lhe training of teachers for secondary schools
of the strictly vocational type. The pedagogy of this class of educa
tion is yet in its,preliminary stage.
It evidently will not, do simply
to copy what has been worked out abroad.
There is therefor4 great
incentive for men of original thought and inventive skill to enter this
comparatiely new field of teacher training.
For purposes of administration and- inspection under the Smith-
'Hughes Act the Federal board has divided the country into.Ve sec-
tions or regions.
In defining these regions the States are grouped
as follows:
I. North Atiartic.Maine, New HampshireVerniont, Massachu-
setts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl-
vania, Delaware, and Maryland. Headquarters in New York City:
II. Southern. Virginia. North Carolina, South Carplina, Georgia;
Florida, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, and
Texas.
Headquarters in'Atlanta, Ga.
III. North Central.Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia; Indiana,
Kentucky, Wisconsin, Illinois. Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri. Head-
quarters in Indianapolis, Ind.
_
IV. 11-c8t Central.North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kan-
sas, Oklahoma, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New. Mexico.
Headquarters in.Kansas City, Mo.
V. Pacific.Idalio, Utah. Arizona, Nevada, Washington, Oregon,
and California.
Headquarters in San Francisco, Cal.
An agent of the Federal board; for the fields of agriculture, trade,
and industrial subjects is assigned to each region: the agents for.
home economics reniin in Washington.
These Federal agents are,
in general, to act as administrative representatives of the Federal
board in the field, to'gather information regarding methods adopted
by the several State boards for the administration of the act, and to
inspe4 the work of the State boards in so far as it has to do with
the requirements of the law, with the decisions and policies of the
Federal board and with the approved plans for the States.
Up to January 1, 1918, 48 States have accepted the SmithHughes
Act either by specific
visions of the legislatures or by act.of the
governor, and u
January 1, 1918, the plans of'48 States had been
examined by
e Federal BoArd for Vocational Education, approved,
802
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION', 1916-1018.
and the board had certified to the Secretary of the Treasury that
these States were entitled to receive the allotments for the year 1917-
18. apportioned by the terms of the act.
Over 500.agricultural schools and classes were approved by State
and Federal boards for carrying on the work in agriculture under
the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act.
The chief handicap in the promotion or introduction of vocational
agricultural instruction was the lack of qualified teachers.
This was
due largely to the present war emergencymany of the agricul-
tural teachers being drafted or volunteering for service in the Army.
In practically every State the State board for vocational education
has provided a State supervisor of agriculture.
In some cases this
supervisor is a part of the organization of the St ate hoard and in some
cases he acts in a dual capacity as head of the teacher-training work
under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act and State supervisor
of agriculture.
This arrangement is clue largely to a lack of funds
on the part of the State boards for carrying on supervisory work.
In every State but one the State board for vocational education has
designated the land-grant college as a teacher-training institution
in agriculture.
As a result of their elesitination as teacher-training
institutions under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act, they have
organized departments of agricultural education and are proceeding
along very definite lines to train vocational teachers of agriculture.
THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.
There has been continued effort on the part of many agencies to
promote the various phases of elementary agriculture in the common
schools.
Minnesota The work in agriculture in the rural schools has
practically all been in the form of boys' and girls' club work. The
majority of county superinten
have acted as county club le*ders
directing the work. The
rk hag been taken up along 10 lines of
hothe projectscorn, potato, pig, calf, garden, canning, poultry,
cow testirig..bread making, and sewing.
Something like 5,000 boys'
and girls' clubs *ere organized in the rural districts in 1918.
Most
of these come from the rural schools as a unit, with the teacher as the
local leader and the county superintendent ks county club leader.
New Hampshire. For The past five years efforts have been- made
and plans formulated fox' converting the old-time nature study in
rural schools into elementary agriculture of a practical type. During
the year 1918, that effort has culminated in enrolling 32,000 school
children in home-project gardening.
This has been directly tinder
schOol management through the State department, local superinten-
dents, and teachers.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1016-1418.
30$
Caifornia.The California State Board of Education passed the
following regulation relative to agricultural instruction in normal
schools: " For students entering after June 30, 1919, one unit shall
be required in manual training or household arts or both, and one unit
in the elements in agriculture, including practical work in garden-
ing, floriculture,- and plant propagation."
.11a8sachu.setts.As a result of the appointment of county club
leaders in each one of the county farm bureaus in the State, a
thorough canvas of the rural schools has been made in an effort,
to interest them in both home awl school garden work and junior ex-
tension club work. From 75 to 35 per cent of the rural schools have
.
been reached during the past two years through these' agents.
In a
few instances this has resulted in the establishment of some definite
course in agriculture or home eeonomics in these schools.
The extension division of the college of agriculture during 1918
made an Wfoyt to arrange a course satisfactory to high-school men
that would be accepted by the college for credit on admission. It
is felt that this would lead to steps to establish the work in elementary
). schools to fit the work in the high schools.
yoming.--The only teacher-training institutions below .college
grade in the State are some high schools offering one year of normal
training. These schools were established in the fall of 1917, and thi
only work in agriculture offered in such schools is a short general
course in agriculture that is designed to prepare pupils t.o teach in
the elementary schools.
_
Michigan.ThNe new county normal training classes have been
established in the
tate in the past year and a few for the purpose
of training rural teachers, making in all 53 such institutions.
A law
was passed in 1917 requiring all persons who are teaching in the
elementary schools to have at least six weeks of professional training
before a teacher's license can be issued to them.
In all institutions
giving training for rural teachers a semester's course in elementary
agriculture and in the pedagogy of such subjects is given.
Montana.In 1918 a bill passed the legislature making agriculture
a required subject in the elementary schools.
A course of study has
been prepared including agriculture.
Home project work is a part
of the course. of study and the Stake superintendent of public instruc-
tion has approved credit for project worke.to the extent of 50 per
cent each year.
Kaneae. The teacher-training institutions beloW college grade
offering work in agriculture, are the high schools which are reim-
bursed from -§tate funds for normal training_ work.
These high
schools are offering either pne-half unit or' a unit of agriculture'as a
part of the high-school work for those who are planning to teach.
Previous to 1916-17 agriculture was not a fixed requirement, now at
304
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
least one-half unit is required in all normal-training nigh schools.
About 90 per cent of them, however, give a full unit of tliat work.
The State grants aid of approximately $200 -for this work in ap,
proved high schools.
The number of high schools giving the work
now is 234;and the number giving the work before 1.916-17 was 185.
North Carolina.At the last session of the general msembly a bill
was passed 'providing for a. commission to be appointed by the goy-
, ernor for the purpose of preparing leaflets and bulletins containing
courses of.study, practical outlines in agriculture, to be used by the
teachers as supplements to the text.
Two bulletins, one for the sixth
and one for the seventh grades have been prepared.
These bulletins
are somewhat in the form of laboratory manuals following the pro-
ject plan, and it was thonght by State officials that they are going
to prove a great help to the teachers in making their agricultural
work more practical.
New York.An act of the New York State Legislature for 1917 pro-
vides for the employment of directors of agriculture in cities, towns,
and school districts not maintaining a school of agriculture, me-
chanic arts, and home making. The purpose of this:act is to employ
a person who shall devote his time to interesting 3rung people in
practical agriculture and to giving technical instruction accompany-
ing their practical work; to encourage cities and villages to employ
supervisors for school, home, and vacant-lot gardening.
The com-
missioner of education will apportion to each city, town, or school
district employing or joining in the employment of a director of
agriculture a sum equal to one-half the salary paid to such director,
not exceeding each yefir the sum of $600 for each director employed.
The purpose of this work is to encourage boys and girls to undertake'
agricultural enterprises adapted to their home conditions.
The
projects may include poultry; pig, and calf raising, groWing a cer-
tain area of general garden or corn, potatoes, or other farm crops:
A complete scheme is found in Bulletin 654 of the University of the
State of New York.
Indiana.Educational Bulletin No. 82 of the Vl'ocational Series
No. 1,7, entitled, "Supervised Home Project and Club Work," con-
tains what is considered the ideal organization for club work in a
county. It is described as follows:
Au attempt is being made in Montgomery County to perfect a more complete
organization than has been possible herttofore in the State. With the financial
assistance of the States Relations Se
ice of the United States Department
of Agriculture and the cooperation of all the agencies of the State add county,
it is hoped that an organization will be perfected that will serve as a model for
other counties.
The work in this county is being directed by the county titipertntendent of
schools and the county agricultural agent, working through a committee repre-
senting the board of education itnd such allied spunty organizations as the coin-
666111111111111Mr_
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
306
munity association, the county fair association, the home economics elssodatton,
the chamber of commerce, and the live-stock breeders. The fullest cooperation
is assured from the hanks, grain elevators, and business men.
The teachers
and their officials and supervisors are interested and in sympathy. with the
movement.
Each township will employ at least one teacher as a club supervisor. This
local supervision will begin February 1, and while the schools are In session
each township supervisor will devote time outside of school hours to- visiting
schools, arousing !Merest and getting the enrollment.
At the close of school,
the time of the township supervisor will be spent In visiting club members and
giving instruction.
A county director of club work, giving full time to his task, is emploYed for
the full year. lie is to work with the township supervisors and teachers, under
the direction of the county superintendent and county agent.
He will train
supervisors, assist in supervising the instruction in agriculture, distribute litera-
ture. and corre'ate the work generally.
Township and county exhil4its, deOnstration teams, club meetings, and
frequent conferences are planned.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AT MEETINGS.
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION.FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
The annual meeting in 1917 of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science is one of the great scientific events of the
year. It is a vast clearing house for ideas and results in science, and
for the testing and molding of views.
It presents the largest forum
in this country for healthy, tempefed but searching criticism in sci-
ence, without which science becomes self-complacent, lax, and unex-
acting in its requirements.
The section of agriculture confined its program to a single session
and was presided over by Dr. AV. H. Jordan, of the New York State
Experiment Station. Taken as a whole, the discussions were a frank
acknowledgement of the present limitations of our agricultural
knowledge, especially the full understanding of it, and some of the
difficulties in its application in successful farming. It was a some-
what critical analysis of experimental methods, and it sounded a
caution against premature generalization from laboratory results to
the farm. As Dr. Jordan stated, the stations have been and are still
putting too much time on mere variables that have no broad signifi..
cance. and too little time on broad fundamentals. He called attention
to the fallacy and unwisdom of attempting to state results in terms
of dollars and cents, since these have no real permanent or scientific
significance.
Speaking of the training of the investigator, Dr. L. H. Bailey hpld
that the the research man should be a student-in all that the- name
implies.
The investigator in 'horticulture should have a grounding
in chemistry, physics, and physiology, for the grasp they give on
171029*-21Bull.
806
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918 -1918.
methods and approach. And he should have training in systematic
botany, not alone for i6 knowledge of plants but for its'key system,
for the drill in comparing things that are actually comparable. His
training should also give him a contemplative, reflective habit of
thought; and he should always continue to be a student.
Unless he
continues to acquire much of his preparation as he goes, his research
spirit has got its growth. The investigator must prepare himself for
each separate piece of work.
In addition to this training in the sciences, emphasis was laid on
the need for much study of English, to give familiarity with words
and terms in order to make sharp discriminations and comparisons,
and to enable clear expression of thought and deduction. This is an
all too frequent lack at present.
Science is exact, in expression as
well as in essence. No worker has a right to he anderstoolexcept in
the terms of his own language. Good training in logic vras also ad-
vocated, in weighing of evidence, because ability in that line is one of
the prime essentials of the investigator.
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL' COLLEGES AND EXPERIMINT
STATIONS.
Following the general policy adopted many years ago of meeting
in alternate years in Washington, D. C., the Association of American
Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations held its thirtieth an-
nual convention in'that city N9vember 15-17, 1916. The selection
of the Nation's capital this year seemed especially appropriate, in
view of the predominance in the program of questions of nation-
wide significance, the important relationship developing with various
branches of the Federal Government, and the plentiful evidences of
the growing realization of the essential kinship and community of
purpose of the institutions comprising the great Federal system of
education and research for whose interests the association stands.
The program of the association was by no means restricted to agri-
cultural lines.
The interests of the association are, of course, con-
siderably broader in,seope, and this year, in particular, much em-
phase was put upon what may be termed its nonagricultural phases.
In the general sessions especially, aside from the.addre.s.ses of the
Secretary of Agriculture and the president of the association and the
presentation and discussiu
of the reports of the standing committees,
attention was centered quite largely on the proposed establishment
by the Federal Government of engineering experiment stations, the
development of military training in the land-grant colleges, and the
best ways of conducting extenslon work
home economics and
similar lines of interest to farm women.
s trend of the conven-
tion, howevei, in no sense betokened a
inution of interest in
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
307
agricultural education and research. On the contrary, it may be
whether4he realization of the outstanding importance of
these phases, and especially the need of adequate and systematic
provtisions for research, was ever more strongly in evidence.
For
example, it was the dominating note in the presidential address, given
by Director C. E. Thorne, of the Ohio Station, upon the subject of
Progress of education and
research in agriculture."
Director
Thorne reviewed the history of the land-grant colleges, especially
in their relations to the experiment stations, and sounded a note of
warning that the temptation to neglect the work of thi7, stations in
order to take care of the great pressure for educational workonust be
strongly resisted if permanent progress is to be made. As he pointed
out
science can not stand still.. Every extension of the horizon of our knowledge
only expands the boundary of the unknown, and makes yet more imperative the
necessity for further research, and the institution which contents itself with
present knowledge will scion find itself forgotten.
College instruction in agriculture was discussed, from several
points of view. The report of the standing committee on instruction
in agriculture dealt with the question of college credit for high-
school agriculture. This included a study of existing conditions by
D. J. Crosby, Ni,hich indicated that agriculture is now accepted as
an entrance subject in 44 of the 48 States, but that only one institu-
tion allows advanced credit. It was found that agriculture is now
taught in 19 per cent of the high schools of the country, and the
committee considered this a factor which might well be taken into
account in college instruction to a greater degree.
Certain funda-
mental principles of ag6culture, it pointed out, might be taught as
effectively in the high schools as in the freshman class, or even better
if the college instruction is delegated to fellows and assistants of
limited years and experience.
Some obstacles, however, were recognized to the acceptance of
high-school agriculture, especially the wide variation in the grade of
work accomplished.
Care is needed in the selection of textbooks
and apparatus and the outlining of courses, and it was suggested
that thit colleges might here render a useful service. - In 28 States
there is no systematic supervision of high-school instruction in agri-
culture. In some States the college and the State board of educa-
tion cooperate, but it was believed that the efforts'of the colleges in
thi
field should be suggestive rather than- arbitrary, and should
scrup ously avoid the appearance of dol
atictn.
" Met, ods of improvement in teaching college agriculture " was.
irt
discussed by Dean W. W. Charters, of the school of education of the
U7ersity of Missouri. Dean Charters pointed ,out that the im-
.
308'
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
portant thing in 'education is not apparatus or buildings or equip-
ment, but the classroom intercourse of teacher and student. He be-
lieved that the present teaching of agriculture is very uneven in
quality. One difficulty is that the results of teaching are less tan-
gible than those of research and therefore easy to judge in a com-
parative way.
The code of professional ethics which bars instructors
of
ratik from the classrooms of others.also hinders improve-
ments and obscures the merits of efficient teachers.
More attention
to the fornmlation and application of pedagogical principles of agri-
cultural instruction was earnestly advocated.
It is of interest to note
that very similar views were expressed in the section on engineer-
ing as regards instruction in that subject; and that close cooperation
with schools of education was a suggested remedy.
The thirty-first annual convention of the Association of American
Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, held in Washington,
D. C., November 1.1-16, 1917. seems likely to he long remembered as
one of the most interesting and inspiring in the history of the organi-
zation.
The important service of the land-grant institutions in this country'
was attested by several speakers. Thus Secretary Houston declared
that while at the time the ccamtry entered the war the Nation was not
fully prepared for war in any respect
it was fortunately circumstanced in the character of its agricultural organi-
zation and the number nail efficiency of its expert agencies.
In fact. In OH-
dent machinery for directing Agricultural nctivity as 'represented by the land-
grpnt colleges, the Federnl Department of Agriculture. farmers' organizations,
ail its alert and patriotic rural population, It excelled any other two or three-
nations In the world combined.
"The Nation may well pride itself," he said, "on the fact that it
had had the foresight generations ago to lay deep its agricultural
foundations."
He congratulated the representath-es of the land-
grant colleges on the fine opportunity for service presented to them
and bn the splendid way in which they had seized it:
The Department-of Agriculture has had great comfort In the thought that
these institutions, ably planned and wisely directed, existed in every part of
the Nation and stood ready not only to place themselves at the ser'ice of the
National Government but also to take the initiative in a vast number of direc-
tions.
The duty of the agricultural colleges in teacher training was
pointed out by the standing committee on.instruction in agriculture
in its report on college teaching in agriculture, with particular refer-
ence to the improvement of methods. In this report the committee
expressed the view that:
Strong departments of agricultural education will be needed under the ad-
ministration of the Smith - Hughes Act in order to give the colleges of agricul-
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
809
tore the positions they should occupy In the training of teachers of agriculture.
Unless these colleges take up the teacher-training work actively at the present
time, the Dpais provided for this work under the Smith-Hughes Act are likely
in ninny States to be divided among a number of Institutions, including some
of relatively low grade and poor equipment, with the result that our whole
system for training teachers of agriculture will be fundamentally weak.
The
agricultural colleges ought to have a clear leadership in this field, and they
can not have this unless they adequately equip their departments of agricul-
tural educat ion.
The committee also urged the development of such departments as
a means of improvement of college teaching in general. It was
recognized that in the past a large proportion of college graduates
without special 'pedagogical training have done well as teachers,
but
they have succeeded in spite of the' lack of professional training, and the per-
centage and degree of successes might have been much larger if the profes-
sional training hail been provided.
No matter how well manned and equipped
the subject matter depart-M*111s of the colleges 9,$/agriculture may be, they need
the help of strong departments of agriculturareducation, not orrty in the train-
ing of undergradmites for teaching positions but also In Improving the quality
of teaching within the subject matter departments.
The 1917 convention revealed how closely the war has been
brought home to the land-grant institutions, depleting the faculty
and student body. interrupting many well-established projects, and
compelling a redirecting of their entire program and point-of view.
More strongly, however. did it indicate how largely the Nation is
relying on these institutions in the present emergency, and how im-
portant are the functions which are 'theirs to fulfill.
It put this
great body of public-service institutions, already conspicuous for a
season's successful endeavor, formally on record as enlisted for the
war, and with their full resources mobilized in the national service.
NATIONAL DAIRY SCHOOL.
The first New England meeting of the National Dairy Show was
held at Springfield, Mass., October 12-21, 1916, on the grounds of the
Eastern States Ag,rrictiltural 'and Industrial Exposition.
All previ-.
ous records for attendance, exhibits, and profits are said to hayi
been broken; Nearly 1,000 entries of.dairy stock were on exhibition
and the attendance is estimated.as averaging close to 80,000 per day.
Much prominence was given to educational features at the show.
The United States Department of Agriculture gave special atten-
tion to its extension work among boys and girl's, with several thou-
sand exhibits of their work and many demonstrations by boys and
girls illustrating methods in canning, bread making, dairying,
lection of seed corn and potatoes, gardening; treatment of plant
310
BIENNIAL SURVEY Oli EDUCATION, IC16-1918.
diseases, etc.' A working -dairy was also in operation by the de-
partment.
The intercollegiate stock judging contest was participated in by
18 institutions, many being represented for the first time.
The
highest rating for all breeds was attained by the University of Ne- .
.braska, with New Hampshire first on Ayrshires, Kansas on Guern-
seys: Massachusetts on Jerseys, and Nebraska on Holstein; Friesians,
There was also an intercollegiate butter judging contest, arranged
for the first time.
In this contest nine institutions were repre-
sented, first place being awarded to the Pennsylvaniaectillege.
41 After a lapse of three years, occasioned by the foot-and-moutb
disease situation, the Fourteenth' International Live Stock Exposition
was held at Chicago intlecember, 1916. The agricultural colleges
were again strongly in evidence, both the grand champion :11;4 the
reserve champion in the bullock section coming from the University
of California.
A new feature of the-show is to be a special exhibit each year from
some one agricultural college.
The institution selected to initiate
this practice was the University of Illinois, which depicted in minia-
ture its campus and buildings and likiewise a model farm divided
into fields supporting a profitable and soil-building rotation as well
as much other illustrative material.
At the students' stock judging contest, 16 institution's were repre-
sented, 3 for the first time.
The first place was awarded to the
team from Purdue University, second to the Iowa State College, and
third to the Ohio State University.
'Following a meeting called by the American Pomological Society,
a National Congress.of Horticulture was organized at Washington,
p. C., in November, 1916, to serve as a central clearing house of hor-
t
ticultural interests.
Active membership is- to consist of delegates
appointed by affiliate 1 horticulturWorganizations on the basis of4
membership, and it is hoped thus to enroll representatives of from
50,000 to 60,000 members.
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR TILE ADVANCEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
TEACHING.
-
The seventh annual meeting otthe American Association for the
Advancement of Agricultural l'aching was held in Washington,
D. C., November 14, 1916. Two main topics were presented for dis-
cussion, the content of the course in the col
of agriculture for
prospective high-school teachers. of agric
nd the' high-school
course in agriculture.
.-
`Under the first of these, Dean C. F. Curtiss discussed the 'relation
the sciences.
He thought that the science taught- ought to be'
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
311
applied science, which will directly connect tip with the work of the
farmer and the community ia which the teachers will serve.
As to general professional subjects, K. L. Hatch held that psy-
chology is the basis of the professional preparation, but that whether
or not there should be a course in general education is doubtful. The
student's time is s(; taken up with technical work in agriculture that
an effort shottld be made to reduce the professional preparation to the
minimum. The course in agricultural edrumtlion ought to include
the principles of general methods.
A certain amount of practice
work should be required with real students, with real classes and
conditions, and with problems teachers are going to meet. Prof.
Hatch also discussed at length the growing demand for a course in
the college known as general science or elementary science.
In dis-
cussing this paper H. W. Stinson laid stress upon the importance of
training college teachers of agriculture, if for no other reason than
Aliat the prospective teachers coming under their inlThence may
imitate good teaching.
Ci. A. Works took up "The content of the methods course for high-
school teachers of ageiculture," outlining the work given in the New
York State College of Agriculture. This course, Which is given three
,o four times a year, is open only to seniors. It runs for a term with
two discussion periods and one laboratory period 2i hours in length
each week. The class is limited to 50 and each laboratory section to
12 students. The laboratory and lecture work are closely correlated
throughout the course, and special attention is given to the selection
of material adapted to the high-school pupil and to its arrangements
in seasonal sequence. Other topics. taken_ up are the place of the
home project and the organization of study material for the recitation
lesson, the laboratory, and the field trip. A visit to a near-by high
school is made for the purpose of studying equipment, library, and
home projects, and some work is done in chart making and bulletin
collecting and cataloguing.
In a paper on "How to connect.tbe high- school work with practi-
cal farm operations," A. K. Getman suggested (1) a seasonal distri-+
bution of the topics studied, the study to coincide with the operations
on the farm; (2) provision for field and laboratory work; and (3)
the use of the home project properly planned, accounted, summarized,
and supervised.
C. IL Lane, in a paper on "The content of high-school courses in
agriculture," said that it is note merely a question of what is worth
teaching anrstudying, but what is best considering all local condi-
tions, equipment, time, teacher, community interests, adaptations, etc.
Thus, the determination of the content and arrangement of a course
in agiculture. becomes a local problem and no general solution can
312
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
be given that will apply equally well to all localities.
The following
outline of work was, however, suggested: First year, practical work
on how plants grow, soils and fertilizers, and field crops or fruits and
vegetables, the choice -depending upon local conditions as regards
available material and interest in home project work. The second
year should be given to the study of live stock.
After such general
courses the student is prepared for more special work.
In sections
where horticulture is important the third year may well be spent iti
such specialized branches of plant production as fruit growing, prac-
tical work on soils -and fertilizers, cover crops, etc., as relate to the
production of fruit, or market or vegetable gardening, and one-third
of a unit on improvement of home grounds and ornamental planting.
Similar specialized courses should be provided in districts where
one or more field crops, dairying, or sonic other special phase of ani-
mal husbandry predominates. In districts having broad interests in
agriculture the school should be equipped to offer a number of spe-
cial courses during the third and fourth years.
While the subject of
tools, implements, and machinery is necegoarily considered in con-
nection with crop production, the .subject 01 farm mechanics is
deemed sufficiently important to receive,specillattention during the
fourth year. A half unit in rural economics and farm management
should not preclude careful accounting in connection with the proj-
ects of each of the previous years nor the study of simple methods of
accounting in connection therewith.
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCINTION.
The usual attention was given at the meeting of the National Educa-
tion Association at Portland, Oreg., July 7 -14, 1917.
The general
topic considered by the National Council was "Agricultural prepared-
ness and food consevation."
W. H. Campbell, representing the
Farmers' Educational and Cooperative Union of America, presented
a paper at the section of the Department of Rural and Agricultural
Education on " The rural people a strong factor in rural education
problems," which dealt with the revision of the whole educational
system of this country from the top down and with the Imilding of a
centralized school and its development into a community center for
the people in Johnson County,,Nebr.
The speaker urged that the
universities and normal schools be pit on a full year, four-quarter
plan, and have a department that will receive mature students who
have completed the rural school.
These universities and normal
schogls will then be in position to release students for winter va-
cations for the purpose of teaching short winter terms an the
country. These termEishould include a course strong in agriculture
And domestic science, farm accounting, manual training, and math
matics.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
813
In art illustrated address on "Results achieved in secondary agri-
culture and methods pursued in actual practice," H. N. Goddard of
the Department of Education of Madison. Wis., indicated the prog-
ress in the development of secondary agricultural instruction.
He
.
stated that two viewpoints have developed in relation to the work,
the informational or cultural and the vocational.
The latter has
gained in relative importance while the informational idea lacks suf-
ficient motive and.fails to give vocational training.
,
In the opinion of the speaker the school plat is a valuable school
project and is desirable wherever it can lie made certain that it can
be well cared for during the sunimer vacation.
The school farm of
large size offers many ditliculties and should not usually be under-
taken in high-school departments..
Anevg successful school or
group projects, aside from the school plat, are steer fattening, keep-
ing dairy cows, cow testing, poultry work. shopork. and construc-
t.,
tion of till kinds of farm -buildings.
The school plat , ould. be used
for crop production demonstrations. illustrative maters
and out-of-
door experiments.
Home or individual projects, regarded as the
more fundamental, have included practically every phase of farm
practice that can be.carried out on the home farm or garden.
Ex-
hibits and contests have been very commonly developed in connec-
tion with the projects.
Most important of all is the
-inual school
fair held in most high-school departments. where the productive re-
sults are rounded up in direct connection with the school community.
A large amount of extension work has been carried on. X large
general result of till the work lipS been evident in greater interest
and intelligence in the best farm practice and in rural life. A large
per cent of the boys and girls in these courses are actually going hack
to the farms with minds awakened anl trained for enthusiastic and
efficient work. Many city boys have also been directed to the farm
for their future occupation.
It is the unanimous opinion of this department of the-association
that the time' haS fully arrived for the establishment of special
normal schools whose sole function is the study of industtial, social,
and educational'rural problems, and the training of teachers who are
able to cope with these problems.
-
.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN
OTHER COUNTRIES.
KERMA.
A fifth school of agriculture has been erected at Glen, in the
Orange Free State, the opening of which has been postponed because
of the financial stringency created by the war.
It has a farm of
4.000 acres, acquired at a cost of $97,200, and school and farm build-
ings erected at a cost of $194,400.
4t.
814
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The schools which are located at Elsenburg. Middelburg, Cedara.,
and Potchefstroom, and the new school at Glen, are located on large,
well-stocked: and well-equipped farms, and offer the following
courses: A one-year certificate course including theoretical and prac-
tical instruction in agriculture and 'live stock, farm economics and
bookkeeping, agricultural engineering, veterinary science, poultry
husbandry, horticulture, Viticulture (at Elsenburg), and dpirying;
a two-year,diploma course, including, in addition to' the preceding
subjects, agricultural chemistry and geology, agricultural botany
and bacteriology, and agricultural zoology and entomology; a three-
year advanced diploma course; a special course in dairying at the
Grootfontein school at Middelburg, followed by practical work in a
factory dairy ; a two-week short winter course open allo to Women.
At the request of the university council of the Cape of Good. Hope.
courses have been prepared and submitted for the third and &fourth
years at the agricultural schools for the degree of B. S. in agriculture.
BRITISH ISLANDS.
In 1918 the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, dealing with the
agricultural education work of the various institutions and local
authorities in England and Wales, decided as a measure of war econ-
omy, to suspend the grants to the Harris Institute, Preston, and to
the Royal Horticultural Society's School at Wisley. The Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester, and the Agricultural Coflege, lick -
field, Sussex, were closed in the summer of 1915, owing mainly to
the serious decrease 'in attendance.
All of the institutions have
suffered as a result of the vt'ar.
The new buildings at the Armstrong
College, Newcastle, have been wholly utilized as a hospital since the
beginning of the war, and rooms in the School of Agriculture, Cam-
bridge, and sin Wye College, were occupied for a time for military
purposes. The Royal Veterinary College, London. is the only insti-
tution whose activities have not seriously diminished.
To encourage
cheese making instead of butter making, with a view both of con-
serving the food supply and the economical utilization of surplus
milk, the board developed a scheme of establishing traveling cheese
schools, under which it loaned sets of apparatus to local authorities
who agreed to make new and additional provisiop for itinerant in-
.struction in this subject. Nineteen authorities availed themselves of
this offer, and 33 new schools were created in addition to 5 previously
in existence.
4
kreport in 1916 on the question of education in its relation to agri-
culture, with special reference to the problem of how to increase the
annual output of skilled cultivators of and workers on the land, by
the education committee of the Central and Associated Chambers of
Agriculture of Great Britain shows that 50 years ago the number of
men working on the land in the United Kingdom was greater by
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1918.-1918.
815
1,000,000 than it is to-day and to the concurrent steady decline in the
production of the land. The committee recommends that the instruc-
tion of the eleMentary schools be made more practical and more truly
based upon surrounding life; that new schools of the following types
be created: (1) Centralized continuation day schools of the type ex-
isting in Canada, (2) the creation of a system of lower-grade instruc-
tion centers with courses that would review, complement, and give a
more directly vocational bearing to the practical work already done
in the schools for boys and girls, (3) a new type of.farm school for
boys and girls between 13 and 18 years of age to contihue the in-
struction from the elementary school and definitely prepare them for
settling on the land either in the United Kingdom or in the British
'Dominions, and (4) farm lads' clubs; that definite measures should
be taken to interest the children in town schools in country life and
to induce more poor law children to become interested in the cultiva-
tion of the land; that as far as possible all reformatories and indus-
trial schools should have farms attached and the pupils be more di-
rectly encouraged to study agriculture; that continuation instruction
should be comptilsory; and the development of training to enable
country children to enter the teaching profession.
Plans are under consideration for the establishment by the Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Board of Development Com-
missioners of Great Britain of a research institute for problems re-
lating to agricultural machinery at Cambridge University in eon-
cection with the existing schools of agriculture and engineering.
A movet# is on foot to raise kfund of $750,000 for the erection
of new science buildings at the University College of North Wales
" as a memorial to the men of North Wales who have fallen/ in the
war." A gift of $100,000 has already been secured.
It is announced
that special prominence is to be given in the new buildings to agri-
culture and forestry.
The Southeastern Agricultural College at Wye, England, has or-
ganized a research and advisory department distinct from the teach-
ing side of the college and governed by a separate representative anti-
mittee, composed in part of research workers at the institution and
in part of other scientific men. Some of the work in progress and in
contemplation includes problems connected with the general prac-
tice of fruit growing, the biologieil study of flax, the conservation
of fruits and vegetables, 'pasture studies, diseases of . sheep, hop
breeding, and fungus diseases and insect pests and their treatment
by spraying.
The tropical school of agriculture which was opened at Peradelliya,
Ceylon, January 15, 1916, received 77 students durhig its first year
of operation. Each student had to cultivate one-sixteenth acre and
grow three crops on it, a pulse, a grain, and a vegetable, conducting
816
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
all the operations himself. The average age of the students was 21
years. The school staff consisted of a registrar and four agricul-
tural teachers who held the diploma of the Pooma Agricultural
College and who carried out the ground work in all subjects.
Ceylon
had a total of 327 school gardens in 1916, an increase of 40 over the
previous year.
Government grants were received by over 160 schools
for school-garden work.
CANADA.
In the four years that the agricultural instruction act has been
in operation it has contributed a total of $3.400.000 to the Provinces.
With the year 1917-18 the grants reach their maximum of $1,100,000
'a year to continue until the completion of the act on March 31, 1923.
In the Province of Prince Edward Island, $2,500 is set aside for
bonuses to teachers who give instruction in nature study and agri-
culture.
Teachers especially trained in two sessions of the summer
school receive $7 for the first half year and $5 for the second ; those
especially trained in one seion of the summer school receive $6 and
$4; and those who have not attended summer school but are doing
creditable work receive $5 and $3. The requirements for grants in-
clude: (1) Systematic instruction in rural science in the school every
week throughout the term; (2) a written report on the provided
form to the department of education at the
the term show-
ing the instruction that has been given ; (3) pupils' records of the
work systematically kept in special rural science no books; and (4)
supervised projects or gardens at the pupils' h
Or a well-kept
school garden in which there are some valuable
onstrations and
ex
rim
is with vegetribles or field crops, or with both, as well as
eta
e flower beds and borders. A school garden neglected in the
summer holidays will disqualify for part or all of the bonus.
In 1916 the provincial ministry of agriculture of British Colum-
bia, which until then had always been united with some other min-
istry, was made a separate and distinct department.
Agricultural instruction has recently been iintroduced into the
high schools of British Columbia in a systematic way. The first
class in the Province was organized in September, 1915, and was
followed by similar instruction in foir other high schobls in Sep-
tember, 1916.
The instruction is being given by agricultural spe-
cialists, and is attended by a total of about 130 boys and girls. A
two-year course has been outlined for these schools.
Equipment costing about $400 is available in each school, with
from one-half to one acre of land for experimental and demonstra-
tion plats. The salary of the instructor is paid by the provincial de-
partment of education, and the remaining expenses by the local
authorities.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
317
The Alberta Department of Agriculture began extension work in
agriculture last spring with
strict agents in the field at various
points in the Prpvince.
The
.nister of education is cooperating
to the extent of making the time of the classes in school available
to the agents for the carrying on
f the work in cooperation with
the teacher and inspector. The plan s to have the pupils take actual
part in the growing of garden crops, the raising of chicken's, and the
feeding and management of young stuck on their own farms.
Initial
group instruction in the laying out. planning, and general cultiva-
tion of the home garden is given in the schools, where leaflets and
bulletins, seeds, and a limited number of eggs are distributed. Com-
petitions in caring for stock are carried on and the season's pro-
gram culminates in a fall fair held in conjunction with the district
fair or at the most convenient school or village center. The work
is being conducted in five centers and about 100 schools are taking
part in it.
In a special effort to populate and bring under cultivation large
areas in northern Ontario, an agricultural high school and demon-
stration farms at New Liskeard, a government -creamery at the same
place, a 50-acre demonstration field near Matheson, and a plant
breeding station_at Fort William are to be established.
Plans are also under way for the necessary buildings and equip-
ment for a new agricultural school to be established, through the
Ontario Department of Agriculture, near Kemptville in eastern On-
tario. It is intended to give useful and practical instruction in agri-
culture to young men between the ages of 16 and 25 who have left
school.
It is not proposed to duplicate anything already being done
in the Province unless to some extent the first two years of the course
at the Ontario Agricultural College. The regular course will not be
longer than two years and there may also be a number of short
course*
Special provision Inis been made in Ontario for furnishing home-
steads to returning soldiers.
These soldiers will first be sent to an
agricultural training depot being established at the Government ex-
'perimental farm at Monteith, where they will receive instruction.
When a sufficient number have been trained, a farm colony *ill be
opened at some point along the railway in charge of a competent
superintendent. Farms containing not over 80 acres will be laid out
and so planned as to Wing the various farm houses as closely together
as possible. A 10-acre tract will be cleared on each farm, and when
this is completed the farm may be allotted free of charge to a soldier.
He may also receive machinery, live stock, etc., to the value of $500,
this being reimbursable within.20 years.
The final title to the land
will be given after five years. The community system will be fol-
818-
BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
lowed in supplying horses, other stock, and implements, and coopera-
tive methods of buying and selling will be used.
Other plans for placing soldiers on the land are also under con-
sideration.
The chief of the Military Convalescent home of Sans Bruit,
Quebec, )ms made arrangements for teaching agriculture to conva-
lescent soldiers, the courses being in charge of a district agricultural
representative.
Instruction has been given in practical work in
drainage surveys and rotations on the hospital farm, ;:ommercial
poultry keeping, market gardening, and, beekeeping. Some of the
convalescents have
Iso helped in field husbandry, soil preparation,
harvesting, etc.
What are known a the royal agricultural schools, incorporated by
the legislature of Qu iec, are designed to give instruction to the sons
of soldiers. These sc
ols and farms are situated in the township of
Howard, Argenteuil County, and are open to the sons of all soldiers
who have taken part in the war.
The property of the schools
consists of 3,468 acres, with a large residential building to accommo-
date 25 boys, a residence for teachers, and a number of cottages for
workmen. The parents of the boys will be under no expense for their
sons while they are at the schools, and when of sufficient age the boys
will be assisted in making a start for themselves.
.
CHINA.
Considerable attention is now devoted in China to agricultural
education and experimentation in various classes of institutions.' An
experiment station was located at Peking in 1907, under the control of
the boird of agriculture, industry, and commerce. An experimental
tract of nearly 300 acres is available, and departments of crops, soils,
animal husbandry, horticulture, floriculture, entomology, botany, for-
estry, bacteriology, and biology have been put in operation.
In 1907
an agricultural college was organized in connection with the sta-
tion, but this was disbanded in 1915.
Subsequently an agricultural college and experiment station was
established at the capital of each Province along much the same lines
as at' Peking, and many other stations in additions. There are now
reported to be 130 stations in the 22 Provinces, of which 31 are in
Chihli, 25 in .Szechwan, 15 in Hu-Long-Kiang, 7 in Hupeh, and 7 in
Kwangtung.
Among these are two cotton-experiment stations. one at Cheng
Ting Hsien, Chihli, and one at Nan T'ung Chou. Kiangsu, with a
third under consideration at Tung Haing Chou, Hupeh.
Experi-
ments are being conducted at these stations in seed selection, seed
distribution, plant harvesting. soils and manures, treatment of pests,
and cotton weaving. A corpesbf students is also being trained at
dress stations.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
319
Stock-raising experiment stations have been established at Kalgan
and Shih Men Shan, Anhui. These are expected to study -the im-
provement of breeds of domestic animals, promote the breeding and
sale of stock and stock raising enterprisel, and the cultivation of
forage crops.
Considerable attention is also being devoted to forestry in China.
A department of forestry Nts organized in January. 1916, with a
forestry commissioner is4ach province.
Forestry-experiment sta-
tions and training schools have been established at Ch'ang Ch'in
Hsien, Shantung. and in th6 Temple of Heaven at Peking.
The university at Nanking has maintained a college of ,agriculture
and a school of forestry 44everal years.
This is an American-
supported institution, and iir1915 had enrolled about 70 students in
agriculture.
A colonization association has been organized under
its auspices, with pitovision for the reservation of about 35 acres in
each colony for a model farm.. A tract already purchased on Purple
Mountain, just outside Nanking, is to be used as an experiment sta-
tion in connection with the different colonies.
An agricultural experiment station was opened at NanksuChou,
Anhwei, iii 1915, as a part of the American Presbyterian mission sta-
tion. Agricultural work was taken up at this institution partly as a
practical way to teach Christianity, partlyto make friends, and partly
to improve economic conditions. The station is located on the.railway
between .Nanicing and Tientsin, and attempts to serve an area of
about 6,000 square miles and from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 people. The
farming methods in nse are those of from one to two thousand years
ago.
Special prcninence is being given in the experimental work
to seed selection, better tillage methods, more and better krtilization,
drainage, and animal husbandry. The Rork is to -be largely of a
demonstration nature during the present pioneer stage, and will also
include an agricultural school, a school farm,and short winter
courses for farmers.
LATIN AMERICA.
According to the Bulletin of the Pan American Union a practi-
cal school of agriculture has been opened at Aconcagua, in Chile,
and steps have been taken to found an agricultural school for women
in the Province of Aconcagua.
The agricultural school at .Challapatrb Bolivia, for the instruction
of the natives has been moved to Rosario Plantation, near the town
of Challapata7 and enlarged.
A recent executive decree in Colombia provides for the establish-
ment of a tropical agricultural station annexed to the nationalinsti-
tute of agronomy in the municipality of San Lorenzo, Department of
Tolima.
General instruction is expected to be-given in .various
branches of agriculture and allied sciences, including veterinary.
science, and courses will also be arranged fo etndenta who desire to
320
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
specialize along certain lines.
Particular attention will he paid to
teaching students how to di,tinguish benehcial from injurious insects
met with in practical agriculture.
The government of the Depart-
ment of Antioquia has taken preliminary steps to establish a labora-
tory for the manufacture of vaccine to be used by stockmen in the
prevention of murrain and similar diseases of cattle. A recent execu-
tive decree places the national meteorological service, established in
1917, under the department of public instruction.
The school of agricultural mechanics at Bahia Blanca. Argentina,
which admits pupils of not less than 17 years of age, had an attend-
ance of 32 in 1910. The shops of the school have been equipped with
new machinery.
The Department. of Agriculture of the Dominican' Republic has
provided a traveling agricultural instructor to reconpt nd measures
for obtaining more abundant yields of staple crops.
An agricul-
tural school was recently organized at Charpentier, Haiti.
An- agricultural experimnt station of the coeducational schools of
Amatitlan, Guatemala, recently began operations, the equipment
having been donated by a philanthropic citizen of the community..
In Mexico a school of agriculture was opened in Hermosillo, the
capital of the State of Sonora, in March, 1917, under the direction of
the governor of that Commonwealth. In the same month a national
forestry school was inaugurated at Coyoacan, a suburb of the City of
Mexico.
The agricultural experiment stations in the States of
Vera Cruz, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Oaxaca, and Tabasco have been
supplied with modern machinery and appliances, as well as improved
seeds, and instruction by experts will be given to farmers in these
States. A. publication entitled Rivista Agricola has been founded
in the national capital.
An agricultural school has been established in the Department of
Leon, Nicaragua, with Manuel Godoy as president. The Government
has also formulated a plan for a course of instruction in the new
national school of agriculture, according to which there will be a
section for. the instruction of laborers or farm hands, a section for.
agriculturists or farmers, and a section for agronomists or agri-
cultural engineers.
The governor of each Province is to select by
competitive contests two boys who have passed the fourth grade of
primary instrueflon and are over 13 years of age for entrance into
this school at the expense of the State. A school for boys not over
16 years of ago who have studied agronomy for at least a year was
Vend recently at Chinandega City, with an appropriation of $5,000
for its installation.
It is equipped with up-to-date machinery and
implements necessary for the proper cultivation of cereals and other
crops, tind makes a specialty of teaching its pupils the practical use
and advantages of machinery in agricIdturaf operations.
.11111111111111i1111=1100...amma-
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
821
The Government of Uruguay has granted 10 scholarships in its
agricultural school to young Paraguayans who (A. dre to continue
their studies in Uruguay.
An executive decree in Uruguay places its agrom, .dc stations
under the immediate supervision and control of the De; irtment of
Fomento. At the suggestion of the park commission of Montevideo,
n ,chool for gardeners has been established in the national capital
ler the purpose of supplying special skilled labor of thiS kind.
School and Society announces that a Pan-American university has
been established in the Republic of Panama.
The trustees are to
consist of the Secretary of Public Instruction of Panama and the
diplomatic representatives of the American Republics or their dele-
gates, together with similar representatives of other nations which
may maintain chairs in the university. It is hoped that the institu-
tion may be of international value, especially along the lines of
medicine, law, and agriculture.
In Venezuela, a presidential decree of March 12, 1917, creates an
experimental station of agriculture and forestry, with an acclimati-
zation garden, to be located near Caracas. and intended to serve as
a model for other such stations to he established in other parts of
the Republic.
The objects of the station are the improvement of the
methods of cultivation of the principal agricultural products of the
country; the introduction, selection, and distribution of seeds; ex-
periments in reforestation; the suitability of soils to crops and of
crops to the various regions; and-practical work for the training of
agricultural foremen and forest rangers.
The Council of Public Instruction of Ecuador has arranged to
establish an agricultural class connected with the faculty of science
of Central University at Quito. The professor in charge' of this
course is also to edit an official bulletin to encourage the study of
agriculture.
PHILIPPINE ISLAND'S.
Beginning with the school year 1917-18, all schools where a course
in farming is given are to be in session throughout the year. This is
not entirely a new venture, as for several years all settlement farm
schools and most agricultural schools have been in continuous session,.
and notwithstanding the younger pupils enrolled in them, these
schools have-maintained the best farms.
The- calendar year has been divided into 42 weeks of classroom
-Work, 4 weeks of special field practite, 4 weeks of vacation, and 1
ssetsk each for examinations and an annual cleaning up.
Each pupil
enrolled will be given a vacation of 4 weeks at the time in the year
that the farm activities can best spare his services.
All teachers as-
signed to farm schools are required, to render service throughout the
171029°-21Bull. 88-21
322
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
school year, except that short vacations may be given when their
services can be spared.
It is believed that students should be detailed to definite projects
and thereby become factors in a productive enterprise.
Each pupil
is expected to do field work for not less than 4 consecutive periods
060 minutes) each day for 5 days a week, and daily field work up
to 3.5 hours may be required at. the option of the principal.
Each
pupil is required to perform at least 3 hours of field work on every
other Saturday forenoon.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
During the past two years extension education through specialists:
has become prominent, both at the State agricultural colleg& and in
the :Department of Agriculture.
Both at th
State agricultural
college and in the Department of Agriculture are specialists in vari-
ous branches of agriculture who aid county agents in their work,
and also give direct instruction to farmers in counties where there
are no county agents. A specialist is.generally an extension agent
who has a very thorough knov/ledge of some particular line of work
and who is efficient in presenting his subject to the- county agents
and the farmers. He may be differentiated from the county agent in
that the county agent has to cover in a more or less thorough way the
entire field of agriculture, whereas the specialist's field of work is
generally limited to a narrow field, such as dairying, horticulture.
poultry, etc.
The principal lines of extensions work of this character being con-
ducted in the Department of Agriculture are hog-cholera work, pig
and poultry clubs, dairying, and animal husbandry, through the Bu-
reau of Animal Industry. All of this work is conducted in coopera-
tion with the agricultural colleges hi the several States under project
agreements mutually entered into as a part of the general system of
cooperation under the general memorandum of understanding be-
tween the Secretary of Agriculture and the colleges of agriculture.
In hog-cholera work veterinary field agents have been appointed
to cooper.ate with county agents and demonstrate to them and to
local veterinarians and farmers the prevention of- loss from hog
cholera and of the spread of the disease from herd to herd by the use
of the serum treatment and proper 'quarantine and sanitation of
premises.
In the dairy-extension work specialists are appointed to conduct
work in the various .States through county agents and otherwise by
organizi.pg cow-testing associations, bull associations, teaching the
keeping of herd records, planning the construction of silo's, the re-
modeling of dairy barns, milk houses, and other dairy buildings,
establjshing feeding demonstrations, management of herds, and other
special dairy - farm problems.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 19113-1918,
323
In soils, forestry, plant pathology, marketing and rural organiza-
tion, etc., specialists are also employed to carry on extension work.
In addition tb the fund provided for the regular cooperative agri-
cultural extension work, Congress passed in 1917 the food-production
act., which includes an item of $4,348,400 for increasing food,produc-
tion, eliminating waste, and promoting conservation -if food, by edu-
cational and demonstrational methods through counties, districts,
and urban agents, and others. Under the provision of this net over
1.60 emergency demonstration agents have been employed, and for
the first time agents have been designated to take up work in the
larger Urban centers.
The enrollment in the South in boys' and girls' agricultural clubs
increased in 1917 find now approximates 100,000 in the regular clubs.
In addition to the regular enrollment, approximately 20,000 were en-
rolled to assist in meeting the emergency incidental to the war. A
large number were enrolled in wheat clubs for 1918, wheat, rye,
.
and oat clubs being organized wherever the growing of these crops
was thOught to be practicable.
Farm mikers' clubs for negro children were organized during 1917
in several States. Much work has been done every ye;Ir in these
clubs among the negroes, but it was systematized as a separate pro-
ject in 1916.
Pig and poultry clubs promoted in cooperation with the animal
husbandry division of the Bureau of Animal Industry are very popu-
lar.
Poultry clubs which consist largely of school pupils are usually
organized in the schools through the direction of the county agents,
the teachers serving as local leaders or supervisors of the work.
Officers, including .a president, vice president, and secretary are
elected, meetings geld as regularly as possible, and the work carried
on in an educational Id businesslike 'manner:" The Stare poultry
club agents or poultry specialists working under the supervision of
the Animal Husbandry Division, Department of Agriculture, and
the director of extension at the State agricultural college, visit these
schools and deliVer lectures on various subjects as well as give actual
demonstrations on selecting, culling, killing, and dressing for mar-
ket, and other phases of poultry work.
For the fiscal year eliding November 1. 1917, 8 States, comprising
281 counties, were carrying on the work, representing 1,010 clubs
and 13,664 members. Club members furnishing reports hatched,
during 1917, 98,272. chicks and raised 80,310 mature fowls.
They
.
sold $17,908.25 'worth of poultry and eggs for mauket and breeding
purposes and the total value of their receipts, stock on hand, and
prizes won amounted to $41,312.42.
In addition to other school work,
these poultry club members are becoming proficient in the selection
and judging of standard-bred;voultry, and also demonstrating their
ability to carry on various phases of poultry work, such as Operating
324
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
incubators, preserving eggs, caponizing cockerels, killing and dress-
ing fowls for market, etc.
Boys' and girls' pig clubs are also quite closely interwoven with
the rural-school system. The pig clubs are usually Organized around
a school or community as a unit. The rural teachers are recognizing
the value of pig clubs as a vitalizing factor in school work and are
heartily supporting it.
Many rural teachers are acting as local
leaders, and swine extension workers visit the schools and give lec-
tures, demonstrations, etc., on swine work.
The school pig Is one phase of the pig club work in which the
rural school is especially prominent. A great many rural schools
have raised a pig on the school grounds, the pig usually being fed on
the scraps from the children's dinner pails.
The progress made in boys' and .girls' pig club work has been quite
satisfactory' During the past year 35,980 members completed their
pig club work, and there are now more than 100,000 boys and girls
enrolled for this season's work. The average profit of the members
fattening a pig was $11.38, and that of the members raising a sow
an
litter was $72.84. Seventy-one per cent of the menders raising
breeding stock had pure-bred animals. Pig club work is now carried
on in 28 States.
During the year ending June 30, 1917, there were in the '33 North-
ern and Western States 1,124 paid leaders working in connection
with the boys' and girls' club work.
In addition to the paid leaders
there were 9,748 volunteer club leaders.
Two hundred and forty
club leaders were paid cooperatively by the State and the United
States Department of Agriculture, 133 by the State agricultural col-
lege and the local people, 18 by the college only, and 733 by the local
people.
During the year ending June 30, 1917, there were in the 33 North-
ern and Western States a total enrollment of 406.633 members of
regularly organized clubs.
In addition to this about 400,000 boys
and girls were enrolled in the war-emergency projectsgrowing gar-
dens, canning food products, raising poultry, making war bread,
and doing other things of a special character.
During the period from December liti946, to April 1, 1917, 3,589
club members in the Nottlern and Western States attendedtt he one or
two weeks' short courses at the State agricultural colleges; 1,528 df
these were champions'of their respective counties in the boys' and
girls' club work and were sent by the local people free of expense to
attend the courses..
The division for agricultural instruction of the States Relations
Service continued its project which had to do with the study or the
methods of organization and administration of instruction in agri-
culture in public schools, the training of teachers for this work
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
326
and the relationship of different agencieS in promoting such instruc-
tion. Under this second project four additional conferences dealing
with the problem of teacher training in land-grant colleges (making
seven in all) have been held. The aim of these conferences held both
in the Nokh and the South was to work out a tentative course which
may be taken as a guide for training teachers in agriculture and to
cooperate the various forces and agencies which would promote Agri-.
cultural education.
This divison has continued its work .in the Preparation of courses
of study for teachers of elementary agriculture in cooperation with
State agricultural colleges, experiment stations, and State depart-
ments of education.
Bulletins have been prepared and published for
the schools of Virginia and Ohio.
Similar courses have been pre-
pared for Vermont.
In addition to these bulletins others have/ been
issued dealing with the elementary school courses in agriculture;
among the recent ones are Lessons on Tomatoes for Rural Schools,
Lessons in Poultry for Rural Schools, Lessons on Pork Production
for Rural Schools, Lessons in Dairying for Rural Schools.
The publication of lie Agricultural Education Monthly has be
discontinued and in it place have been issued a series of docu
nts
dealing with various phases of secondary instruction in agr
dture.
A series of leaflets on how teachers may use Farmer.'
ulletins
have been prepared. Twenty-one in all have beeen prep
ed, of which.
18 have been published.
The beginning of the administration of, the S
-Hughes act has
brought demands' for a large amount of servic
which has not been
in printed or multigraphed form.
A memorandum of cooperation
between the Federal Board for' ocational Education, the Bureau of
Education of the Department of the Interior; and this bureau con-
templates a series of investigations under the Smith-Hughes Act, a
part of which shall be conducted by the division of agricultural in-
struction.
The committee representing this cooperative work has
already begun the plans for such studies.
A. bulletin on the home
project as a phase of vocational agriculture has been prepared by
this division at the request of the Federal Board for Vocational
Education and submitted to the board for-publication.
This division has made an extensive study of -the problems of
visual instruction in agricultural education and hasocompleted a
series of lantern-slide lecture sets dealing with various phases of
agricultural education. Among those more recently added to the list
are HOW to Teach Poultry Lessons in Elementary Schools,. Lessons
on Tomatoes for Rural Schools, and Teaching Garden Practice.
Plans have been developed by means of which illustrative inaterial
of various hypes may be made more available to schools in the sev-
eral States, especially to help State officers prepare duplicates of our
.material.
326
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
/
The literature on.agricultural .education has been reviewed and ab-
stracted by this office.
Card indexe. of the world's literature of
agricultural educatidn, as well as American and foreign institutions
for agricultural education and home economics, were maintained by
the division.
THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES.
The declaration of a state of war in April, 1917, profound! af-
fected our system of higher education in agriculture almost imme-
diately.
Attendance, which in most lurid -grant colleges had been
steadily rising from year to year was suddenly depleted as the call
came for one form or another of national service.
Some institutions
closed their doors early in May and in others the work went, on tinder
greatly changed conditions.
In response to an inquiry from the Secretary of the Interior as to
the duty of the land-grant colleges and technical schools. during the
war, the situation was admirably stated by President Wilson in a
letter of July 20, 1917,as- follows:
The question which you have brought to my attention Is doe of the very
greatest moment.
It would! as you suggest, seriously impair Amerin's pros-
pects of (access in this war if the supply of highly trained men were pnneees-
sartly diminished. There will be need fora larger number of persons expert In
the various fields. of applied science than ever before.
Such persons will be
needed both during the war and after its close.
I therefore have no hesitation
In urging colleges and technical 'schools to endeavor to maintain their courses
as far as possible on the usual basis.
There will he many young men from
these institutions who will serve in the armed forces of the country.
Those
who fall below the age of selective-conscription and who do not enlist may feel
that by pursuing their courses, with earnestness and diligence they also are
preparing themselves for valuable service to the Nation.
r would particularly
urge upon the young people who are leaving our high schools that as many of
them as can do so avail themselves this yeig of the opportunities offered by the
colleges and technical schools, to the end that the country may not lack an
adeqrate supply of trained men and women.
It will be noted that in this statement particular stress is laid
upon the need for men trained in *pplied science.
In this group
Will be included, of course, the graduates of the agricultural colleges.
In view of the important and unique functions which these institu-
tions have to fulfill, and the realization that in some ways the condi-
tions regarding their prospective attendance differed from those in
other institutions, it was deemed of general interest to ascertain,
after their reopening in the fall of 1917, how they had fared as re-
gards enrollment. A general survey of the existing situation showed
that the average decrease for the institutions reporting was slightly
over 30 per cent and in numerous cases exceede .50 per rent.
Some
sectional variation was noticeable,. several
theastern colleges
maintaining their :previous registration and of ers falling only
,
.
.
AGIIICULTURALEDUCATION, 1910-1918.
327
slightly below it, whije losses were excelitionally heavY in the South-
west and in the Middle West.
On the other hand, the average decrease in mechanic arts was
approximately only 3.3 per cent and did not exceed 36 per cent for
any institution.-
Analysis of the registration by classes in the agricultural colleges
revealed heavy losses- at every stage.
As would be expected, the
senior class was largely effected, decreases from 40 to 60 per cent
being not uncommon.
.
The depletion of the junior and sophomore ranks_was found to be
somewhat smaller inmost institutions.
The entering classes, however, present a special problem for con-
sideration.
Before the war steadily increasing numbers of freshmen,
in many cases taxing the capacity of the college, had been the Jule,
but in the fall of 1917, 36 institutions reported losses ranging from
8 to 60 per cent. The Texas College reported an increase of over 12
per cent, resulting in the largest class in its history, and four others
showed smaller gains. but the average for the entire group was a
loss'of about 25 per cent.
Expressed not in percentages, but in actual numbers, the data are
even more striking.
For the institutions available the fresnmen.ag-
gipgated in 1916, 4,630, and in 1917 only 3,463:
This means a de-
crease of 1,167 freshmen students in agriculture in the 41 States
reporting this item.
Another problem before the land-grant colleges tdday is the
provision of special courses to meet the emergency needs.
Thus, as
regards the training of teachers, at the outbreak of the war there
were upwards of 1,000 college trained young men teacjling agri-
culture in schools below college grade, the number has now been
seriously depleted, while the development of work under-the Smith-
Hughes Act alone has created a demand for several lit,ndred addi-
tional instructors with such training. It is suggested that the col-
leges can do much to " prevent the serious lowering of standards by
increasing their facilities for training undergraduates for the teach-
ing profession, by conducting emergency courses for teachers now
,t
in service. and by the intensive training along agricultural lines of.
college graduates-in arts and science courses."
Emergerey short courses in agriculture have already been offered
by a number of institutions and their Jurther development seems
logical.
.
The committee on instruction in agrieult6e of the Association of
American Agricultural College-stand Expdriment Stations was of
the opinion that not within a decade " has there been a time so favor:
able for giving serious attention to measures for improving the
328
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
quality of teaching in the colleges themselves as the present war emer-
gency affords. ",
If the reduction in enrollment of agricultural students by nearly
one-third seems discouraging, it is'well to reflect that in England
wholesale losses of facultieSmind students have occurred, that several
institutions have closed their doors, and that others h ve been very
seriously restricted in their operations. In our own cou
v no such
developments are expected and often the enrollment is far
excess
of.that of a few vehrs'ago, When the importance of trainee
gri-
cultural leadership becomes thoroughly realized, particularly in its
relations to the existing emergency. there need be little doubt that
the agricultural colleges, as the training ground for such leadership,
will receive and retain the full support in every direction which they
will need for this vital service.
Bun..oi NOS,
The new Hilgard Hall at the University of California is an elab-
orate four-story structure. of reinforced concrete, GO by 300 feet, cost-
ing with equipment about $370,000, and constituting the second of the
three buildings which will complete the agricultural quadrangle.
It will serve-as the headquarters of the college of agriculture,.bous-
ing the departments of agronomy, citriculture, forestry, genetics,
pomology, soil technology, and viticulture.
The new animal-husbandry laboratory at the Iowa State Agricul-
tural College has been completed. It is a one-story building 74 by 112
feet, costing about $50,000.
It has been de7vised especially for work
in connection with the slaughtering, dressing, cutting, and curing of
meats. The basement contains a 10-ton refrigerating plant, coolers,
a smokehouse, refining, sausage, lard, and other. by-product rooms,
offices, etc. The main floor can be divided into three distinct rooms,
or used as a whole for demonstration work.
The new beef-cattle barn at the University of Minnesota, to re-
place the structure burned, is practically completed.
It is.60 by 120
feet with a wing 36 by 120 feet. The portion to be.used as a stable
is-built of, hollow tiles with reinforced concrete. Two hollow-tile
silos adjoin the stable, and the wing contains a laboratory for class
work and demonstration. The total cost is about $25,000.
A two-story institute hall has been completed at the Duluth tub-
station. The first floor contains an auditorium and office space, and
the second dormitory accommodations, a kitchen, and a dining room.
The new equipment will make possible the holding of community
gatherings at the substation, as well as affoerd a meeting place for
various farin organizations of northeastern Minnesota.
Wolf Hall, the new $280,000 building at Delaware College, will
.,house all the 'activities of the agricultural department and tem-
, porwrily the college departments of chemistry and biology.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
39\.
Plans have been approved by the building committee for the new
agricultural building at the Maryland Stale Agricultural College.
The legislature has appropriated $175,000 for the construction of this
building, which will be a three-story and basement structure with a
w
front wing 200 by 68 feet connected with an inclosed bridge with an
auditorium seating about 1,000 people and this in turn connected
with a rear wing with the same tlimensiobs as the front
A plant for the curing and drying of meat is to be erected on the
New Jersey State Agricultural College farm. The structure will
consist of two fireproof and two waterproof compfirlinentsi one to
be used for the slaughtering of animals and the other for the curing
and storing of meat. 'There will also be a small compartment for
smoking meats.
This plant will provide facilities for instructing
students in the long and short courses in agriculture in borne butcher-
ing, which will be given due attention as a part of the campaign for
the conservation of foodstuffs.
Substantial progress is being made .in the construction of a new
$100,000 administration building, auditorium, and museum at the
New York State College of Agriculture.
The Oklahoma Agricultural Coffege and station has recently com-
pleted a modern two-story grain 'storage house. The upper story
will be used for laboratory work in plant breeding, seed selection,
etc. The lower floor has six rooms, three of them designed for storage
rooms for small grain! and equipped with special appliances for
fumigation, and the remainder are designed for a general receiving
and work room, a machine room for the graders) ginners, etc., and a
general storage room, respectively.
APPROPRIATIT$N8.
A State appropriation in Alabama of $100 per annum for the
years 1915-1918, inclu. sive, is now available for- each county that raises
a similar'surn to be used for 'Prizes, premiums,4fid other phases of
boys' and girls' club work.
These funds are spent under the joint
supervision of the State board of agriculture and the county author-
ities under plans and rules submittbd by the professor of school agri-
culture of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute.
The Arkansas Legislature for 1917 appropriated $481,000 for the
ensuing biennimh. for the divisions of liberal arts, agriculture, en-
gineering, and education., This is an increase of approximately 50
per cent over any previous appropriation.
The Connecticut Generid Assembly of 1917 'appropriated $28,000
for the construction of a central heating plant at the State agri-
cultural college, and added $2,500 per year to the maintenance ap-
propriation of the station.
Other. appropriations' for the biennium
included $12,000 for the State entomologist, *$#,0,000 for the suppree
330
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
-*P
sion of gipsy and brown-tail moths and nursery inspection, and
$15,000 for the control of white pine blister rust.
A' law passed by the Montana Legislature in 1917 appropriated
$10,000 for the reimbursement of the cost of transportation to and
from their homes of students at the State agricultural college, the
State university, the State school of mines, and the State normal.col-
lege.
The purpose of the act is to equalize the cost of attendance
at these institutions to students coming from distant parts of the
State.
The Delaware Legislature appropriated in 1917 a total of $285,-
890.27 to the State agricultural college for the ensuing biennium.
Among the items authorized were 5125,000 for the new dormitory at
the women's college, $32,000 per annum for the maintenance of that
college, $32,000 for a new heating plant, $10,000 per,annum for the
maintenance of the agricultural department, $7,890.27 for agricul-
tural extension.
Gifts made to the college from an unannounced
donor during 1916 amounted to $1,000,000 and are being utilized
largely for buildings.
The Kansas Legislature for 1917 appropriated to the State agri-
cultural college $80,000 for the purchase of land to,.be used for animal
husbandary, dairy, and poultry farms, and $50,000 for an'addition to
the agricultural building.
The Massachusetts Legislature for 1917 appropriated to the State
agricultural college $40,000 to enlarge the policy plant, $33,000 addi-
tional for new equipment, and $10,000 for maintenance and improve-
ment of the market garden substation at Lexington.
In 1917 the 'New York State Legislature appropriated $770,401 for
tjie State agricultural college for the ensuing year, in addition to an
earlier emergency grant of $55,910 for the present year and $42,000
for printing.
A bill appropriating 125,000 pesos ($62,500) for the establishment
of an experiment station in connection with the college of agriculture,
was passed 'by the Philippine House of Representatives at its 1917
legislature.
The Porto Rico Legislature at its last session appropriated.$1,000,-
000 for aid in the growing of food crops.
In 1917 about 40 rural
teachers were engaged in all sections of the island.
A bond issue of $1,000,000 was authorized by the Tennessee State
Legislature in 1917 for buildings and other improvements by the
'State university, supplemented by the proceeds cf the half-mill tax,
estimated to produce about $886,000 per annum at present and to be
used for maintenance. About $100,000 may be used for the construc-
tion oflmildings at a substation in middle Tenn
e.
The Texas Legislature for 1917 established t e W t Texas Agri-
cult ral and Mechanical College on a grade coo
to with the ex-
istin
institution at CollegeAtation, as well as a junior college located
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
331
elsewhere to give two years of high-school agriculture and two years
corresponding to the freshman'and sophomore years of college work.
Provision has also been made by the legislature for establishing a
third junior agricultural 'college to be known as the Northeast Texas
Agricultural College.
An appropriation of $250.000 has been made
for its establishment and maintenance.
Special appropriations were
made for the station and substations, aggregating $225,095.34 for the
year beginning September 1, 1917, and $181,270.40 for the following
year.
The 1917 legislature of West Virginia granted an additional
$75,000 for the agricultural building.
The legislature also appro-
priated $20,000 for buildings on the new farms.
EXTENSION AND SHORT COURSES.
Special instruction courses for extension workers
held in
December at the University of Arkansas, and a sour
cially de-
signed to meet the needs of home demonstration agents, including
English, gardening, dairying, rural sociology, poultry work, rural
social engineering, household conveniences, rural recreation, sanita-
tion. home nursing, care of infants, etc., from January 7 to February
2. 1918.
Four-year professional courses in forestry and forest engineering
have recently been established at the University of California.
A.
12-weeks short course was also given, begining January 15, 1917, to
help practical woodsmen. 4 The work included theoretical training in
surveying..log scaling, timber estimating, logging, fire protection,
silverculture, forest administration, trail and telephone construction,
English composition, grazing, and the work of the United States
Forest Service.
A feature of the annual short course in January at the Georgia
State Agricultural College was the food - conservation school for
farm women.
County demonstration and bona: economics agents
who have recently taken up work in the extension departments were
also present at these courses.
A four-weeks course in dairying has been offered at Purdue Uni-
versity to women preparing themselves to fill positions in factories
manufncturing dairy products. This course included the testing
of milk and dairy product's, the making of soft cheese and ice cream,
dairy bacteriology, general dairying, and lectures on food production.
A special short course was arranged at the Iowa State Agricul
tural College in November, 1917.
This course included instruction
in , agriculture, home economics, engineering, and industrial science,
and was open to young people Oho have not yet completed
school. work as well as to those .prepared for full collegiate
struction.
.
332
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Evening coul-ses in various branches of agriculture were offered in
1917 at the Maryland State Agricultural College.
These courses in-
cluded special work in beekeeping, poultry raising, and fruit grolving
for suburban residents of Washington, D. C.
College credit was
given for these courses so far as practicable, with a system of.certifi-
cotes showing all work completed.
The Annual Farmers' Convention, held at the Nofth Carolina Ag-
ricultural College and Station, in August, 1916, under the auspices
of the college, station, and extension workers, was one of the most
successful meetings of its kind yet held in the State.
About 3.000
men and 2,000 women were in attendance. The special subject of the
meeting- was rural education, which was graphically presented by
means of an exhibition in which several booths were grouped around
a larger booth in one of the college buildings.
The smaller booths
represented the activities of the station and extension service, while
the largerbooth represented a consolidated or farm-lite school.
A school of education Was been organized at the North Dakota St;ite
Agricultural College with four courses covering four years and two
courses covering two years-for completion. The four-year curricula
are designed for teachers of agriculture, the mechanic arts, science,
and vocational and rural school administration, while the two-yea
curricula are for teachers in consolidated schools and special teachers.
THE GRADUITE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE.
The seventh session of the Graduate School of Agriculture, under
the auspices of the Association-of American Agricultural Colleges
and Experiment Stations, was held July 3--28, 1910, at the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College. The attempt was made to. develop
a
more systematically organized plan of work at this session than had
hitherto been undertaken.
This plan involved work in two main
lines.
One of these included progressive consideration of the funda-
mental factors involved in the growth of plants and animals.. The
other dealt with the economic and social factors which enter into the
development of profitable systems of agriculture and well-organized
rural communities.
1,
At its public opening exercises the school was welcomed to the
Massachusetts-Agricultural College by President K. L. Butterfield,
and the granges of New England were represented by lielt J. 1-1.
Hoyt.. Dian A. C. True, of the graduate school, outlined briefly the
objects for which the school was established, the reasons for the pnr-
,ticular courses of instruction offered at the seventh session and the
intellectualOand social advantages to be derived from the contact of
instructors mid students in such a school:
Dr. True pointed out that in our time
education and research more and more involve the harmonious working to-
gether of Pond of Individuals who are willing to put away selfish ends for
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
333
the common good.
In a vast country like our own with a population drawn
from all quarters of the globe, and with an almost infinite variety of environ-
mental conditions. associations of scholars and investigators from many differ-
ent regions, whether their work deals with subjects remote from practical
affairs or, as in the case of most of us, with matters of vital concern to great
industries, is of great importance as an aid to that mutual understanding on
which the life of our Nation and the perfecting of our civilization depend.
For
after all, as recent events in the world's history have shown, public opinion
and governmental action depend more largely than is generally recognized on
the modes of thought which are developed in the institutions of higher learning.
Such an organization as this graduate school, having behind it the associated
universities and colleges represented In the Association of American Agricul-
tural Colleges and Experiment Stations, may also be influential in shaping the
ideals and standards of agricultural scholarship and research.
If through our
discussions here we are able to carry back to our respective institutions sug-
gestions for the improvement of courses of instruction and methods of research
and to stimulate faculties and students to more thorough work, we shall have
made a valuable contribution to those intluenes which are to determine the
success of the great movement to raise American agriculture and country life
to the highest possible level.
.
Since the last session of-our school this movement has made unusually rapid
progress. The permanent national system of agricultural extension.edueation,
provided for in the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, has already become well organ-
ized and attained great dimensions.
In over 1.200 counties, spread over the
entire country, extension agents are regularly working.
Supporting these local
forces are about 1,500 extension specialists and administrative officers main-
tained by the State colleges and the Department of Agriculture.
At least
1,000 teachers are giving instruction In agricultural subjects in our colleges,
and the number of students in four-year courses of agriculture has risen, from
14,000 In 1913 to 19,500 in 1915.
The past year 4,900 secondary schools gave
agricultural courses attended by 95.000 students, as compared with 1,400 schools
and 30,000 students two years before. The force employed in our agricutural
experiment stations has risen to 1.860 and the Income of the stations in 1915
was $5,286,000.
The force employed In the Department of Agriculture is over
10.000 and its Mere about $25,000,000.
The demand for thoroughly trained and efficient workers in agricultural lines,
whether in research, education, or farm practice, has never before run so fur
beyond the supply. The responsibilities of the leaders in the agricultural
movement have never been so heavy. Their encouragements have never been
so great. This body of young men, who have, already been trained in our
higher institutions of learning and many of whom are already engaged In
teaching or research, have before them exceptional opportunities for lead-rship
and high success. The incentives to thorough preparation and the most strenu-
ous endeavor are of the highest and broadest character. To discover nature's
secrets and thereby advance science and human welfare, to inspire and instruct
a vast multitude of men, women, and children in colleges, schools, and millions
of homes, to lay a firm and sate foundation for the permanent existence and
prosperity of the United States and in large measure of all the worldthese
are the appropriate tasks of agricultural scholars and scientists.
A week was devoted to discussions of the problems of education
with special reference to the training of students along agricultural
lines.
Dr. W. C. Bagley, director of the school of education of...the
University of Illinois, gave five lectures on the foundations of peda..
334
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
gogy. He argued that not only knowledge but " skill " is a legiti-
mate and important end of education, whether the subject taught is
what is ordinarily called cultural, such as language anokmathematics,
or technical, as engineering and agriculture. The interrelations of
technical and cultural aims in education were also dwelt upon. A
clear and impartial i.suine of the experimental researches on the
disciplinary value of various studies was given, with the conclusion
that the evidence thus far accumulated indicates that there is a cer-
tain disciplinary result which may be transferred from one study to
another, but that this is not so large as has been commonly held by
the friends of the old classical education.
Dean W. W. Charters, of the school of education of the University
of-Miss. ouri, presented some of the principles on which methods of
teaching should rest.
He laid special stress on the principle that
the normal mental process in learning is to work from problems
toward
solution. A problem arising in the experience of the
student'
eing presented to him by his teacher, the learner may
.become in arge degree his own instructor, especially if the solution
is of vital interest to him. The application of this principle would
in many subjects result in economy of mental effort, increase of
interest, and more permanent results.
Good method shoutdalways
culminate in elaborated and well-organized knowledge.
At the seminars the practices of teaching various agricultural sub-
jects were presented by Dean R. L. Watts, of Pennsylvania State
.
College, on vegetable gardening; Prof. C. G. Woodbury, of Purdue
University, on pomology; Prof. C. A. Zavitz, of Ontario Agricul-
tural College, on agronomy; and Prof. J. E. Rice, of Cornell Univer-
sity, on poultry husbandry, as well as by members of the Massachu-
setts College faculty and others. On Saturday a conference on the
training of men for agricultural -service was led by President II. J.-
Waters, of the Kansas Agricultural College, who dwelt on the nature
and function of the college course in its adaptation to this end, and
by Prof. G. A. Works, of Cornell University, who discussed the
.relation of the agricultural college to the preparation of teachers
'of agriculture in secondary schools.
The conference was followed by a round-table discussion by teach-
ers of secondary agriculture on the value of the college coursys in
agricultural education as a means of preparation for teaching agri-
culture, this meeting being one of the series of conferences held dur-
ing the past year through the cooperation of the United States
Bureau of Education and the States Relations Service.
During this
educational week emphasis was often laid on the importance of train-
ing in the principles and methods of education for students intending
oto.bee me teachers of agricultural subjects in colleges or schools..
CHAPTER XII.
THE UNITED STATES SCHOOL GARDEN ARMY.
By J. H. FRANCIS, Director.
This name was adopted in March, 1918.
The work of the organi-
zation is an expansion of work undertaken by the Bureau of Edn-
cation, in 1914.
The scale upon which it was done waslimited bl the
finances that could be secured-for it.
The acute demand for food production growing out of the war
conditions mode expansion possible.
Mr. P. P. Claxton; Commissioner of Education, addressed the' fol-
lowing letter to Hon. Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Interior, on
February 14, 1918:
My DEAR MR. SECRETARY : For several years the Bureau of Education has
been developing slowly, with a small appropriation, a plan of school-directed
home gardening in cities, towns, villages, and suburban communities which
has proved so effective, both for education and for food production, that 'steel
It to be almost imperative that it he put into operation at once In all parts of
the country as one means of meeting the food emergency which now exists and
will probably continue to exist' for two or three years at least.
The plan consists in enlisting boys and girls between the ages of 9 o 10 and
14 or 15 In systematic garden work for food production on such plats of ground
as can be had for this purpose near their homes, on hack yards, side yards. and
vacant lots, and then providing
tiling teacher-directors for them at the rate of one
teacher-director for tach group of from 100 to 150 garden workers.
Parents
and older brothers and sisters are induced to cooperate with the children when-
ever thissis possible.
The work of the children is done after school hours and
on Saturdays and vacation days, so that no time is taken from school.
In the schools of cities, towns, villages, and suburban eommunities of the
United States-there are approximately 7,000,000 children of the ages given above;
of these probably 5,000,000 would be able to find some space for gardening
and can be Induced to do systematic garden work under this plan.
For their
instruction and direction 40,000 teacher-directors will be needed, and. In all the
larger places there should be general superintendefits and Instructors of these
'
teacher-dinectors.
Under proper supervision this army of boys and girls may
easily produce $250,000,000 worth of food, which will reach the consumer in
perfedt condition without cost for transportation or handling and without lose
il
through
eterloratIon on the markets. An equal amount of other forms of
food ma
thereby be released for exportation for the use of our arm es and
our alli
overseas.
Many millions of dollars may be produced and saved for
investin nt In bonds or war savings stamps, and the children engaged In work
. will be benefited physically, mentally, and morally.
Since the work will he
done by children who would otherwise be idle, and on land which would not
Otherwise be used, there will be no coat except for supervision and direction
and fok tools, seeds, and fertilizers. Experiente shows that the cost of these
1
.
:'
386
,
336
BIENNIAL- SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016.-1918.
does not exceed 10 per cent of the value of the food produced, and is often much
less.
The Department of Agriculture has.agr?ed to furnish to the Bureau of Edu-
cation, for the promotion of this work, Its bulletins and leaflets ou gardening
in such numbers as may be needed, and will ask Its county agricultural agents
and home-demonstration agents to use a part of their time in supervising and
Instructing teacher-directors when they have the ability and when this work
dues not take too much time from their other antikcmore legitimate duties.
The gtates division of the Council of National Defense has promised to co-
operate In raising money In State and local communities to pay the salaries of
supervisors in places where this may be necessary.
The National War Garden
Commission will cooperate by donating lu unlimited numbers its practical
garden bulletins, and by printing for distribution at t ,st a daily record book
which has been prepared by the Bureau of Education for keeping garden
accounts.
But all this can be made effective only through the'Bureau of Education,
which, to enable it to stimulate anti direct this work effectively, most have in
the beginning approximately $35.800. In addition to all funds which it now has,
as Is shown in the following table of estimates:
Estimate of cost for promotiog school-directed home garden work.
One director
$4, 000
One assistant director
3, 000
Fifteen stenographers, typewriters,.and 'uniting and filIng
clerks
1S, 000
One messenger
SOO
Typewriting,
multigraphing,
and
addressographing ma-
chinery and other equipment, and supplies and stationery_ 10, 000
Total _
35,800
Because of the very great importance of this matter, and because of the
fact that whatever is done tittst he done very quickly, I have the honor to request
that you give it your very careful consideration, and if it commends Itself to
you, that you ask the President to make iivallate to the Bureau of Education
for this use so much of his War Emergency Fund as may be necessary for
carrying on the work until other funds are available through congressional
appropriation or otherwise.
Respectfully submitted.
P. P. CLAXTON,
Commissioner.
The honorable the .SECRETgRY OF THE INTERIOR.
Following this letter, and upon the request of Se&etary Lane,
President Wilson appropriated $50,000 from the National Security
and Defense leund to promote school and school-supervised home
gardening among the school children of America residing in cities,
towns, and villages. Up to this time the field had been practically
untouched by tny governmental agency. In a few cities throughout
the country, garden work had been undertaken by the schools and by
civic organizations, but these instances were few in number.
Early in April, 1918, the following suggestions on plans of organi-
zation were sent to school superintendents and garden teachers and
supervisors:
UNITED STATES SCHOOL GARDEN ARMY.
837
ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY.
Number of members in a company : Ten to one hundred and fifty,
Age Dina: Any school child, but preferably the more important companies
should be enlisted from the pupils above the third grade.
Requirements for enlistment: The signing of an obligation card in which the
pupil agrees to raise one or more food crops and to keep records of his work
awl the results, reporting them to the teacher or garden supervisor.
These
cards will be furnished by this bureau.
talicers: Each company to have a captain and one or two lieutenants, the
latter depending upon the number of soldiers enlisted.
ii sigma
For the privates, a service tar whit U.16. S. G. In red letters on a white
a'1 )ackground with a border of blue.
For the second lieutenant, the same bar with one walite star in the border.
For the first lieutenant, the knme bar with two white stars in the border.
For the captain, the same bar with three white stars in the border.
For the garden teocheimor supervisor, similar insignia without stars, with
blue letters and a red border.
Enlistment of existing organizations: Any organization of school childrin
now doing garden work will be eligible to enlistment.
Such organizations
may keep their existing form, if they so desire and have the additional im-
petus of belonging to a national army fostered by President Wilson, the
Secretary of Interior, and the Commissioner of Education. The aim of this
army is to nationalize and unify the great work now being carried on among
schoo. children of America.
Five regional and one general director were chosen to organize and
carry forward the work. The regional directors were selected because
of their expert rind practical knowledge of gardening and their ex-
tendiRe experience as garden and agriculture teachers. Their duties
were to include the writing of garden leaflets in language and form
suited to the boys and girls of school age, and adaptable to class or-
ganization. Each region was to be furnished separate leaflets. They
were to meet climatic and soil conditions of the district to which
they were to be sent. As an illustration, the southeastern region has
five zonal districts, and separate leaflets were written for each. These
garden lesson leaflets were highly appreciated by teachers who were
able through their help to conduct companies successfully through
the garden season.
A partial report made July 10, 1918, showed the following results:
1. One million five hundred thousand boys and girls responded to
the call of the President and enlisted in the United States School
Garden Army.
2. Twenty thousand acres of unproductive home and vacant lots
were converted into productive land. This released an equal acreage
used in truck gardening for the production of other,foodstuffs more
important for war purposes.
It relieved transportation congestion
through home consumption of home-produced foodstuff's.
171029 21B41L 88-22
388
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
3. Fifty.thousand teachers received valuqle instruction in garden-
ing through the garden leaflets written by experts in this office and
distributed from here.
One million five hundred thousand leaflets
were sent out.
4. Boards of education and other civic organizations were influ-
enced to give financial and moral support to the sch6ol and home
garden movement and to pay extra salaries for supervision and
tea
ng.
5. Hundreds of thousands of parents became interested in the
garden movement and worked with their children in home gardens.
In Salt Lake City alone 5,200 mothers, representing 62 parental asso-
ciations, actively supported food production in the schools.
6. Thousands of civic, commercial, and patriotic organizations be-
came interested in the movement and gave it hearty support.
7. One and one-half million children were given something to do
last summer ; something that helped to carry the burden of their coun-
try in the struggle for freedom, something that helped them to build
character, and something that appealed to and developed their
patriotism.
8. home and vacant lot gardening in cities, towns, and villages was
dignified and made popular to a degree that practically insured it
a prominent place in the school systeinof our country.
It would be
difficult to estimate the educational and material value of such results.
No other movement in kistory promises so much in aiding the " back
to- the - soil" movement as this.
President Wilson made a second appropriation of $200,000 to con-
tinue the work until July, 1919, and some changes were made i1 the
organization.
A slight readjustment of territory assigned to the regional directors
was necessary.
The southeastern- region was enlarged by adding
West Virginia, -Alabama, and Mississippi-from the southern region.
The southern region in turn was given Missouri and Kansas from the
central section and Colorado and New Mexico from the western sec-
tion.
The five regional directors remain the same as before the new
adjustment.
Twenty-five assistant regional directors were appointed.
The
dutiei of the assistant regional directors are similar to those of the
regional directors, but are on a more intensive scale and in a more
limited territory.
They work under the direction of the regional
director in a part of his territory assigned to them and make weekly
reports to him.
Under this organikation the Unit&,,.S%
School Garden Army is
working for the season 1918-19.
CHAPTER X I II.
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.
By Min IRA M. WINCHESTER,
Spc,ialiiit in Kindergarten Edualinn, litircauof Education.
CONTENTS.-1. tb.
kindergarten and the war. -II. Kindergarten practice. ill. Survey
of the kindergarten of Richmond. Ind.-- I V. Recent publications pertaining- to the
education of young chlittren.--V_Kindergartetialegislation.
I. THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE WAR.
With war in the world turning everything topsy-turvy, institu-
tions and existing social conventions, formerly taken for granted,
are now subjected to rigid inspection and their meanings sifted, in
ovler that nothing useless may be permitted to cumber the earth
wlien every hit of time, space, labor, money, and thought is impera-
tively demanded for carrying on the world business.
Side by side with the process of excluding the useless is going for-
ward the process of uncovering the essentials in'human institutions
and making them yield up their weal ;Ii of possibilities.
Education
has thus been discovered.
The school, as. one of the chief instru-
mentalities of education, ha'S begun to come into its own.
More-
over, since babies are assuming a new value in the whole scheme of
democracy, the kindergarten in its relation to the school and to the
home is regarded afresh with respect and expectation.
The kindergarlen'Atuit for the refugee children of France. One
very direct fonii of war service is that being provided by the kinder-
gartens of America for the task of restoring to normality the little
children living in the refugee colonies of France.
The service undertaken by the American branch. of the Interns:.
timid Kindergarten Vaion'is that of equipping and supporting a
kindergarten unit in conjunction with the children's bureau of tin
American Ilet CroOr in France, to work under the auspic'es of the
citizens' committee for -the conservation of the children of Aiverica
during the war.
Miss Fanniebelle .Curtis is director and Miss Mary
Moore Orr associate director of the unit.
Miss Curtis and Miss Orr; after visiting the devastated
of France, returned with the strong ,conviction that it is trained
.839
840
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
kindergartners who are needed to relieve the misery of the chi
ren
and to give back to them some of the joys of normal chili] ood
through plays, games, stories, handwork, and other edu ative
activities.
The pitiful condition of the little ones is described by Miss Curtis
in an appeal' addressed to the members of the International Kinder-
garten Union,
Subjected to the horrors- of bombardments and gas,
bewildered andibenumbed by'the necessity for silence in the presence
of the frightful bodies, undernourished, apathetic through suffering
so ninny terrors, these unfortunate children are in (longer of losing
their sanity unless something immediate is done fcr their restoration.
In Miss Curtis's oi.n words:
They have been in the gassed regions, they have been lost on the fields of
Flanders, they have fled from their burning villages, they have been actual
.prisoners with the civilian population back of the enemies lines.
The Germans are sending back from the prison camps thousands
of civilians, keeping them in Switzerland for a certain tune and then
allowing them to return to France. At Eviansles-Bains, the dis-
tributing point, child .refugees are coining in at the rate of 500 a
(lay.
Miss Curtis declares:
It is a tragedy that has no parallel in the world's history. The children sr .
being placed in colonies, in chateaus, In convents, in convalescent hospitals
mitiPvictory with honor.is won. They need songs and stories and the joys of
childhood restored, and more than all, they need mothering.
Every foreign mall brings more pitiful stories.
It is childhood's darkest
hour.
The kindergartners of America have raised over $35,000 to defray
the expenses of equipping and sending kindergarten teachers to
France.. A number of teachers have already sailed, and others will
follow as soon as funds for the purpose can be raised.
well-
ing of American children is pro erly regarded as a form of war
-,,,,
Conservation 0 the childr ( n
inerica.To conserve. the well-
e
......./x...
se
ice.
The campaign, organized by the Children's Bureau of the
Department of Labor, for saving the lives and bettering the'health
of 100,000 babies during the current year; has been earnestlA sup-
ported by parents and teachers.
Kindergarten teachers have Made
it their.,businets to assist in the work of weighing and measuring
young children, and recording the facts brought
it by the physical
examinations. In some instances follow-up measures are being insti-
tuted in order that immediate results may be scented fq the kindep-
gaitens. This is the case in Worcester, Mass., whet* the supervisor cif '
kindergartens issued to the teachers. the following instructions:
,While the baby measuring and weighing records are Available in your school
building, wilt you please make a list of the names of all children in yolm
school district whO will be of kindergirten age this coming school year?
Send
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.
3.41
to me the number
figures onlyyou discover.
I will then take some steps to
help you bring the children in promptly in September, 1918.
This will he an effort to avoid the dropping- in -at- any -time that so pulls down
our kindergarten organization and work.
Afiother form of service in which kintgartens have engaged
during the past 15 months is that of cooperating with those social
agencies, in their respective communities, whose concern is With
child welfare. To provide wholesome kinds of interest and activity
in connection witli the social side of child life, and thus to protect
childhood from sonic of the blighting -influences of war conditions,
kindergarten teachers are spending their nonteacltitig hours in tell-
ling stories to groups of children, supervising some of the play in the
small parks and public playgrounds, directing children in th'e culti-
Vation of Lack -yard gardens, organizing excursions to woodss, or
parks convenient to the neighborhood, and other similar activities.
Nor are the teachers unmindful of their responsjbility for seeitig to
It that children are gathered in and kept in school nor of their further
responsibilities towafd the mothers especially in regard to instruc-
tion in hygiene, care and wise purchasing of food, and more efficient
ways of living.
.
Kindergarten practice itself is influenced through the new insight,
for teachers realize as never before the significance of the laws which
govern all right association of individuals.
Self-activity must al-
ways be tilt guiding principle of the kindergarten, but the individual
is to be developed as a member of a group; as such he must conform
to, must .obey the lawS which rule the whole, and subordinate self-
gratificalion to the good of the whole.
Since the children who fail
to learn this lesson .early hi life become weaklings, self-seeking -irr-
dividuals, and moral failures, kindergarten teachers arc more con-
sciously than before directing the children in exercises which
call for instant response in concerted action and for conformity to
the desire of the group; also in organized plays which demand self-
subordination and teamwork, and which make. for helpful, self:
controlled children.
The leriterrgarten as a factor in AmerieanizatitikIt is no. 1eNw
thing for the kindergarten to provide sonic of the moans for trans-
forming aliens into Americans. A permanent argument for kinder-.
garten. extension is that the children of the .foreign born by means
of kindergarten
mining are familiarized. with English befok2, for-
mal school o c sets in, and time .is thus saved for the grade work.
Furthermor , home visiting and holding mothers' meetings have
been par
of the kindergarten teachers' business and have been -a
factor
bringing the foreign family into an understanding and
ap i
elation of the customs and standards of the new country.
342
BIENNIAL .SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19113-1918.
The unique element in the relation of the kindergartner to the
foreign family is that she reaches the members in a normal way
before their home life has been disturbed. When the district nurse
or the social worker comes to the family, it is at a time when economic
pressure or sickness has forced them to the position of want, in
which they are discovered.
In recent years the developMent of parent-teacher associations has
tended to absorb the kindergarten mothers' meeting into the larger
body, and the practice in public-school kindergartens of requiring
kindergarten teachers to teach in the classroom both morning and
afternoon has rendered it difficult for the teachers to visit in the
homei as they used to do. The timid, non-English-speaking woman,
conscious of being different from her neighbors, has been reluctant
to attend the larger, more iormal school meeting, and has thus missed
the participation in community affairs and the opportunity for learii
ing the language which her children are using in their daily school
life and which her husband has acquired through the night school,
the shop schools or the lodge school.
One result of this situation is that the mother, the center of the
household, is neglected and often looked Clown upon by husband and
children, who have outstripped her in the acquisition of the tools of
citizenship. As the distance between them increases she grows apa-
thetic, antagonistic, and reluctant to rouse herself to learn the lan-
guage and customs which would help to bridge the distance.
This
is the opportunity for the kindergartner. Efforts are now being di-
rected toward the establishment of more kindergartens, especially in
regions where large numbers of aliens are employed in necessary
industries1 since the barrier of noncommunication can thus be it-
moved while the children are young and unconscious of any differ-
ence between themselves and their American neighbor; and toward
. the restoration to its former place and function of the kindergarten
mothirs' meeting, and the development of the " door-step " meetings,
since in them can be found the machinery for a fine give-and-take
relationship between old Americans and more recent AmeriCans.
Kindergartens in Ordnance schools on Government reservations.
Government reservations for industrial plants are necessary accom-
paniments of the present emergency and are being developed under
the. direction of the industrial-service section of the Ordnance De.
partment.
Wherever the needs of the workers and their families
reqUire it a new town is being created, with suitable houses, school
buildings, church buildings, Y. M. C. A. buildings, and other facili.
ties for wholesome, clean, social living.
As an integral part of the
school- system kindergarte-is are .sing provided, and teachers are
sought, who possess qualities essential to successful community co.
A
4111111111111111111111.1.11
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.
848
operation. Cottages or teacherages are being built for the housing
of the teachers. Each school has one room planned purposely for a
kindergarten, and the equipment and supplies are to be excellent in
quality.
These reservation kindergartens offer to the teachers chosen to
direct them rich opportunity for the best kind of patriotic service.
Comparatively few kindergartners can go abroad at present for
service in France. but here in America is an opportunity to do a vital
and far-reaching piece of work. Not only the school population is
to be educated. but the entire community as well. There will be play-
grounds and other forms of recreational activity which the kinder-
garten teachers will he peculiarly fitted to direct.
Schools for the colored childri,n, as well as for the white, will be
established on the reservations near Charleston, W. Va.; Nashville,
Tenn.; and Sheffield. Ala.
Retaining the name "kindergarten."It was to be expected that
some discussion on the rejection or retention of the name kindergar-
ten would follow the entrance of the United States into war with
Gernian;z. That the institution itself has become thoroughly natur-
alized there can be no doubt. No other phase of educatiowitis more
completely democratic and American than the kindergarten.
In
this respect the prophecy of the founder has been fulfilled that in
America,-the new world where new life was and is unfolding. the
new education of the human race would take firm root.
In Ger-
many, tile geographical birthplace of the ,kindergarten, little more
than the outer form and the name is discoverable ; the essence is
missing. The kindergarten is not at home in Germany.
The edict of the Prussian. Government in 1851 forbidding the
establishment of kindergartens is tacit evidence that a system of edu-
cation for the people based upon the principle of self:activity, free-
dom, and respect for individuality was considered a dangerous foe
to the success of military autocracy. It was charged at the time t4t
the 'tendency of the kindergartens was toward atheism and revolu-
tion, an indictment that inspired the Berlin comic paper to point out
as objects of suspicion "those three-year-old demagogues with their
inflammatory speeches. those red-handed revolutionists in swaddling
clothes."
The contention of those who desire, to change the name kinder-
garten is that, since the institution is truly Americanized, the name
should undergo the same process; also that the tiew name should bear
in it the suggestion of organic relation with the school system. But
the clumsiness and ineptitude of the substitutes which 'have been
suggested make it difficult to believe that any of them will be
844
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
"Children garden" or "child garden," the literal equivalent in
English for kindergarten, is acceptable in so far as it retains the
description of the institution; but the sound of it is awkward and
disagreetble to the ear.
" Subprimary " is a term which has been offered, and-in a few
systems adopted, because it is said to carry out the idea of a real
connection between the kindergarten and the rest of the school
organization. The objection to it lies in its failure to define the
essence of the kindergarten; " sub " 'Makes the institution a mere
annex to the primary grades and expresses only an external relation.
" Primary circle " has been suggested on the ground that the
present name emphasizes the aloofness of the kindergarten depart-
ment from the school as- a whole, whereas primary circle is expres-
sive of thd truth that the aims, principles, and ideals of the kinder-
garten are basic of what is to follow in child training.
The reason
is good, but the name offered is not a success.
In school vernacular
" primary " is limited in its meaning, and has become synonymous
with first grades; primary circle, therefore, being narrowly inter-
preted, would cause the institutionto be regarded as a side issue
externally related to the first grade.
" Baby nest" is the designation chosen in place of kindergarten
in Italy.
The description of the baby nests given by Signorina Amy
Bernardy at the Pittsburgh meeting of the National Education Asso-
ciation lends to the conviction that, according to the American
understanding o'f things, these institutions would be classed as day
nurseries.
,
A passing observation should be given to the terms " school of
childhood" and "house of childhood." The former name was
selected to designate the department for the youngest children in
the school\ of education of the University of Pittsburgh. The pro-
,
jectors of the school wished to be'free from the limitations which
would naturally be imposed upon the experiment if it bohthe name
kindergarten, and from having judgments passed upon the work
according to kindergarten standards.
The " house of childhood "
is the name selected by Dr. Montessori to describe the type of edu-
cational institution devised by her.
The classes were originally
established within the tenement houses erected by an association for
good building in .Rome, and ware intended,to provide for the early
training of the children of the workmen housed in the tenements.
Among the members of the International Kindergarten Union it
is generally felt that " kindergarten " should remain. No other word
so aptly and euphoniously describes the thing signified, an organiza-
tion in which each individual child is regarded as a living prganism
.Or .plant whose inner nature is capable of unfolding its richness in
response to a favorable environment and under the gardener's care.
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.
845
II. KINDERGARTEN PRACTICE.
Turning from the name to the institution itself, it is evident that
modification in practice is steadily proceeding. Aside from the oft-
cited illumination coming from " the light of modern psychology
and child-study," several factors are contributing to bring about
change of methods as well as of materials. Among these are:
(1) The need for giving to primary teachers and supervisors a
clear exposition of kindergarten principles and methods.
(2) The new faith in democracy, expressing itself educationally
in new faith in children's ability to direct their own activities and
to organize their own groups.
(3) The friendly attitude toward experimentation with methods
and materials, coupled with the " newly acquired devotion to the
checking of results."
(4) The increasing number' of kindergarten teachers who each
year study education in colleges and universities.
Testing and measuring progress of kindergarten children.Until
recently it has been urged that the difficulties in the way of securing
a satisfactory measure of the results of kindergarten training are
insurmountable, and that the best things that happen to children
because of a year or so in kindergarten can not possibly be reduced
to terms of objective measurement.
In answer to this, Dr. W. C.
Bagley, in his introduction to The Kindergarten in Japan,' points
out that, while the ultimate effects of certain educational doctrides
may be difficult to predict and the immediate effects difficult to de-
termine and evaluate, " these are assumptions neither to be made
lightly nor to be used as a cloak for mental inertia.
The very
difficulty should rather be a spur to the devising of means toward
accurate prediction, exact measurement, and just evaluation."
In response to the spur prick, a beginning has been made during
the past yea]; of a valuable type of work. Under the leadership of
Miss Alma L.4inzel, of Minneapolis, who devised a tentative set of
tests of children's abilities, a group of experienced kindergartners
undertook to give the tests and record the results after a uniform
manner. Certain typical kindergarten. activities were selected, ap-
propriate tests for their measurement were determined, and groups
of children were tested at the beginning and again toward the end
of the school year. The progress in ability was recorded on a card
devised for the purpose, and a summing up of the findings was made
by Miss Binzel.
The activities selected for the project were those expressive of the
following forms of ability: Physical control; language, as to range
The Kindergarten In Japan, by TenneitIchl Minim
346
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19113-1918.
of vocabulary and ability in oral composition ; musical expression
and recognition; constructive ability as shown in both temporary
and permanent constructions; skill in graphic presentation; scientific
aptitude as indicated by identifying objects, ansWering questions as
to use and source of materials and as to processes; and mathematical
aptitude as shown by using number. counting, and recognizing num-
ber groups.
It was the opinion of Miss Binzel that, in spite of handicaps. the
results of the preliminary testing justify the continuance and
expansion of the work; that in due course of time it will be possible
to arranAe scales of kindergarten work just as spelling, handwriting,
arithmetic, and composition scales have been devised for grade work ;
that ultimately, norms 1011 come into existence that will be valid in
the measurement of progress due to kindergarten education; and
that while growth in certain qualities of character does not readily
lend itself to quantitative expression, it is legitimate to draw infer-
ences as to developing personality from the scientific data furnished
by the tests.
117 aste between the kindergarten and the primary school .Pregress
has been made in the study undertaken by the committee on minimum
essentials in kindergarten and primary grades of the subject of what
and how much of the kindergarten's contributions to the child's
development are utilized in hisisubsequent school years. The report '
m de by the committee chairman, Miss Annie Moore, treats of inves-
ti rations made in the field of arithmetical concepts, of literature,
an
of the use of free oral expression in first grade.
series of tests in fundamental arithmetical concepts was used to
asure the abilities of kindergarten and nonkindergarten children
in order to ascertain whether children entering first grade after a
year of kindegarten training are stronger in arithmetical concepts
than children with no kindergarten training; also, if there is a
difference in ability to learn, whether it is due to difference in age.
The tests were applied once at the beginning of the term for initial
ability, and again at the close for amount of improvement.
The score showed that the kindergarten children made a higher
record of points in both tests.
The rate of improvement was about
the same in both kindergarten and., nonkindergarten children. The
time required by the nonkindergarten gropp was legs in then first test ;
in the second test the time required was the same for both groups. In
regard to age, the results indicated that the kindergarten pupils, even
though slightly younger than the nonkindergarten .pupils, made
higher scores in points.
A comparative study of the literature used in kindergartens and
first grades was made in order to determine the amount of duplica-
1ProceedIngo of the International Kindergarten Unfoo, 1917u
1
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.
347
lion occurring and the degree of progression secured in the subject.
The Osu Its of the study show, amon; other features, that kindergar-
ten and first-grade teachers are quife'at one in regard to the use of
nursery rhymesLthat in the selection of literature, first-grade teach-
ers in general.cioose whatever gives the best material for teaching.
reading, thus subordinating literary values to the technique of teach-
ing beginning reading; and that in some instances kindergarten
teachers send forward to the first-grade teachers a list of stories that
have been used in the kindergarten.
The study of the use of free oral expression in the first'grade was
based upon the principle involved in the fact that " normal children
make remarkable progress in the mastery of their mother tongue dur-
ing the preschool period, and that this mastery is attained through
the abundant and free use of speech .in purposeful and significapt.
%vays." Increased language ability among kindergarten trained chil-
dren is a recognized result, clue-to the freedom permitted in the kin-
dergarten and the encouragement of conversation about objects and
experiences of immediate and personal interest. Similar -opportuni-
ties for free, natural, oral expression are advocated for primary
grades by numbers of schoohnen; belt tjiat theory is ahead of practice
in this.respect is made apparent by the results of the study; for the
tendency is clearly toward silence on the part of the children in
primary grades, a condition which prohibits their learning how to
use English fluently, intelligently, and correctly, as far as school
experience is concerned.
The course of study in the kindergarten.For
the purpose of fur-
thering the better understanding of kindergarten aims and methods
by primary teachers and supervisors and providing constructive
suggestions for the many kindergarten teachers who have to work
without a supervisor's assistance, a group of kindergartners has un-
dertaken to formulate the kindergarten curriculum and the standards
involved therein.
The need for a sane presentation of a sane cur:
riculum in published form is emphasized by the fact that strange,
extravagant practices are being introduced here and there under the
name of " experimentation." Clear ideas as to essentials are evi-
dently necessary to enable the " experimentors" to discriminate be-
tween freakish novelty and that which is validly original.
In preparing their formulation the committee of kindergartners
have treated the curriculum in its twofold-aspect of content or Sub-
ject matter and forms of expression or activities.
The terms "oral
expression," "manual activities," "drawing," "physical training,"
"nature study," and "music" have been adopted so as to be in ac-
cordance with the usage in formulations of primary-grade.curricula.
The various divisions of the subject are discussed *tt to: Aims,
general and specific; subject matter; methods; attainments. In the
348
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916IA18.
section devoted to language, wrong as well as right methods are
illustrated in order to throw into relief some faults commonly
committed.'
Results of experiments with self-organized groups.As evidence
of the new faith in children's ability to initiate and direct their own
play and work activities, various forms of experimentation are in
progress.
Those in charge of these experiments undertook the work
firmly believing that self - activity means what it says; that the spon-
taneous play of children is educative; that children are rich in pur-
poses at present and are not merely potentialities; that they should
live in the present up to the best of their ability; that they should
be measured by their intelligent cooperation, their ability to initiate
and control situations, and their power of self-control; that
in
groups organized by the teacher the leadership is one-sided, the
adjustments are made by the teacher, the plans and problems are
set by her, and opportunities for experimentation or invention are
meager.
While no scientific report on the experiments is as yet forthcoming.
some conclusions appear in A report presented at the International
Kindergarten Union convention (11117); by Miss Faye Henley. Miss
Henley points out that a "spontaneous group" is a free organization
in regard to numbers. Sometimes one child will work alone; some-
times groups of two or three will work together; and sometimes the
entire group is included. An " organized group " is one organized
by the teacher and held togetherby her.
The conclusions reached so far are:
(1) That the spontaneous or s..1f-organized group provides for
the practice of democratic principles; that flip children make their
own social adjustments and find opportunity for leadership, initia-
tive, and experiment.
(2) That the limitation's in self-organized group work are that
some children merely repeat what pleases them, without progressing;
some children do what is easiest for them; some .become yapricious
and even lawless.
(3) :The place of the teacher in the organization thus becomes clear.
She must keep the balance, help to improve standards, be ready to
give expert advice, stimulate lagging-interest by bringing in new
aims or, new use of materials.
III. SURVEY OF THE. KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, IND.
Of recent year's a number of surveys have been made of the school
systems of varimis cities, and the kindergartens, being included,
have come in for their share of comment; but to the kindergartens
The report will be published shortly as a bulletin of the 3ureau of Education.
1
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.
349
of Richmond, Ind., belongs the distinction of being surveyed as a
system of kindergartens, and by a kindergartner, Miss Alice Temple,
of the school of education of the University of Chicago.
The survey was undertaken with a vitw to achieving a closer co-
ordination between the kindergartens and the grades. The report
is a most valuable document containing excellent suggestions for
groups of kindergartners who may wish to conduct a survey of their
own kindergartens.
In carrying on the investigation Miss Temple visited each of the
eight kindergartens twice, and visited the first-grade classes; held
conferences with the teachers both as groups and as individuals;
examined the course of study for kindergartens printed in the super-
intendent's report for 1912; studied information supplied by the
superintendent; and examined the written answers to questions con-
tributed by kindergarten teachers and first-grade teachers.
The report is organized under the following sections: The kinder-
gartens; the romp equipment; the teachers; the relation between the
kindergarten and the first grade; and the curriculum and methods
of the kindergarten.
In regard to the kindergartens, Miss Temple found' the prevailing
social atmosphere wholesome and the relations between children and
teachers all that could be desired ; but in some of the classes the
children have been trained to respond automatically to a series of
piano signals and to certain artificial devices for securing attention.
This method tends to produce dependence upon particular forms of
guidance rather than intelligent self-control.
Commenting upon the room equipment, the report recommends
more growing plants and some form of animal life. Of the materials
for play and handwork, the criticism is that they are inadequate.
The kindergartens are supplied with the "traditional" materials.
It is recommended that-larger blocks, together with boards of vary-
ing lengths, be aged to the equipment, in order that the children
may make buildings and furniture for their own play use.
A
"Iiinderhaus" or five-fold screen to inclose a space for a playhouse
is also recommended.
According to present-day theory,--materials are primarily valued
as means through which children may give expression to their ideas
and carry out their play purposes. This means that any'of the tradi-
tional Materials may be discarded and more adequate ones used.
Among these more adequate supplies are large-sized and heavypapers
for construction work; soft wood cut in blocks and boards, together
with hammers and nails for construction; easily handled textile ma-
terials for weaving; and materials for simple and crude dolls' clothes.
Supplementary .educational monograph of the School Review and Elementary School
Journal, Vol. I. No. S.
350
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-1918.
Small toy animals, small dolls, toy utensils, and dishes to use in con-
nectithi with building plays are recommended.
In respect to the teachers and their needs, it is recommended that
a well-trained and thoroughly efficient supervisor of kindergarten
and primr.ry grades be secured; that the kindergartners be encour-
aged to attend summer sessions and pursue further study in kinder-
garten education ; and that a more profitable use be made of the
afternoon hours of the kindergartners.
It is pointed out that the
constructive movement within the kindergarten during the past 10
or 15 years has made rapid progress, and that kindergartners should
put themselves in -the way of further study at: one of the progressive
normal schools or universities in order to keep pace with the best
developments in kindergarten practice.
The need for the continuity between the work of the kindergartau
and that of the first grade is apparent.
It is suggested that the
teachers and supervisors- work out a kindergarten-priMary curricu-
lum which shall provide for continuity in each of the subjects com-
mon to both: Community life, industrial and fine arts, language.
music, physical education, nature study, number work.
A number of first-grade teachers, while recognizing the inde-
pendence of the kindergarten-trained children in itoiny direct ions.
find them too dependent on the teacher's help in handwork.
If
kindergarten teachers would plan simpler forms of handwork and he
satisfied With cruder *ducts, they would be able to develop in the
children a desirable degreeof independence.
The criticism by the grade _teachers that kindergarten children
want to talk and play instead of work is a criticism of the first grade
rather than of the kindergarten. Two reasons for this so-called rest-
lessness are that the seat work in the first grade does not cull forth
the thought or the effort of which six-year olds are capable, and that
not enough time is a9ow.ed for active play.
Commenting upon the curriculum and methods of the kinder-
garten, Miss Temple points out that too great quantity and variety
of intellectual material was introduced within a given period of
time, and the subject matter was unwisely utilized to present ideas
and ideals which belong not to the kindergarten but to a later stage
of development.
She criticizes as devoid of real -thought on the part of the children
lessons which begin with a 'ries of exercises dictated by the teacher
the purpose of.which is to help children take some simple blocks from
a box, and are continued by directions as to certain moves with the
blocks, ana- are finished by returning the blocks to the boxes in an
exact manner. Thetfinition of a right or wrong result in such a
leSson is not determined "by the fitness of the object made for the
use of it, but whether or \not it duplicates the form made by the
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.
861
teacher.
It is pointed out that a chance should be given for testing
the efficiency of the objects constructed and that a motive beyond a
desire to please the'teacher-should be given to children's work.
The report goes on to deal with each form of activity in the kin-
dergarten, drawing. language and literature, plays and games, and
music, in every case offering constructive and stimulating suggestions
for the improvement of subject matter and methods.
The spirit in which the Richmond survey was undertaken, the
friendly cooperation with which 'it wits carried on, the carefully pre-
pared report, with its thoroughly practical and constructive recom-
mendations, all unite to commend not only this particilar piece of
work, but also this type of work as worthy of being widely applied to
kindergarten systems.
IV. RECENT PUBLICATIONS PERTAINING TO THE EDUCATION
OF YOUNG CHILDREN.
"PLAY LIFE IN THE FIRST EIGHT TEARS.'"
Miss Palmer has carefully listed games and plays that are types
-of those best suited to the gradually developing powers of typical
children of the ages from 1 to 8 years. Even a casual reader can not
fail to get from these lists and explanatory descriptions a logical
idea of the mental unfolding of the small child and the re,action he
requires from his environment to further his growth into a well-
balanced, useful citizen of high ideals.
The book is neither technical' in phraseology nor difficult in style
and is so definite in its portrayal of the type of games needed by the
clrild'at various stages in his development that it should be of great
value, not only to the trained teacher, but to the parent or nurse or
social worker who has the supervision of small children.
"PRIMARY HANDWORK" AND "ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK."
The worth of the first-named book lies in the value-standard it sets.
It does not view the primary currisulum as a/certain amount. of
knowledge 4o be acquired by the child more-or less painfully in
preparation for the next higher grade; it sees each period of the
child's devel9pnient as a time seething with c
ish interests and
enthusiasms which, rightly used, make of each seh
year a triumph
of achievement, development, and happiness. The p ublems of eon-
struction are approikehed from the child's point of view aqd interest.
The standard of the work is measured by the child's ability to do and
think. The child's growth is shown by his increased ability to judge
his efforts and intelligently measure his successes.
This produces.
what Dr. Dewey calls a "child who has something to say rather than
.
IR: Luella A. Palmer.
I By Ella Victoria Dobbs.
352
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,1916-1918.
having to say something."
Miss Dobbs shows clearly the way in
which the artificial gulf between the kindergarten and the pri-
mary grades can be made to disappear.
In the second-named book are offered practical working outlines
upon which the teacher may build.
The object of the book is to
prove by means of work already tried in actual schools:
1.. That illustrative handwork' can be used profitably as n method of study
by giving the children something to do which they will wish to do, but which
can not be done. successfully without a practical knowledge of the subject
matter to be studied.
2. That Illustrative handworkcnn be used profitably as n method recitation
by requiring the children to make something which they can not make success-
fully unle.ss they have gained clear anti definite ideas of the subject which has
been studied.
3. That work of this kind not only has a place as a regular form of study
and recitation, but that it cab be done without exceeding the limit of time
allotted to the subject.
4. That the equipment and materials are easily obtainable In any school,
5. That work of this kind may be carried on in the regular classroom.
G. That such methods may he used by teachers who have not been trained in
the manual arts.
a
"A COURSE FOR BEGINNERS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. "1
Miss Rankin, a trained kindergartner, has brought her kn
of child psychology and the knowledge gained from actuat contact
with many children to the problem of making a year's course of Sun-
day-school lessons that will make for a better feeling, thinking, and
doing in the life of the little child, and that Will also be quite sim-
ply and definitely stated, so that the average untrained Sunday-
schoal teacher may use them literally as the supporting framework
for her work.
THE USE OF THE KINDERGARTEN GIFTS."
The use of the kindergarten gifts carries from cover to cover a
plea for a wider knowledge on the parj of the t achen of every ma-
terial to be used, and a greater insight into the process of the
growth of little ehilaren. The book is of particular value to the
recently graduatedkindergarten student who has had a limited op-
portunity for actual teaching experience, and to the teacher who
emphasizes organized group Work in herschool.
BULLETINS NOS. 1, 2, 3, 4, AND 5 : BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTS,
To quote from the preface in one of the bulletins:
The Bureau of Educational Experiments Is made up of a group of persons
who are engaged In firet7hand efforts.for Improving the education bf children,
and who have all shared In the general movement that has .brought about a
:By Mary perk* Rankin.
*By Grace Palmer.
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.
868
more scientific study of them.
They feel that the development of some more
comprehensive plans of utilizing the results of the recent interest In " free
education" is the next step, and that it depends essentially upon securing a
closer cooperation among experimenters.
The bureau aims to accomplish these ends by giving support to
present experiments, by initiating new experiments, by collecting
and making available for public use information about the whole
field of experiments in education, and by hastening the introduction
of newly acquired methods through actual teaching experiments.
The first bulletin is entitled "Playthings "; the second is a study
of Animal Families in Schools; the third, fourth, and fifth bulletins
describe the kind of work Wing done at The Play School, by Caro-
line Pratt; at The Gregory School, by Margaret Naumburg; at
Teachers College Playground, by Mary Rankin; at The Home
School, by Mattie Bates; and at "Stony Ford School," by Mr. and
Mrs. Hutchinson.
"SELECTED LIST OF STORIES."
The literature committee of the International Kindergarten Union
has published an excellent list of stories to tell to children'in kinder-
garten, first, and second grades. In presenting the list thq conunittee
point out that extended lists prepared by libraries and other Com-
pilers are easily obtained ; and for that reason it was thought best
to confine the committee's endeavors to the preparation of a limited
list of stories of distinctly literary quality, each story having a
proved value and interest for children.
With the title of each story are listed several- books in which
different versions may be found.
V. KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION.
The excellent mandatory-on-petition law has yielded sued good
results during the past five years in California that friends of the
kindergarten have been stimulated to secure the pa4sage of a
law in other States. Their efforts have been successful in Maine,
Oregon, Tennessee, Washington, and Texas.
In Maine the superintending school cot11 n4ttees are required upon
the filing of a petition corning from the piti.ents or guardians of 30
or more children between 4 and 6 years of age, living within a mile
of a public elementary. school, to maintrein a kindergarten as a part
of the common school course, unless otherwis9, instructed by the city
or town. The kindergarten may be discontinued if the daily average
attendance falls below 15 children.
In respect to kindergarten
teachers the law provides that no perton shall be allowed to teach in
any kindergarten who has not completed, at least a two-years' course
in training and received a certificate or diploma from a recognized
171029" -217Bull. 88-28
354
,
BIENNI
SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
kindergarten trai i ng school, approved by tie State superintendent
of- schools.
In Oregon
'e peculiar provision of the" kindergarten bill is that
the establish ent of kindergartens is confined to the city of Portland,
thf) law st
ulating that not more than five and not less than three
kinderga ens must be installed during the year.
The w of Tennessee is a permissive onethat is, cities and towns
may ...tablish kindergartens, but must support them by means of
loca taxation.
n the State of Washington the enactment .provides that the
ndergarten shall be a part of the school system and be supported
ust as the primary and upper grades are supported.
The Texas law is similar to that of Maine. A noteworthy feature of
the campaign was the hearty support given to the measure by' the
officers of the State department of education.
Emphasis also was
placed upon adequate pfovisions for well-trained kindergarten
teachers.
In a nninber of other States the Federation of Women's Clubs, the
National Congress of Mothers, and other women's organizations are
taking an active interest in State campaigni for more public-school
kindergartens.
New kindergarten training schools. Closely connected with the
legislative successes in Texas and in California is the announcement
of the opening of three new kindergarten training schools.
The
College of Industrial Arts, Denton, Tex,, has organized a depart-
ment of kindergarten education, with Miss Mabel Osgood, formerly
of the Milwaukee State Normal School, in charge; and in the Sam
Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville, Tex., a kindergarten depart-
ment is being incorporated.
Miss Grace Fulmer hasopened a school
in Los Angeles, Cal.
Children's classes in kindergarten -end primary
work and a department of kindergarten _and primary education for
young women are included. Emphasis is placed upon open -air work.
A two-year kindergarten training course was organized in 1916
in the State normal school, at Tempe, Ariz.; a training class, under
the direction of Miss Lania Fisher, was opened in Boston, the same
year; and Miss Laura Cushman' organized a training..school in
Mimi, Fla.
Kindergarten departments are also being instituted in cotiveition
with the schools of education in the University of Nebraaia, at
Lincoln, and in the University of Missouri,st Columbia.
.
.
Appropriation for kindergaken education.By no means the least
significant event of the past year is the appropriation ,granted. by
Congress whereby Federal support has become available for the iin-
portsnt field of kindergarten promotion and practice. Two special-
ists in kindergarten education constitute the staff for the present.
CHAPTER XIV.
HOME ECONOMICS.
By BIER. HENRIETTA M. CALVIN and CARRIE ALBERTA trroan.
Specie hats in Home Economics, Bureau of Bducution.
CONENTR.Introductoryrlome economics in the public schoolsState supervision of
borne economics -- County supervision of home economicsState normal schools
Colored schools Home economics in colleges and universities
Effect of war on
college
courses
Practice homesPractical application of food courses
in the
management of
lunchrooms, cafeterias, etc.Smith-Lever extension workNew
phases of home economicsChild welfare coursed -Newly established and reorgan-
ized departmentsSurveysOrganization of women interested in home economics
education dome .economies and
national serviceLegislation
relating to home
economics.
Progress in home economics education has been marked in recent
years. To the noinial rapid increase in the number of high schools
offering CQUI'SCS, the extension of systematic training in home making
into the lower grades, the establishment of new courses in liberal arts
colleges, and the more adequate support of departments previously
organized has come increased impetus'due to Federal and State legis-
lation and to the recognition by war committees of their need 'of
specially trained home economics women.
Knowledge of the importance of training in household arts has not
been confined to the United States.
Queen Mary, Of Great.Britai , issued an appeal to FInglish teachers
to take up the sttyly of home ecol omits since the demands fotteachers
of " domestic subjects" was so much greater than the supply. She
emphasized the increased-need of these teachers for the period of
readjustment after the war.
A leading English educator states:
In view of the deetopithent of domestic training which.may be anticipated
both in elementary and teChnical schools after the war, in the Interests of
national health and national economy, there Is reason to think that, so far from
there being a surplus of teachers, there is more likely to he a difficulty in ob-
taining sufficient trained teachers, to meet the demand for them which muid
arise.
The secretary of the Bombay provincial advisory committee, in re-
questing information from America, states that " there is' a growin
desire here to establish good school's for the teaching of domestic
science and household arts."
From New Zealand come requests for the names of home economics
women who can be secured to organize and administer the home eco,
a
.
.
-N.
/
335
856.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, M6-4918.
nomics instruction of that country, thus exhibiting an increased pub-
lic interest in this type of school work.
Santiago, Cuba, questions as to the organization of instruction in
"maternal schools" for young girls, stating that it has been pro-
posed to enact a law establishing these in that Republic.
One of the leading normal. school men of Japan visited the home
economics department of the leading colleges and universities in this
country becausesof interest in home making as a subject to be taught
in the schools of that country.
.
The Ontario Agricultural College can .not accommodate all who
wish to come to Macdonald Institute for home economics training,
and many desire home economics training who can not be spared
from home. The college, therefore, is extending the usefulness of
Macdonald Institute by opening branches here and there iii)such coin-
.
muniiies as are willing and able to cooperate.
Several of the missionary boards are asking for don
ic science
teachers in various countries, among them China. O e call has just
come from the Woman's Union Missionary .Society, .67 Bible House,
Ne* York City, for a domestic science teacher in the school of the so-
ciety in Shanghai, China. An opportunity is presented not only to
teach domestic smence to Chinese girls, but to train Chinese voting
women as teachers of domestic science, so, that they will go out into
,
the public schools.
HOME ECONOMICS IN THE PVBLIC SCHOOLS.
Courses of study and methods'of teaching have been greatly modi-
fied by war conditions'.
The .substitutiOn of Red Cross and relief
sewing for the usual projects of prewar times has so greatly improved
teaching in textiles and clothing that there i§ little reason to believe.
there will be-a reversion to the older type of projects after the close
of the war period.
It has been possible to teach the effective'-use of. the sewing machine
in de fourth and fifth grades, to increase speed greatly, and at the
same tine tecure a high standard of workmanship in sewing classes;
to place responsibility upon children not heretofore considered ma-
ture enough to take any initiative; and to maintain interest in class
work independent of personal. possession of articles worked upon.
The sewing classes in the public schools of Chicago made '250,000
garments for Red Cross and relief work in the winter of 191T-18,
and in all cities of the United States 'the production was in almost
like proportion to the number of children in attendance.
-.The exhibition of children's ability in these lines is resulting in
an entire changg of course of study. More work of commercial value
willtereafter boNne; more speed will be attained; and more fuhda-
.
.
ROME ECONOMICS.
357
mental principles of good taste, good hygiene, and good economics
will be taught.
The modifications in food courses have not been so readily adopted.
'This has been due to many complicating factors. Equipment now in
use has been of a kind not easily adapted to new laboratory practices;
cooperation of principals and superintendents of schootlunches has
not always been secured; there has been difficylty in articulating
,tool work with the home life of the child, so that when it was
desirable to secure food supplies from the home and return the cooked
product to the home, parental approval has been withheld.
The changes in food courses have usually been along the lines of
teaching the use of food conservation recipes, and explaining to the
children the meaning of food conservation rules. Many home eco-
nomics teachers have gathered the mothers into regular classes and
instructed them in food preservation and food conservation.
The
following material has been gathered by a supervisor of home eco-
nomics:
1. 41n one of the large private schools in St. Louis all advanced work for the
older girls consitts of Red cross work in dietetics and the girls take the Gov-
ernment examinallons at the end of the course.
2. At the North Bennett Street Industrial School the following report Is given
of the work in the school :
SubstitutiOn of entire ,whent, bran, graham, cornmeal, and rye wherever it is
possible in quick and yenst breads, gingerbread, and Inexpensive cakes.
Substitution of oleomargarine, mewls, salt pork for butter. and effort made
to use as little as possible.
Substitution of leguminous vegetables, nuts, cheese,
and fish for meats.
No meat up to the present time has been served in our lunch room. For the /
past.two weeks all desserts requiring sugar have been replaced by fruit salads.
plain fruit, dried fruit dishes, cakes and puddings sweetened with molasses and
sirups.
S sstitu
of molasses and straps for white sugtir in all desserts possible.
uch more
s rill End Intruction in use of substitutes and balanced menus
an before.
3. The School o
elation in Boston re
mestic Science at the Young Women's Christian Asso-
ts the following changes In the work:
The regular textboo
" Menus and' Recipes for Fifty," Is not used except
for meats and vegetably
New recipes are being worked out to meet the
Government requirements:
i
places, they are emphasizing the
reduction of the amount of ments,,sugar, wheat, animal fats, etc.
At their
breakfast, which is prepared by the students in the domestic science class for
their family of 50, their main course has been omitted In order to meet the
situation.
4
4. At the Practical Arts School in Boston, which is an entirely different type
of school, the following summary of work is given:
We plan first to adhere as closely as possible to our former course of study,
believing that in an educational Institution the pupils oust still be taught the
underlying principles of cookery.
Second, we do this, however, by using for the illustrations of those principles,
lfar as possible, the foods recommended as substitutes by our food adminis-
"[tor ; for examplve-vesetable oils' in place of animal oils; rye anti other dark
dotal; In place of wheat.
Third. to keep closely in touch withthe food situation as to supply prices and
to use these topics in our feed study and dietetics classes. To emphasise the
-
Ale
858
BIENNIAL flURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
need of conservation along the lines of time, energy, health, fuel, and clothing,
as well as In foodstuffs.
To keep the prices in our lunch room at the lowest
possible level for obvious reasons.
So far there has been practically no increase
over former prices except in the case of rolls or muffins, and butter.
To observe carefully the meatless and wheatless days advocated by the
Government. To serve little cake, no frostings, few sweet puddings. etc., and
to omit extra sweetening wherever possible.
To encourage our pupils to give their time freely outside of school to 'pa-
triode enterprise. To this end they assist every day In the Liberty Bread Shop,
Food Facts Bureau, and our own relief work:
In the Cambridge Trade School they are preparing nearly 100 quarts of
corn chowder, which they are selling to the pupils at 11 cents a quart. This is
taken into the home with the card stating the food value of the dish, to make
the parents realize that the 'school is trying to give the gills practical work
which should be of real value in their own homes.
The Vocational School for Girls in Brookline submits the follow-
ing report on the work being done in regard to changes in food
cOUrSeS:
The work has been subject to change without notice almost, as various needs
have seemed to rise. We have worked with corn meal and other corn products,
with rye and rice and oatmeal, with'substitutes for sugar even before the acute
need was thrust upon us from the impossibility of obtaining sugar. We have
Worked upon the. substitute sweets earlier than we should otherwise have
done, both because of the needs for supplying to our own pupils legitimate and
desired sweets, to lessen, if possible, the use of those not allowable; and also
because the girls have wished to pack boxes for their brothill and friends In
France and to aid school sales for war causes. We are teaching the use of sub-
stitute fats, and the elimination of the use of fat in cookery, of course! We
are laying stress upon the various winter vegetables as savers of other foods
and upon the use of fruits and ways in which the canned foods May be well
prepared and served.
Some teachers of food classes have been able to establish coopera-
tion enterprises. In Yonkers, N. Y., there were 20,000 quarts of cur-
rants offered the schools. This was made into jelly to be given to the
Red Cross.
Containers were needed and the milk men left slips at
all hotises on their routes that they would collect and take to the
school all containers contributed. A local refinery gave 600 pounds
of sugar. Local ladies did the work, both learning and doing.
These are but illustrations of the changes in method and spirit
that have developed among- home economics teachers, pupils, and
mothers as a result of necessary modifications of cooking practices.
The important developments in home economics in elementary and
secondary schoolsin Ohio have been through the school lunch work,
especially in rural and village schools, and with girls' home making
clubs.
North Carolina reports "many schools are adding departments of
home economici.",.\
Home economics is rapidly introduced into the high schools in
Washington, A State law provides that either home economics or
agriculture shall be taught in all eighth grade classes.
HOME ECONOMICS.
.
359
The State of Florida especially evidenced interest and apprecia-
tion in home economics education by the following legislative -act:
Be it enacted by the Legislature of the Stole of Florida:
SECTION 1. Any county board of public instruction, or thn board of-trustees
of any special tax school district, is hereby authorized and empowered to es-
tablish and maintain a department of home economics, or a department of home
demonstration work in any of the high schools of this State, and to pay the
expenses of such department out of any pull& school funds at their disposaL
Sec 2. Section 1-of this net shall extend to and include canning clubs, corn
clubs, and departments of agriculture, to acquire land, stock. fertilizer, seed,
and implements necessary to maintain the seine.
And no person shall be em-
ployed to demonstrate, teach, or instruct in any of the departments mentioned
herein wlio does not bold a certificate of graduation from a recognized college,
university, or normal school, indicating special training in home economics,
home tiemonstration work, or agricultural work, or any one who has not bad
satisfactory' experience In home economics or canning club work.
Sac. 3. County boards of public instruction are further empowered under th,
act to employ county agents who shall, under the Joint supervision of the county
superintendent of public Instruction and the Florida State College for Womeu
or the University of Florida, conduct practical demonstration work in home
economies, girls' and women's contest work, canning club, corn club, or agricul-
tural work, and other movements for the advancement of country home life,
and shall aid the county superintendent and teachers In giving practical educa-
tion in home, farm, or garden econotuics. From Florida Laws, 1915.
The full effect of the Smith-Hughes Act will not be felt for a num-
ber of years, but even in this one year, when organization was still
under way, much has been accomplished.
The Ohio State University finds that the new Smith-Hughes law
has made it possible to train teachers for this at this department
and to establish two practice schools, one in a small village, the other
in the city.
There are 20 vocational home economics schools in the
State that will be supervised by the division of practice teaching in
this institution.
STATE SUPERVISION OF HOME ECONOMICS.
At the time of the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act only four
States had deemed it desirable to provide a State supervisor of home
economics instruction.
Since the passage of that act there are nine
supervisors of home economics in State departments of public in-
struction, and in 15 States there is part-time supervision provided by
the cooperation of State institutions of higher education and the State
superintendent of public instruction.
In some cases the supervision is to be for Smith-Hughes schools
only, but in others all home economics departments in public schools
will receive this assistance.
The most marked Change in elementary and secondary home eco-
nomics is the breaking down of the rigid division of work which
860
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDTJCATION, 1918-1918.
heretofore has existed between foods and clothing, and a blending
together of these and household adminiStration instruction into a
unified course in home making.
This, in turn, is creating a demand for public school home eco-
nomics teachers who have been trained in all of the various lines of
home economics instead of specially prepared to instruct in but one
phase of the subject.
The tendency is toward detailingo.teacher to
take charge of the whole course for a given class instead of allotting
one teacher for sewing, another for cooking, a third for home nursing,
and a fourthfor personal hygiene or household accounting.
With the increased time for instruction in home economics, toward
which school authorities are now tending, and with a more consistent,
homogeneous course, a superior type of teaching is possible.
Better elementary instruction is preparing the way for more ad-
vanced high-school work, and this in turn is stimulating normal
schools, colleges, and universities to base their entrance requirements
on high-school home economics instruction and to build their courses
on broader and more scientific lines.
The rate of extension of home economics in public schools has been
about 1,000 high schools per year.
This does not, indicate the in-
creased length of periods given the subject.
Usually home economics when established in a school system is
required in certain grammar or intermediate grades and is elective
for girls in the high school..
The policy advocated by the Bureau of Education has been stated
in' the bulletin entitled, ." The Public School System of San Fran-
cisco," in which the following appears:
No rigid course in home economics can be planned that may be applied to
all sections of a large city.
All courses in home economics should be adapted
to thp needs of the communities In which these courses are offered.
The end
attained should be the same, but the means used should vary with the con-
dition of the neighborhood where the work is given.
From the poorer sections in the cities the children of foreign parentage are
ih.pfteu older than the average student in their grades,and since many of them
-ieave school before completing the eighth grade, and since also they are par-
ticularly appreciative of the practical phases of education and thereby may he
induced to continue in school,
it is usually necessary to adjust the home
economics course to meet their conditions and to stress the practical phases of
e work.
In sections where the children usually continue through the ele-
entary grades and enter the high-school courses, a home-economics elementary
school course somewhat less intensive may be best adapted to their needs.
The
latter course may logically lead directly to the high-school courses In the same
subject and be so arranged that the one beconies the basis of the other.
Every girl In the city high schools should be required to pursue one year of
home economics. This course should he equivalent to s full unit' of work and
is mosteffective if It consists of two recitation periods and three double periods
SquIvalent to a evehour coarse carried through One entire year.
-S
HOME 'ECONOMICS.
361
for laboratory each week.
This course meets the needs of the students in the
courses leading to university entrance, and of those who pursue such vocational
courses as are offered In the business high school and trade high schools.
Elective home economics courses should be in every high school except busi-
ness and similar vocational schools, while specialized vocational home economics
courses should be offered in one or more high schools in a large city.
Specially adapted courses of home eeononilcs designed to meet the natural
limitatious of the blind, deaf, or mentally subnormal are an essential unit of
all large city school systems.
Deaf children become expert In any or all house-
hold activities and through these courses may be led to vocational courses
affording agreeable occupations and assuring adequate self-support.
.
These variations and adaptations of courses do not indicate that each teacher
is to plan her own work or modify the course given; on the contrary, It means
definitely and carefully planned courses which are consistent throughout and
which lead the student to a predetermined goal in her training by methods ad-
justed to social and economic needs.
Classes in food preparation should be established for boys of the sixth,
seventh, and eighth grades.
If time can not be found for these during the
usual school hours. they should be offered at hours convenient for the boys.
While these courses are approved for all school systems, they are particularly
needed In the cities of the Pacific Coast States, where so many boys go into
canips of various kinds during the summer mouths.
Time.Elementary school home economics instruction should begin In the
fifth grade.
Through this grade and the sixth grade the subject should be given
four 45-minute periods of student time per week; through the seventh and
eighth grades, from seven to nine 45-minute periods per week should be the
Minimum for home economics Instruction.
The 43-minute periods should
grouped so that the actual work shall be 90 minutes twice each week for fifth
and sixth grade children.
It is possible with the usual arrangement of school
schedules to arrange two classes of this type before the noon recess and two
elakses in the afternoon.
,
The seventh and eighth grade students should report to home economics
wor,k. in half-day periods twice or three times per week.
Two of the eight periods In the ninth-grade work should be given to recita-
tions, and laboratory classes should be arranged for *me double periods each
well Se leered groups of children in the fifth, sixth, seventh," and eighth
grade
can, with advantage, spend from one-third to one-half of their entire
achoo
ours in these home economics classes.
g school girls shbuld be able to elect courses in home economics andlke-
it
M
lated sciences up to one-half of their entire school time.
, The foregoing recommendations agree with the more advanced
ideas and practices in the stronger school systems of the country.
COUNTY SUPERVISION OF HOME ECONOMICS.
An interesting organization of home economics courses for county
work has been effected for Shelby County, Tenn.
Home economics was first introduced into the Shelby County
schools in 1913. Now (1917) there are 18 regularly established home
economics departments, conducted try trained teachers instructing
950 students.
During 1916-17 eleven regular grade teachers also
362
)11ENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
gave'lessons under the direction of the county supervisor, instructing
135 grade children.
For the past two years the home economic courses in the Shelby
County schools have been in charge of a county supervisor. The su-
pervisor(is the regularly appointed county agent employed by the
Department of Agriculture to organize and conduct the girls' club.
Her work is so arranged that she gives part time all through the
winter to supervision of school work for which she receives compensa-
tion from the county board of education.
Teachers' meetings are
held once a month.
All teachers report at the general meeting, after
which the home economics teachers meet in special session in the
County Home Economics Association, an organization of which they
are all members and in which their special problems are discussed.
This organization has been responsible for the preparation of a
county course of study for the hone economics classes in elementary
and high schools. The course was adopted in the county two years
ago (September, 1916), and has been followed with necessary adapta-
tions since its adoption. The national emergency has made necessary
special lesson's in food conservation.
These have been provided for
by the county supervisor through the County Home Economics Asso-
ciation, in which they have been discussed.
Special mimeographed
instructions have been sent out for these lessons. The association has
agreed .upon the use of an elementary textbook for the grade classes
and an advanced textbook for the high-school classes.
The county supervisor visits toe schools once in four or five weeks,
observes the lessons, looks over the condition of the laboratory, con-
sults with the home-economics teacher, and acquaints. herself with
general school conditions. She has also been making a special effort
to further the science work in the high schools and offers suggestions
and criticisms to those who are teaching science.
The equipment for the home economics laboratories is ample and
for the most part well arranged and in good condition. The total
equipment, including laboratory desks, stoves, utensils, and machines
is valued at $5,600.
Five hundred dollars' worth of this equipment
has been furnished by _community clubs and school activities.
In
one of the two schools temporary arrangements are soon to give place
bit° improved conditions. A uniform type of desk has been used in
the county, but considerable latitude has been permitted in the quan-
tity of equipment and its arrangement in most of the schools. Where
funds have been adequate, expense has not been spared to. make the
equipment both permanent and attractive.
In several schools the
desks are white enameled and lend a particularly attractive appear-
ance to the room, but in the lqboratories more recently furnidlied a
desk with oak finish has been adopted, as it promises to give more
satisfactory' results in durability. Oil stoves-are very generally used
11111111111111111111111111111111111
HOME ECONOMICS.
363
in the schools, for they are in use in the houses of the county. The
oil stoves are included in the equipment in sufficient number to give
the girls good practice in their management.
The home economics :lessons begin in the fifth grkle in a few
schools and continue through the four years of high school wherever
possible. The classes are not large and in most schools do not com-
pletely fill the time of the special teacher, hence the special teachers
teach various other subjects in the school.
The teaching of food values and methods of food conservation is
not limited to the home economics classes.
The teachers in the
grades give simple lemons to all of the children on the classes of
foods and their use in the body. This work is taken up in the vari-
ous classes with which the subject can be correlated and is super-
vised by both the county supervisor and the special supervisor of
home economics.
The presence of the State Normal School in the county has been
of great help in building .up the home economics courses in the
county schools, as the able teachers in the norms
hool have
en
it their support in every way. The household science
ctor n the
normal school has acted as president of the County Home Economics
Association since its organization.
The organization of the teachers of home economics under the
leadership of a county superVisor and the close touch with one an-
other provided through their County Rome Economics Association
is a-Specially strong feature of the home economics instruction in the
county. The adoption of a course of study and the uniform textbook
also serves to give strength to the work.
The teachers have been
chosen with care. Not only have they had special training, but also
they are especially imbued with enthusiasm for their work and have
a definite interest in the problem at hand.
For the most part they
are very young find but recently out of school. The salaries paid
make that inevitable.
Considerable care has been shown in the se-
lection of the various other subjects which they have been asked to
teach.
For the most part the subjects assigned them are related to
their special line of work, for example, biology, agriculture, and
physics.
Some are teaching as many as four subjects A addition to
home economics. In those schools in which the number of pupils in
the home economics classes is small, this seems unavoidable at present.
Hamilton County, Tenn., has a similar arrangement whereby the
county agent acts as supervisor of home economics for the county
schools.
One of the immediate results of this supervision has been
the introduction of home economics lessons in the suburban gram-
mar schools of Hamilton County and the development of a uniform
course of study.
364
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
The hoine economics departments in the State normal schools have
been vitally affected by the forces that have been at work during the
past two years. As was to have been expected in schools whose stu-
dents are living on a very narrow marerin of income, the attendance
has decreased.
This decrease in attendance has been appreciable
among students taking the special home economics course, but there
has been nothing to indicate that the courses have been permanently
affected thereby. On the other hand the efforts to give instruction
in food conservation to the entire student body in the normal schools
have been so successful that several schools leport that a general
course in food study is to be permanently required of all students in
the normal school, men and women alike. Thus a greater number of
students is being given instruction relative to the place of home eco-
nomics in general education, and a wider interest is created in the
home economics teaching in the public schools of the country.
The changes that are being wrought in the normal school curricu-
16m through the Smith-Hughes Act have not been in force for a period
of sufficient length to have made a well-defined contribution to home
economics education, but they promise to do much to further the
standardizatioreof courses and methods in those schools which come
within scope of the act.
The necessity for conservation in our national life has acted as a
spur to normal school teachers and pupils alike, and there has prob-
ably never been a year when courses were more alive and work more
intensive than during the 12 months just past. Old courses have been
altered and new courses have been framed to meet the needs of the
country. Community interests have been made the basis for school
problems. The home has come to be regarded as the laboratory of
the home economics student. Home economics principles have begun
tQ take deep root in daily practice of the individual, the family, and
Us community. The national emergency has been the means of ac-
celerating the forces that have been operating 'slowly through many
years, bringing to a fotus much for which home economics teachers
have long been striving. Thus the need for immediate
pservation
has made possible the placing of greater emphasis on economy in
food, clothing, and other phases of living. Courses in fancy cooking
and elaborate serving are being abolished in the normal schools. Ex-
perimental cooking with a view to the use of proper substitutes has
taken the place of these courses. Sewing on expensive materials for
personal wear has given place to Red Cross sewing, foreign 'relief
work,' or sewing for community needs. Remodeling of old garments'
and the intelligent care and laundering of the wardrobe have received
emphasis. The relation between the school garden and the home
.
,
HOME ECONOMICS.
365
economics department has been recognized by close cooperation.
More attention has been given to the body recinirements than for-
merly, and this has resulted in an increased number of courses in
dietetics, a more earnest study of the nutritional needs of school chil-
dren with intelligent planning for school lunch Work, and a closer
° cooperation with other forces in the community, working for public
health. One of the most valuable of the lessons of the year has been
that which has come from placing much of the responsibility for the
new phases of the work with the students, securing their coopera-
tion, developing (heir initiative, and helping them to learn by giving
out to others all that has come to them through study and in-
vestigation in the laboratory. Thus students in the normal schools
have held classes in dietetics in the community; they have passed on,
by means of demonstrations or through the local papers, recipes they
have worked out; they have arranged food and clothing conservation
and have organized club work among small girls.
Several
normal schools have added special demonstration courses to prepare
their students for this community work.
The following statement in regard to the methods of carrying on
practical work in one of the normal schools shows the tendency to
make the work contribute tqrthe needs of the school as well as to give
the students practical problems:
We are installing a large school cafeteria, equipped to serve 1,000 at a meal,
and we expect to use this to further our food conservation campaign. .We are
making arrangements so that all food which is used even in experimental
work In the laboratories can be sent to the cafeteria, the Idea being to minimize
any tendency toward eating food during the laboratory time. We expect to
use the cafeteria as an-educational means of teaching proper food combina-
tions through bulletin work. The girls in elementary dietetics as well as the
advanced class will keep a record of the way the students are eating and will
gVivzsuggestions for wise selections through chapel talks and our school paper.
number of girls who are leaving this year to teach in high schools are
planning to have the first-year high-school domestic science work &s it has been
generally given, except that food prepared by these girls will be used in the
small school cafeteria and the second-year domestic science girls will run this..
The second-year girls will be divided into two groups, the one preparing the
food, the other managing. The work of these grips will alternate'
Throughout these months of increased activity the normal qchools
have had occasion to give time to the consideration of the real pur:,
pose of their courses in ?tome economics.
Recognizing the fact that
it is the.function of the normal school to prepare teachers for the
common schools, they have made a greater effort to give instruction
in home economics problems to all elementary and rural teachers and
have put less stress on the preparation of special teachers of home
economics.
Because of the growing tendency throughout the'coun-
*Report received from State Normal Sellol, Emporia, Kane.
. 4
366
BIENNIAL SURVEY OE EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
try to require that all high-school teachers hold college degrees, the
normal schools are having less demand for teachers of home eco-
nomics for high schools. One normal school has lengthened its course
for special teachers to four years in order to meet the standard of
the high school.
Another normal school has entirely abolished its
course in home economics designed for the preparation of special
teachers of the subject, bec.ause of the lack of demand for special
teachers in the common schools of the State.
Little uniformity has existed in normal school courses, because of
their necessary compliance with widely differing local conditions,
but the teachers are beginning to feel that they have some problems
in common with one another. In one State the normal school teach-
ers of home economics have coine together to work out a course of
study for the use of the elementary school. They have formed an or-
ganization which is the means of bringing all the teachers of the
tate together and is doing much to raise the standard of home eco-
mics teaching.
A conference of home-economics teachers of the State normal
schools of New England was held in Boston, Mass., February 16 and
17, 1917, at the call of the commissioner of education.
This was the
sixth in a series of sectional conferences, the first of which was held
Novembeis17, 1915.
Groups of normal-school teachers having simi-
lar problems have been brought together at each of these conferences.
Inasmuch- as conditions varied widely, interesting discussions de-
veloped, and suggestions were made for possible changes in existing
conditions. The following summary of the discussions suggests the
nature of the problems which arose:
1. The course given in the normal schools should be planned with a
definite purpose in mind.
This purpose may be one of the following:
(a) The preparation of special teachers of home economics for the
common schools of the State; (b) the .preparation of rural teachers
so that they may, give lessons in home making or conduct a lunch
in addition to their work of general teaching; (c) the acquaintance
of all normal students with the fundamental principles of home
economics, that they may recognize its place in the general school
curriculum, that they may be able to cooperate intelligently with the
special teachers of home economics, and that theymay be prepared to
undertake the task of home making intelligently.
2. The time allowed for a course should be sufficient to provide
adequate training.
If special teachers of home economics are to be
trained,)a special course of at leasqwo yeiirs is absolutely essential
and a course of three years is preferable.
If the lessons are to pre-
pare rural teachers to handle classes in cdoking, serving, and home
making, a general or survey course of fiveperiods a Week for an entire
HOME ECONOMICS.
367
year should be required.
This course should include or be accom.-
panied by observation and practice in the teaching of home making.
and in the preparation of the school lunch in the rural school.
A:
similar course should be offered the general student.
3. Entrance requirements for the course should be definitely de-
fined.
This is particularly necessary to the success of the course for
the special, teacher.
Entrance requirements will necessarily vary
according to the development and needs of the particular community.
Courses in home making in the grades and high school should be
required for entrance just as soon as such courses become general in
the community.
4. The short course in home economics should be well balanced and
include simple problems in home making, elementary study of 'foods,
cookery, textiles, and serving.
It must include both laboratory prac-
tice and lecture periods.
dOLORED SCHOOLS.
In the colored schools of the South there has been progress in the
courses in home making. of recent years, because of better-trained
teachers, more facilities for work, and-a developing system of super -
vision.
The majority of teachers have received preparation in in-
dustrial schools, fund some have been brought together in county
institutes for instruction and have attended summer schools for fur-
ther study. In some States special courses giving suggestions for
lessons in home economics are sent out to the teachers.
Most of the
States have county and State agents. who keep in touch with the work
through personal visits and correspondence.
County agents are able
women qualiered to instruct in industrial lines and to ginde the teach-
ers in their work.
Since the beginning of the war this work has been
given a remarkable impetus. Home gardens have been planted in
greatly increased numbers, and large quantities of fruits and vege-
tables have been canned. dried, and stored for winter use.
Industry,
thrift, and sanitation in the home.have resulted from the work of the
supervisors.
While better school buildings and equipment have been provided
for the colored schools, the high cost of living has seriouslyretarded
the industrial work in many places, because funds to provide ma-
terial for work have been inadequate or totally lacking. Many have
been the expedients to which ingenious teachers have had to resort
to secure materials for the classes in cooking and sewing.
School
lunches, sales of foods cooked, the keeping of a school garden, the
use of flour sacks for fashioning undergarments, making over old
clothes, and sewing for the teachers have been practiced in many
schools.
In a greet number of cases teachers have themselves con-
A111111111111111
368
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-118,
tributed materials for the work. This uncertain system of securing
supplies has been a serious detriment to the development of the
work, and the condition should be remedied, if effective work is to
be done.
Notwithstanding the drawbacks under which the indus-
ti ial teachers have labored in the colored schools, the annual school
exhibits which form aniniportant feature of their work have steadily
improved in character. The articles made in the sewing claSses have
'become more simple and better adapted to the needs which they are
to answer: They show better taste,in color,and design, a truer econ-
omy in.the selection of materials and a higher standkrd of work-
manship., In,,cooking exhibits the chief stress has been put on the
canning and drying of food products, in order to emphasize con-
servation and economy. Fancy cooking and candy making are giv-
ing place to an honest presentation of the homely needs of daily life.
As these exhibits are serving to set standards for the community and
to convince the people of the value of the school work, they can'well
be regarded as a factor in community development. Ili those schools
in which boarding departments are maintained an improvement in
the standard of living is noted both in the care of the building'and
in the meals served. This is felt to have resulted very directly from
the teaching of home economics 014 has been done throughout the
.South.
,
.
rromE ECONOMICS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES.
a
. The report of 'development of home economics in the University
of Illinois during the past, two years,' 191G-1918, may be considered
typical of the best home economics departments of the country. It
is as follows:
The regular, work of the department has been marked by an increase in at-
tendance, by an emphasis upon food work, owing to war conditions and em-
phasis upon extension work because of the Smith-Lever and the war emergency
funds. The development of the food work has been along two lines: For the
-undergraduate student: Emphasis upon what might be 'termed practical di-
etetics, so that the students could interpret to the general ppblic scientific
feeding in terms of daily life. An attempt to take this direct to the, university
public in the lunch room, through charts and suggestions about selection, Of
food.
Second, experimental work in food substitutes.
For the graduate stu-
dent': The emphasis was upon the problems of nutrition, including the feeding
of the child as well as the adult. Third, owing to the increased costs of living,
'emphasis has been put on economics of the family and through cooperation
with another department of the agricultural college, some studies are being
made in the cost of living.
Fourth, a special p.roblems course has been changed
Into a course designed to give extension workers a broader conception of ex-
tension weft and its significance in the development of family and community
living.
The university has for many years retained a practice apartment as a labora-
tory for household management. The passage of the Smith-Hughes Act has made
e
HOME .ECONOMICS.
369'
it neeessary.to enlarge those laboratory facilities, and arrangements have been
made with the university authorities for the use of its university cooperative
houses for the teacher training in Smith-Hughes.
The practice work in home economics for teachers has been conducted In
connection with the Champaign and Urbana schools for several years.
These
schools are typical of the schools into which the university graduates go as
teachers and afford excellent 'training- for the conditions as they exist in Illi-
nois. The Smith-Hughes bill occasioned a readjustment and an enlargement of
the work already being conducted, two additional instructors and a special di-
vision of subject matter and method being provided for the teacher training
work in home economics. Two new courses have been added, a course in eco-
nomics of the filthily group and a course in interior decoration.
In 1916 a series of five lectures was provided to reach the non home economics
women of the university and also the women of the community. These lectures
were given by heads of various university departments, and presented phases
of production, conservation, transportation, and distribution of food supplies
,a.n d food products.
A two weeks' intensive course in canning. preserving, and drying was given,
open to members of home economics classes who volunteered for summer serv-
ice In their home communities.
.
A similar course was given for nonuniversity women.
Red Cross classes were given in nursing, dietetics,. and surgical dressings.
Special classes were provided in institutional management for servi
large
groups of people and in conducting lunch rooms, etc., on a war basis.
Spetial courses were given for fraternities, boarding-house keeper ,
::em-
missarles, etc.
.
Two special courses were conducted as supervised by Dean Olin Templin
for non home economics women.
No courses have been offered formekstudents here, but all the commissaries
of the fraternities and sororities were invited to special lectures adapted to
their needs, and in ninny cases personal assistance was given to the men coma;
missaries.
,
Introduction of hot noonday lunch in many rural schools has been em-
phasized.
The work In the Urbana and Champaign schools is under the direc-
tion of the department of education of the university and under the supervision
of specially trained teachers for that work, and sonic Important developments
are expected in the present year.
.
,-.1
There has been no Statc
upervlsor of home ecortmulcsr in connection with
the State superintendent of p Mlle instruction until the passing of the Smith-
Htighei Act.
There is now a woman who Passes upon tithe merits of the high
schools applying for home economics under the Smith-Hughes Act, and it is
expected that the university will have its supervisor of teacher training follow
''up the work of its students after they leave the university.
The State lender
in home economics demonstration unites the wort of the States Relations
Service and the extension division of home economics in ;he University of
Illinois.
The most important State legislation is an aci. providing for the proper light-
ing, heating, and ventilation of rural schools, also proper water supply and
sewage disposal system. Suggested provision to be met on penalty of forfeiting
the district's share of the public school fund. With the State demanding proper
sanitary conditions for children at school, we have Splendid basis foi persuading
the home to use equal ca fi In promoting child welfare.
171029°-21Bull. 88-7---24
.
370
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The effect Of the war upch home economies instructions Is Indicated by
(a). Increased enrollment in courses offered at colleges and normals and a
readjustment of courses to suit specific war needs.
(b) Increased demand for extension lectures and demonstrations.
(c) The accrediting of home economies* (for one or two entrance credits)
from 195 of the 234) accreditgd high schools of the State, thereby giving
recognition to tlais..work of the seconder" schools.
(d) Tho employment in 14 counties of home demonstration agents.
(e) The cooperation of Council of Defense agencies in the city and 'country
alike with the State Relations Service for food conservation.
Aside from the changed emphasis demanded by war conditions, the attempt
Is being made to put the extension teaching in home economics upon a better
educational basis.
First, by the classification of the material to be taught along
distinct lines of food, clothing, equipment, family accounts, public health; and
second, by better organization and presentation of material along these lines.
The home economics teachers' branch of the Illinois High-School Conference
has established uniform courses for both elementary and high, schools 'for
.
Illinois.
EFFECT OF WAR ON COLLEGE COURSES.
Certain movements were common to all colleges.
Many ifistitu-
tions either made direct use of the food administration's courses of
study or blended the substance of these into their established courses.
Almost every college placed especial stress 6n food preservation as
well as upon food'cbnservation. Red Cross sewing Was done both in
and outside of regular clothing classes, while special instruction was
given in surgical dressings, first aid, and.lmitting. Almost all col-
leges opened special classes to local townswomen.
rrireachers College, ColviiIabia.University, the school of household
arts has made the following adjustments and advancements in teach-
ing the various courses in home economies:
Establishment of practice houses. During the last year a practice apartment
has been In qperatton in a nearby house, practically under the college roof. It
Is self supporting.
The apartment is occupied by six students five, of them
Majoring ts household administration, and one, the director of the group,
majoring ;as a teacher of vocational homemaking.
The students do all the
work of the apartment and receive eight points of college credit for satisfac-
tory perfortliance of duties.
the period of occupancy Is for one term of about
17 weeks.
The schedule is so arranged that each student has opportunity to
serve three weeks in each of the several capacities, of cook, housekeeper, wait-
ress. hostess. etc.
,.It is hoped to Increagie thenumper of practice houses as rapidly as there la
demand, for the purpose
offerfig mansgerial practice to teachers in training
for vocational homema ng and home practice to Toang students with only
laboratory experie
n agaition It Is hoped to demonstrate the possibility at
a better system of housing for many tudents who can not be accommodated In
the college dormitories
There bee been no mafke1 reorgtnization of the department of household
arts education daring the past few years, with the exception of thetstabltih-
*meat of the committee basis in the staff,, the chairmanship passing from one
member of the staff to another etch year.
14,
HOME ECONOMICS.
871
?As Indicated elsewhereIn the report, special provision has been made for the
training of extension workers and for teachers of vocational homemaking.
Furthermore, as a means of extending the experience of the student teachers
and of combining training mid service. a group of students who* have been
teachers before entering Teachers College have volunteered their services in
the home service section of the American Red Cross as food advisers in famines
where needed.
Opportunities for practice teaching have opened in one of the New York City
high schools, and it Is hoped that the privilege may be extended.
An experimental school lunchroom has been opened in the elementary prac-
tice school, providing simple school lunchroom experience for student teachers
as a phase of their practice teaching.
A phase of work Introduced during 1917-18 was the opportunity for juniors
to become acquainted with the practice teaching problerr_
They serve as
assistants to the seniors in their teaching, and meet for conference five times
during the semester with their supervisor. This has proved to be a very help-
ful basis for the actual practice teaching 2A the senior year.
The teaching staff holds weekly conferer-iiles to which, from time to time, are
invited members of the faCulty of Teachers College, graduate students, and
others who present in an itifortnalway certain phases of educational philosophy,
sociology, and methods which they have specially developed.
New graduate courses.-1. Graduate courses in household arts education
practice are so arranged that the piece of Individual work done by each student *\
is a problem in itself and in n certain sense always a new course.
2. Education 204B, vocation for girls and women, opens up the field of various
occupations for gigs and women related to the household arts as well as to
other avenues of work.
.3. During the last year two new majors have been offered in household arts
education (1) Teaching vocationAk-homemaking; (2) training for home demon-.
stration agents In rural communftfes.
The following are offered as the most outstanding developments in elemen-
tary and secondary schools In relation to home economics education:
(1) Unification of all phases of home economics work under one course, when
for general educationnot "domestic science" and "domestic art"
separately.
- .
(2) The organization of courses under the "unit" scheme.
(8) The use of the problem-project method of Instruction and organization
.
of courses.
(4) The introduction of projects for community and international service in
the work in sewing.
4.
t'
(5) The use of the school lunch room as a means of utilizing food products,
and of furnishing experience in family quantity cooking; also as a
means of teaching table service and etiquette.
(6) Socialization of the home economics course of study by every possible
means (e. g., preparation of food by W. I. H. S. during influenza ea-
deride).
(7) Encouraging the social instincts of the girls by utilizing them In pre-
paring for social affairs of the school.
. (8) Providing work to home economics suited to their needs for boys.
(9) Vocational bonle-makIng courses in the high school, for high:school girls
'4
and also for women who wish to come to the school, for special train-
lag aloor this line.
372
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
State supervision of home economics While Teachers College does not con-
duct supervision of State instruction, it preKres women for this work. The
course " Education 187-138, Supervision of Household Arts in Schools,': aims
to open up the field of State and school supervision of the home economics
studies. Since the operation of the Smith-Hughes law the demand has increased
for State leaders of home economics under this bill as well ns folitupervision
and criticism of practice teaching in home economics studies in normal schools
and colleges.
This course, with others in goneral suPervision of school instruc-
tion, alnis to prepare for State supervision of how ecolmmics.
Effect of the war on the interest in home eAnomies instruction.To meet
the demands for education along the lines of home economics, various courses
of a popular nature were given during 10 days in the latter part of May in the
form of emergency courses.
These were largely attended, and it is signifloant
of the increasing interest in home economics instruction that large numbers of
the registrants for these special courses were from the school of education as
well as from the school of household arts.
The character of the regular course offered has been changed considerably to
meet the new demands and interests of the students and the needs of the times.
Experimentation with various substitutes for the foods needing strict conserva-
tion with a view to issuing tellable recipes for general use was carried on in
the foods and cookery department The need for a greater number of methods
of food conservation was met by the organization of new courses in canning,
preserving, and drying of foods. Conservation and renovation problems were
also undertaken In the textile and laundry departments and met with a re-
spose that demonstrated the interest and the need.
The interests in fields of study have been chanNil and broadened also by
war demands, in that the need for people qualified to fill administrative po-
sitions as dietitians and institutional administrators of various types hay been
so pressing that many who had heretofore looked forward to teaching have
changed either temporarily or permanently into these other fields of work.
Another effect has been apparently to increase registration in home economics
departments of the college.
Contrary to expectation, the !Mine economics
classes have held their own ln'numbers or have even increased in enrollment.
New featured in home economics extension work.Three new features char-
acterize the preparation of women for home economies extension service:
(4) Beginning 1918, Teachers College offers a major in household arts for
rural extension teachers. This major is open tAyomen especially qualified for
the work. The special entrance requirement is two years' study in an ap-'
proved college.
A program of studies, 54 points, may be chosen from the fields
of foods and cookery, nutrition, clothing and textiles; chemistry, bacteriology,
hygiene, administration, and nursing.
In addition, courses In education and
rural sociology will be required: The completion of this major entitles the
student to a regular Teachers College diploma.
(2). The second new feliture for the year is the opportunity of investigating
rural Conditions and getthig practical experience In connection With 4he work
'dl the home deinonstratIon agent through direct' participation in the field
Thriough special arrangement with the department of rural education of
Teachers College and Warren and Huntington Counties, N. J., household arts
students who desire it are given this opportunity.
(8) The school of practical arts of Teachers College hayftplanfied a mid-
winter session of six weeks for the, benefit of home demonstration agents who
-
care to avail themselves.of the opportunity for further training.
HOME ECONOMICS.
373
The department of institution achninistration of Teachers College, Columbia ,
University, with increased numbers of students has arranged' the work this
year under three specialized bends.
The groups preparing for cafeteria man-
agement are having special work, both in the classroom and of a practical
nature in the field under direction of Miss Florence La Ganke, formerly in
charge of tlis cafeteria at Western Reserve University, Cleveland.
This prac-
tical work is especially emphasized this year, for unusual .opportunities have
been afforded for students, not only in the cafeteria of tile Horace Mann School
for regular work, but also In connection with the college commons for the feed-
ing of the Students' Army Training Corps. Besides this, as many former
Teachers College students are in charge of cafeterias in New York Cityin
lunch rooms for employees in banks and department stores, in cafeterias for
business women, etc.the experienCe has been a varied one which our students
have been able to obtain.
-
A special group, training to be dietitians, have their practical work under
the direction of Miss Eleanor Wells, president of the American Dietetic Asso-
ciation, New York City.
Because of the great demand for dietitians, this side
of the work has been developed this yeas, and for the first time we have -been
able to have the full time of a special dietitian to supervise the field work in
hospitals.
Through Miss Wells's acquaintance with the dietitian problems here
In the city, it has been possible to give our students practice experience to a
greater degree than before.
A special leaflet is issued describing this work.
;he third groupthat of the managers of dormbtories, clubs, etc.has been
put under the direct charge of Miss Katherine Fisher, who came to Teachers
College last year from Macdonald College, Quebec.' Again, with this group the
practice work is being emphasized in connection with dormitories, Y. W. C. A.'s,
and clubs in the vicinity. A close link is being worked out between managers of
hoarding halls and this department for further opportunity for Practice work.
Following this practice work, in connection with their regular class work, stu-
dents are required in every case to give a stated period of time in the field fol. .
lowing the period of training.
The demand for institution workers has never been so great as during this
past year ; this includes, -not only the specialized fields of dietitians for can-
tonment service and also over-seas and for cafeteria and hostess work in con-
nections with camps, but also an unusual demand for organization of depart-
Meats of institution administration.
In connection with househohL administration a housewife's bureau for helps In
housekeeping (other than food) has bin organized.
The bureau has special ex-
hibits, posters, clippings..shelf of suggested readings, equipment, leaflets,etc., per-
taining to the special subject of the week. T,,his work Is under the supervision
of a graduate student who cooperates with the different members of the house-
hold administration depattment.
Special meetings are scheduled during the
week which housewives may attend, and many outside lecturers are sailed in
to talk upon special topics.
The final summary of the work of this bureau will be suggestive for teachers
in other communities.
Special courses for helt!e makers are beingpresented in connection with con-
.
servation problems.
Simmons College reports as follows:
The war has made new demands on the department of household economics
at Simmons College, as it has on technical departments everywhere. Waling
874
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918,
courses in cookery, dietetics, and sewing have been modified to suit the times;
advanced specialized electives have been Introduced; extension courses have
been Increased; lectures and demonstrations on food conservation have been
given for students in other schools and for the public; and members of the staff
have done much advisory work on public committeed and In editing various
publications.
At the Florida State College for Women special courses in home
economics have been given continually, since the declaration of war,
for all non home economics students who wish to take lessons in food
conservation and production.
Besides this, in September, 1917, a
conservation short course was given to the women of the State, and
representatives from 35 of the 54 counties were present.
In June,
1918, a short course for country girls was held. Forty-two girls, rep-
resenting as many counties, were present.
Since there are only 54
counties in the State, these girls have been the means of reaching
communities in every section of the State.
In September, 1918, a
college for women in, war work, called the War Work College for
Women, was held here at the same time with the meeting of the home
demonstration agents.
ta
From Tampa comes the following opinion:
The war, particularly through the establishment of the Food Administration,
with the consequent regulations, has added a big element of Interest to all home
economics Instruction, and has generally increased the respect and esteem of
the public In general for the work.
University of Washington:
Practically all home economics courses were modified to meet war needs.
Specific courses are:
1. Conservation of food.
2. Making over of clothing.
8. Remodeling of bats.
4. Food service.
(This course is given for. men from the naval training
camp located on the campus.)
5. Nursing.
(This is given to the hospital corps of the Navy.)
A course for nurses' aids WAS given to 98 students, in which the home
economics department cooperated.
A five-credit course in food conservation was giVen in tte spring of 1918
throughout one-quarter to 130 senior women who were not majors, in home
economics. One quarter at the year 1917-18 was devoted to the remodeling of
garments In the dressmaking class.
In Minnesota the war has fended to increase the interest in certain
lines of home economics instruction and to divert interest from other
lines.
Interest in work vOich leads directly to war work, as for ex-
ample dietetics work, work as assistants in laboratories, and exten-
\
aion work, has been inn/eased.
The interest in general home eco-
nomies where no vocation Other, than that of home making is involved
has *rased slightly.
HOME ECONOMICS.
376
At the Oregon Agricultural College the following courses were
organized and maintained:
Food Administration course In " Food and the War," course of 4 lessons
for fraternity cooks, and a course of 10 lessons for the housewives on food
conservation.
Regular courses in camp cookery and cookery for men who do their own
housekeeping.
Special course for those engaged in military training.
Home economics department gave assistance in working out food conserve.;
tion rules, to which all fraternities, boarding houses, etc., voluntarily sub-
scribed.
Miss Marlatt, of the University of Wisconsin, states:
The effect of the war upon the interest in home economics can not be
measured. Owing to the emergency home demonstration agents, the training of
volunteer classes and the work of the Junior Red Cross, the interest in home
economics teaching has been very-greatly stimulated.
The College of the City of New York offered extension courses in
" Food in War Time." This was much similar to ordinary lecture
courses on foods and nutrition, except that all food facts were related
to war conditions. Among those who presented these courses were
Miss Laura Cauble, Mr. Robert McDowell Allen, Dr. Lucius P.
Brown, Dr. H. C. Sherman, and Miss Mary G. McCormick.
PRACTICE HOMES.
That the necessity existed of more closely alining home economics-
teaching with actual home conditions has been recognized for many
yttp.rs. Various methods have been attempted to attain this result,
the most promising of which has been the use of an ordinary resi-
dence or apartment as a practice home"
It has been difficult to convince college and university.authorities
that a practice home was an essential feature of home economics
equipment, so long have they thought of college work being carried .
on in laboratories.
Of recent years there has been an increased tendency to ',provide
practice homes:for senior students in colleges, and.these have also
been furnished by some school boards or philanthropic agencies in
certain progressive cities.
The requirement by the Federal Board ofVocational Education
that institutions receiving teacher training money should establish
these practice homes caused an increased interest in them, as the
following reports indicate:
At Lewis Institute, Chicago, the course in household management
was much improved by the addition of a practice apartment. This
was built of wall -board in the corner d they institute attic, but the
classes, with paint brushes'and needless, transform' ed it into a home,
like place where activities of all kiids take place; even classes of
Ellimormirrorrorsimarsimmi.
At
376
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
children come in to be taught " home making 'lby the fiFactice
teachers in the senior class.
Ohio State University the department of hOme economics moved
into a large, new, commodious building in September, 1916.
This
gave the opportunity for further development. A practice house in
connection with the household management course' will be estab-
,lished in an apartment in the building this year.
A practice home has been in use at the University of Missouri
since June, 1918. The students remain in the home from 8 to 16
weeks, and there are from 7 to 9 girls living in it at a time. An addi-
tional practice home was opened at Cornell University in 1917; the
first one has been in existence four years.
In the Kansas State AgriCultural College a house ftas been leased
by the department of domestic science, which will accommodate 14
students and a teacher.
This house is to serve as a laboratory for
the teaching of household management to students who wish to
qualify to teach home economics wider' the requirements of the
Smith-Hughes Act. The work of the home is to be done under the
supervision of the teacher, by the students.
The length of time for
each group is not definitely determined, but will probably be one
semester.
Cost of maintenance to be prorated among the students.
At the Florida State College for Women they have established a
practice house.
All graduates live in the cottage for a minimum of
eight weeks during the year. The girls live in groups of six ata time;
Poultry and gardening are carried on by the practice house family.
The work is under the supervision of the regular instructor, Miss
Lucy Kimball. The expenses of the cottage last year did notteced--
30 cents per person per day, exclusive of rent.
Temple University, in Philadelphia, will use the university dormi-
tories in lieu of a practice house until it is deemed advisable to es-
tablish a separate residence for this practice work.
Milwaukee-Downer ills() uses the dormitories in place of a separate
practice house.
A practice house will this year be established at New Hampshire
Agricultural College and one will also be established at the Connecti-
cut Agricultural College.
The University of Nevada enjoyed the use of the president's house
as a practice house.
The Agricultural College of Oklahoma will have a practice house
this fall.
The home of the president of Lincoln College, Lincoln, Ill., will
be hereafter used as a practice house..
At the Oregon Agricultural College a practice house .was estab-
lished in geptember, 1916. It is entirely self- supporting.
It houses
.
11 girls and 1 faculty woman.
:
.
.
:
HOME ECONOMICS.
377
A new practice house I'ts been given to the University of Indiana.
A practice apartnient was in use in 1917-18 at the University of
South Dakota, and this arrangement will continue until the State
appropriates money for a practice house.
A friend of Hood College, at Frederick, Md., made-a liberal dona-
tion for a practice honbe for the home economics women of that
school.
This is the first practice house in Maryland and marks an
epoch in the teaching. of home economics in the State. The home is
modern in every respect, is comfortably furnished and affords an op-
portunity for all senior home economics students to have actual ex-
perience in the operation of..a home.
.
The practice house at the University,of Wisconsin has been or-
ganized since 1910. This year they report as follows:
We are now erecting a model farm house which will be used as a practice
laboratory in the course in dietetics and household management so that we will
be able to give longer periods inthe cottage to the students in the household
management courses.
A
Oxford College, Oxford, Ohio, has maintained a practice cottage
for some years.
Pratt Institute has long maintained a house in which students can
try out the principles of household administration.
In connection with the practice house at the Mississippi Industrial
Institute and College at Columbus, there was a practical home dairy.
A cow was kept to supply needed milk and to give an opportunity
to teach the proper care and handling of rhilk. Cream was secured
from the local creamery, and each girl had experience in making 2p
pounds of butter.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF FOOD
URSg
THE MANAGE-
MENT OF LUNCH ROOMS AND CAF
IAS, A
IN COOPERAT-
ING WITH THE FRATERNITIES, DOR
ORIES, AND BOARDING
HOUSES.
Simmons College reports as follows:
We have excellent cooperation between the teaching staff and the dormitory
administration.
Our house superintendent is a member of the faculty and In
charge of all work in institutional management. Our policy continues to be to
admit for Institutional work only mature women.
In the Florida State College for Women the dormitory is in charge
, .
of a trained dietitian who is a member of the faculty of the school of
home economics doing some teachingirinutrition.
Agricultural College ofWashington states:
Through our division of institutional management the student halls are
operated under the direction of the college of home economics.
'lire fraternity
houses gave active cooperittloiwid have. Sequent meetings of their house
managers with the head of the
stot of institutional management. Most of
the sorority Anises are nowobeIng operated indirectly by students who are house
378
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
members and who have elected that course of study.
This last year we have
established a cafeteria.
The bead of the division of institutional 'management
is also in charge of the special mess for the soldiers camp now stationed at the
State college.
The home' economics department of the Ohio State University
reports that several seniors who registered in proseminary course
have cooperated.with boarding houses, fraternity houses, and sorority
houses, in managing the food, as well as the complete budget. A
large manufacturing plant asked for assistance in reorganizing their-.
welfare lunchroom.
This was worked out, and a trained worker
placed in charge.
The lunchroom will be used as a laboratory to
some extent for students taking institutional work.
It is with the idea to develop greater cooperation between the de-
partment and the college cafeteria and fraternity and sorority houses
at the agricultural college of Utah that two new members of the
staff have been chosen.for their experience in cafeteria and institu-
tional work and a complete and up-to-date kitchen for training stu-
dents in cafeteria and institutional management has been installed.
During the past year a woman for institutional work has hern
added to the faculty of the home economics department in the Ohio
State University, and a course will be developed with laboratory work
in a new cafeteria.
a
In the Kansas State Agricultural College the institutional work has greatly
developed during the biennium. The cafeteria, whictr was equipped and opened
in 1915 for the purpose of feeding the students and serving as a laboratory to
teach institutional management. has been highly successful.
It has paid all
ears . 8, including director's salary, and has had a balance to apply toward
add tional equipment.
Strong courses in.instituilonal management and insti-
tutio
1 cookery have been developed. A lunchroom management course of one
year has been added.
The home economics department of the University of Waipingfon has com-
plete charge of the conlinissary department and' the houcekeeplifig of the
dormitories, which accommodate 100 students.
Frequent advice and belp is
asked for and given to the fraternity rind sorority houses.
A unixersity com-
mons is housed in the home economics building and is an activity of that
department.
It affords opportunity for practice work for students in institu-
tional management
.
The department is called upon to act in an advisory capacity in the manage-
ment of.fraternity houses.
During the year 1917-18 the department of home economics in the Agricul-
tural College of Colorado operated .a college-itds' boarding club in which 30
students were served, at a flat rate of $16 per month.
This amount covered
not alone cost of %materials but rental, heating and lighting of the house. tRery-
Ice,.breakage and depreciation of 10 per cent in furniture and furnishings.
In
addition there were supplied to the resideutypnd faculty members and the
. working housekeeper their rooms.
Canned fruits, jellies, jams, and relishes
were supplied to the club at cost of re* material. The department of home
ecAnomics found this to be a very practical and helpfdl demonstration In house
management.
.
HOME ECONOMICS.
379
At the University of Wisconsin the director of the university com-
mons and her assistants are members of the home economics depart-
ment.
Practically all the sororities have a home economics student
as their steward. The fraternities have occasionally asked help in
the selection and buying of food.
, At Milwaukee-Downer most of the practical cookery work is done
for the college dormitories or cafeteria.
All students of the college
home economics department are given opportunity to work in the
college Cafeteria.
At the Univer4ity of California conferences are held by the head
of the home economics divisioq each term with the Pan-Hellenic
body, made up 1 club managers, and with the approved boarding-
house keepers.
here is no official machinery, however, connecting the
division with any eating plates.
It is proposed during the coming
term to place the student cafeteria on the campus in charge of a com-
mittee of women students under the leadership of a graduate of the
division, who still be given the management bf the cafeteria as: an
economic problem for credit.
It is believed that the running of
such an establishment offers degree credit fold only for one student
at a time.
.
At De Pauw University the home economics deprtment and dormi-
to-ry system are very closely related, in that the head of the depart-
ment who does part-time teaching is also director of the three halls,
which include the housekeeping, bdirding, planning of meals, buying,
mangement of employees, records, etc.
In other words, home eco-
nomics principles are tieing carried out in the college dormitories,
and the plan has been quite successful:
In Lewis Institute the institutional management classes were bene-
fited by the installation of a small bakery and laundry.
These served
the double purpose of supplying the lunch rooms, dormitofies, etc.,
with baked products and clettAlinen, respectively, and in giving these
classes extra experience in thet.ehosen field.
The arrival of a training detachment of 360 soldiers at Lewis In.
satute turned the gymnasium into a mess hall; the cafeteria kitchen
adjoining was _quickly augmented with extra equipment and more
employees, and most of the institutional, students took an active part
in assisting in the work and management. The summer school leas.
given a "canteen course" with practice work here and in the lunch
rooms. New ranges, mixing machines, vegetable peeler, etc., have
been material helpers and have given these classes experience in their
manipulation and uses.
The Temple University lunch room has been placed under the
supervision of the household arts department: (1) Some, service
hired; (2) some cookery and all management, and some waitress
duties, done by pupils under supervision of instructor..
i
7--
$80
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
The results of first year's operation in cost are: All costs cleared,
including rental of space, provision for depreciation, of equipment,
gas, etc.
Salary of instructor not inclUded, as this is considered a
legitimate instruction cost.
There has been greater opportunity given for practice teaching
with work itiore,closely supervised, and lunch room management
course has been introduced.
SMITH-LEVER EXTENSION WORK.
The Secretary of Agriculture has expressed the opinion that the
extension service rendered under the Smith-Lever Act is the largest
educational work in the United States.
.
New phases of extension teaching in Ohio:
Home demonstration work established September, 1917. Now have 12 county
agents and 7 city agents.
Teaching by means, of Illustrated lecture and demonstration from an auto-
mobile which toured part of the State In the idterest of poultry and egg pro-
duction.
Regular members of extension force assigned to Chautauc,a tours to give
food conservation demonstrations.
Demonstrations in homes of foreigners, often non-English-speaking, is a form
of teaching done by urban home demonstration agents:
Teaching Iciod facts by means of games or playlets is a method newly tried
by urban agents in work with large groups of school chlklren.
The exhibit method of teaching has been used by home denionstration agents.
The teaching of the extension service of the home economics department
has been considerably extended by the enlistment of home economics trained
people all over the State who signify their willingness to give talks and dem-
:
onstrations in their communlitlea. They give their service, and the
people
for whom the demonstration is given pay expenses of supplies used.
In Nebraska the county home dqvionstration agents are placed on
a permanent basis, each county paying one-half of the total expense.
The first work of each agent is to establish a county homemakers'
association comprised of a' number of local associations sufficient to
reach all of the women in the county. These local associations meet
monthly and during file first year the agent meets with them-or
trains leaders for Auch meetings as she can not attend in person.
During the past year the conservation of food has been the main
topic, with some attention devoted to clothing conservation.
Great
interest has been displayed in food values. The county food admin-
-istrators of the State are very ardent supporters of home derpon-
stration agents because they find that in those counties where there
are holt& demonstration agents the spirit of the.women and their at-
titude toward food ccinservat'on is much better than in those counties
where they have no such age ts. A large number of volunteerdem-
onstrators have been train
the past year by the agents for the
HO* ECONOMICS.
881
purpose of giving sugar and wheat conservation demonstrations.
Training classes for volunteer workers are usually held in domestic
science laboratories and are conducted for from one to three days.
These demonstrators cooperate with the food administrators and
with the women's committees of the county councils of defense, giv-
ing detnonstrations.before organized' groups and at the grocery stores..
Another piece of extension work has been the giving of instructions
in canning. drying, and egg preservation.
In 1917, 2,040 volunteer
demonstrators were trained at 25 two-day canning schools.
These-
schools were held in 38 of the larger towns, utilizing domestic science
laboratories in high schools.. They were coliflucied by members of
the staff of the home economics departinent of the College of Agricul-
ture. Two of these schools, with a total attendance of 350, were held
at the University of Nebraska for the special benefit of thettudents
of the arts college.
In' 1918 a particular effort was made to reach
the rural districts and the more sparsely settled portions of the
State.
During this season 479 demonstrations have been held by
repreSentatives of the extension and home economics department in
the 70 counties not reached by home demonstration agents.
,
The past year has marked the beginning of city home demonstra-
tion work.
In the city of Omaha the *agent has appoi4ed a chair-
.
man for every school district and these chairmen have in turn di-
vided their 4lstricts into smaller units, appointing a representative
in each unit. These unit representatives are agencies for the distri-
bution of literature, for the advertising of meetings, and for the
carrying on of the supervision of projects in their respective units.
In the city of Lincoln the home demonstration agent has
een the
4
only agency attempting to reach the foreign population in
e teach-
ing of the use of substitutes. This she has accomplished by training
volunteer workers and by utilizing volunteer demonstrators residing
in the city who have had college training in home economics.
The
municipal canning kitchen established in Lincoln in June, 1918, has
been very successful and very well received.
New phases of extension teaching in home economics in TiriRconfin
' have been brought about through the work of .t1if emergency home
demonstration agents. In this State the leadv has inaugutated a
method of training mature housewives as volunteer teachers in the
newer use of the war breads.' This group of Women in the town were
first taught methods and trained members to do demonstrations.
They then. called meetings and trained members of the ward or block
in methods of making war breads. They also organized the town.
ships and rural school districts, going out in automobile squads to
do the work throughout the county. Thesi workers cooperated with
the emergency. home demohstratinn agents wherever there was one
.
N
located in the county.
'4
882
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Texas Agricultural College, which does not offer courses in home
economics, reports the following concerning the extension service:
Through our 50 county home demonstration agents, 10 urban .agents, and 10
negro home demonstration agents, we have done work in all lines of food
preservation and food conservation.
I can not give a complete summary of
this work until after November 1, when our annual report is made.
The Agricultural college of Utah sends in the following report:
With respect to new phases of work in our extension division the following
are noted as the most impoctirst
The appointment of 10 nt,w home demonstrators, and the Connection of all
such home economic workers with the t:oiumunity centers,
A great increase in the work in urban districts.
For example, two cities of
over 215,000 have appointed demonstrators, and all the larger townienre or-
ganizing coltimunityveuters, where not alone are damonstrations given In war
cookery and dress economics, but in the right care of child life!
A very valuable bulletin was issued from the university in the'spring on the
care of infants, and one on the care of childhood and adolescence is now In the
printer's hinds.
The formation of.the family type of farm burea
all through the State.
The organization of local woinerNiUto training cla
sfunder trained super-
vision.
These will serve to demonstrate the effect of the war upon the interests In
home economics Instruction.'
In Minntsota the placing of home demonstration agents in the
State was a new Ides'elopmeni of the extension teaching in home
economics.
The University of Wiscon.ein offered anextension course for home
economics worket'swhich is described as follows:
A lecture and laboratory course Opting with the fleld,of extension teaching;
discussions on the organization of material and problems of cooperation. corn-,
bined with laboratory practice In preparation of material for exhibits; lectures
tOid demonstrations form a part of the course.
NEW PHASES OF HOME ECONOMICS.
There has come a broader vision of what home economics may
nran among those who have the organization and administration of
home economics departments.
At the University of the Stale of Washington this new work was
inaugurated:
.
In 1917-18 a ours efp cpurse was added.
It is now prolidOl that students may
take three Tears at the university followed by two years In a nurses training
school and graduate at the end of five years as a registered nurse with a
bachelor of science degree.
The training course must be approved by the
university faculty.
$.
In the Agricultural College of Col
o:
Beginning with July 1, 1917, a budget .was set aside ,for the Initiation of
,averimeat station work In home economics The total allowance .for the two
ak
Si
HOME ECONOMICS.
883
6
years beginning July 1, 1917, is $3,500.
This is to provide for salary, equip-
ment of experimental laboratory, and supplies.
In addition to that procured
out of the budget named, some equipment has been loaned by other departments.
Projects outithed Include experimental cookery and research.
From the University of Nebraska it is reported that:
During 1917-IS the cadettiug in the LincolnSchools of the students In the
special methods course was developed under the joint supervision of a member
of the sniff of the line economics department of the university and the city
supervisor. The usual difficulties were encountered, but their recognition has
led to the formulation of a plan of ceoperationWhich it is believed will be
workable. This plan will be put in operation under the direction of an assistant
professor In the university In charge of home economics education.
rioirerxity of 1V iscomin:
No better illustration of the new trend of home economics can be
found than the following excerpt from the report of the home eco-
nomies department of the University of Wisconsin:
,
The need for the beat trained people that can be secured for the nursing
service was recognized by the State legielatUre
ite special session last Feb-
ruary, at which time they passed a bill granting at least nine months' credit
to college graduates who had taken approved laboratory courses during their
college work.
Detailed courses in biology and etr. ecially in home economics
are recognized in the understanding of the law. The first group of university
graduates began their work July 1,
1918.
The university courses in home
economics and medicine are cooperating in this work, so that the time required
for fulfilling the requirements for the degrees of registered nurse will be made
as short as possible.
The preliminary courses especially designed for this
course are those required in the general course in home economics.
To the student who elects this major theokopportunity will be given to com-
*plete the requirements forte bachelor of science degree and acquire the nurse's
certificate In less than ti
four college.snd two hospital years.
This can .be
done by .the student taking summer school work in addition to the regular
work in the university year. With the regulation age limit for those entering
the nursing profession this will allow the high-school girl to enter the uplversity.,
and prepare herself for the work of hospital nurse, public health nurse, social
welfare nurse, or industrial nurse at practically the same age as she wohld
have done if she had entered the three-year nursing course after graduating
from the high school dud reaching the age of 19.
A five-year nurses' course will be given at Ohio State University,
and will parallel cliiisely the first three yeirs of the curticulum in
home economics.
The University of Iowa will offer an intensive training course for wometf to
bectnie nurses on much the saute plan as Vassar, except that the Iowa train-
ing course will be open also for the training of wotnen who have had only two
or three years of college work. The Red Cross has approved the program, and
Mrs. Blodgett, Who recently visited Iowa City, representing the Vassar camp,
was enthusiastic over It. TIttre is a prospect that the overflow from Vassar
may be sent to Iowa. ,,in Iowa there will be the advantage of the finest hoe-
pltals and equipment of the University School of Medicine, which, it will be
remembered, ranks A by the standards o? the American Medical.,Assoclatton..
384
BIENNIAL SURVEY. OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
At Sioux Falls .College courses in food conservation were offered to
men students and were appreciated by them.
In the University 'of IV ebraska: itinerant teacher training was
begun in 1918, and 29 schools were visited.
The work was largely
in the niture of a survey, with the aim of determining what as-
sistance could be given in developing home economics courses. A
great variety in the time and content of courses and the adequacy
of equipment was"found. The attitude of both superintendent and
teachers proved the value of this work, and it will be expanded in
the future.
In Mills College, California, the course in house sanitation has been
turned over to the physics department and will be called applied
physics. A new course in weaving on a hand loom is now offered
in order to train women as teachers in reconstruction work' among
the soldiers.
The University of Wisconsin offers the following among a number
Of new courses in the home economics department:
Reconstruction course.
I; 5 cr. Teacher training course In hand crafts used
In reconstruction camps, sanitariums, and hospitals.
(w) Applied design. 3 cr.
Designs suitable to the special hand aafts to be
taught.
Lectures M. -W. 11.
Laboratory M. W. 8-10.
(b) Hand crajta. 2 cr.
Practical
problems In
dyeing,
netting,
knitting,
weaving, setting up a hand loom, pattern weaves, all-over hand border pat-
terns: use of knitting machines and .other craft appliances.
Laboratory 8-10
F. S. 1: 30-3 : 30 F.
At the University of Indiana a new graduate course was given in
the care, management, and training of childreh below school age.
One also on women and children in industry was offered.
The home economics department of the Oregon Agricultural Col-
lege. has these divisions: Household science, household art, and house-
hold administration.
There is also an advanced course in textiles
and a survey course in home economics.
Institutional management
which involves the managing of a boarding house which will ac-
commodate 50 people is also organized.
In the University of Minnesota a course in commercial clothing
manufactdre was establishecilast year.
This course deals with the
trade point of view in clothing construction problems. It is not a
trade course, however, but is designed for those specializing in tex-
tiles and clothing work to increase speed and skill, to give insight
into some of the economic problems of dressmaking work.
- At the University of minriesotit a project work oi " follow-up" teaching or
training of teachers in 'service was carried out and will be continued this year.
This work was done with the graduates of the previous year who were teaching
In the State of Minnesota. The manila have been of considerable moment with
reference to assistance to young women. in their teaching posVions and-help
HOME ECONOMICS..
385
V
for the teacher training section through a clearer understanding of the problems
In the State.
.
At Pratt Institute, in the summer of 1917, the school ransthe mess for 120
siknal service corps men in training, at the same time instructing 20 of the
men as cooks. The lunchroom was used, with some separate lessons in the class
kitchen's.
Summer work for students of Pratt Institute, was changed so as
to require the planning, purchasing, preparation, and serving of three meals
a day for 14 consecutive days for a family of not leas than four.
. Simmons College reports:
There is an increased desire on the part of students for greater specialization.
This intrices itself felt not so touch by way of clirect expression from the Stu-
dents as by the eagerness with which new speciated electives are chosen and
the reluctance with which the conventional group of teaching electives is ac-
cepted.
We now have fairly well organized groups of electives for vocations
other than teaching, one leading to lunchroom or hospital work, one to ex-
tension work, and one to craft work with the handicapped. We ore hoping to
develop imineZlintely work directed toward social service, such as the food work
of children's clinics.
Another field of work attractive to our home-economics
studentt41s public health work. Apparently on r tzenertil home-economics train-
ing constitutes an excellent background for this work.
CHILD WELFARE COURSES.
The indications all point to a manifestation of interest in child
welfare by the establishwent of child.wel fare cburses or lines of work
in home economics divisions.
Infant feeding has frequently been
considered, but the feeding of the pre-sc,hool age child, the element-
ary school child, and the youth during the adolescent period has not
been especially treated.
Moreover, child welfare Will not longer be
interpreted to mean merely child feeding.
Physical, mental, moral,
and industrial welfare will hereafter be considered to be of equal
interest.
Home economists will agree with the following statement from
an address given by Miss Rita Oldham, president of the Association
of Head Mistresses of England :
Nevertheless, of all the contributions to civilization made by Women they must
set highest motherhood and the nurture of their own children, which the ma-
lority of women would desire and consider the first claim upon them during
.
a part of their lives.
'
What is the application?
This: That in our schools the,bulkoof those they
trained are consciously or unconsciously going forwaki to lives as wives and
mothers.
Is It not time that they set themselves to consider whether difference
of function in the mass should not carry with it more differentiation of educa-
tion than at present exists?
Not for on6 moment should the education of
women be interior to that of men. But those who direct the education of girls
' should rid themselves of the idea from which some had already broken free,
that the education of girls in the mass should be modeled upon or condi-
tioned by that Of boys.
What they need now is a completely free and unprejudiced review of the whole
ground in the light of the gathered experienee of 50 years.
171029*-21Bull. 68-25.
386
eii:N N IAL SURVE'1:, of EDUcATIoN, 1916-1918.
NEWLY-ESTABLISHED, REORGANIZED DEPARTMENTS, AND DE-
PARTMENTS IN WHICH THERE HAS BEEN UNUSUAL GROWTH.
The enrollment at Simpson College, Keokuk, Iowa, has do-tibled
in the past two years, and new courses have been organized in airplied
design, household management, home nursing, and in demonstra-
tions and practice teaching.
A department of home economics was established in Drury Col-
lege in 1917.
Home economics course was established at the University
Ala-
bama in 1917.
The University of Georgia organized a department of home eco-
nomics in the college of agriculture in 1918.
Courses in textiles and clothing were first established at Fairmount
College. Wichita, Kans., in 1917.
Mrs. Lizzie Merrill Palmer, the widow of Seicator Palmer of Michi-
gan, has bequeathed the residue of her estate amounting to approxi-
mately $2,000,000
for the founding, endowing, and maintenance in the City of Detroit or the town-
ship of Greenfield, of a school to be known as the Merrill-Palmer Motherhood and
Home Training School, at which, under such plan and system arid under such rules
and regulations as shall. In the Judgment and wisdom of those upon whom the
administration of this estate shall devolve, he adopted, girls and young women of
the age of 10 years and upwards shall be developed, educated, trained, and dis-
ciplined with special reference to training theta mentally, morally, physically,
and religiously for the discharge of the function of wifehood and motherhood
and the management, supervision, and inspiration of the home.Journal of
Home Fkonomics, Oct, 1916.
In 1918 the University of Wisconsin added 14 new courses in home
economics to meet the requirements of the training of teachers in
home making under the Smith-Hughes Act.
The Agricultufal College of Utah reports that
TlA department is undergoing a process of reorganization; consequently it
is more of plan rather than performance thacan be reported, though the great
success which attended the introduction of lecture courses last year on hufnan
efficiency and mothercraft vouches for the need they meet. Out of a total regis-
tration of 180 students in the whole department, 130 entered these courses In an
institution where courses are entirely elective.
The most successful establishment also of a practice house In October, .1917,
calls for recognition.
Thirty senior students and 12 high-school teachers
passed through It during the nine months It was open. The former for periods
of six weeks and the latter for selected periods of from two to three weeks,
during which those who attended during the term had all their expenses paid
by their school boards.
In the Connecticut Agricultural College the course of study has
been very materially changed to provide for training of the young
woman along various lines, first, to teach home economics in the pub-
lic schools; second, to be extension workers; third and fourth, the col-
HOME ECONOMICS.
A,
387
lege offered courses in gardening for those who were to act as gar-
den supervisors during the summer and also courses in war cooking
and canning.
The Maryland Agricultural College advertises courses in home
economics for the first time in the history of that institution.
The home economies department of the University of South Da-
kota was reorganized the second semester of last year, and courses
in the practice house management, practice teaching, and a special
course in home nursing were installed.
The department. of home economics was established under that.
name, in .May, 1916, in the University of California. An adequate
building to house the two divisions created at the same time
household art and household sciencewas erected immediately, and
in use during the summer session of 1916.
The staff of household science has added to the two original as-
sistant professors two instructors and one graduate assistant, and
has in prospect another assistant professor or instructor.
The University of California offers the following:
Fifth pear professiorial curricula. Four distinct professional fifth year re-
quirements are contemplated:
1. The teacher's practice year, now in successful operation.
2. The hospital dietitian's Practice year, so far not satisfactorily developed.
3. The extension worker's practice year; planned completely, begun in Sep-
tember;1918.
4. The research student's training. year, An successful operation.
The University of Tennessee reports as follows:
In the fall of 1916 we be!atu to require one year of high-school sewing for
admission to our freshman class in elementary clothing and dress design, and
one year of high-sch.00l cookery for admission to our sophomore class in tool
production and service.
For these students who have had no work In the high
school we offer one semester noncredit course in sewing and cookery.
.
The department was reorganized in 1916-17. Five four-year curricula are
offered: 1. The teachers' curriculum.
2. The general curriculum.
3. Insti-
tutional Management.
4. Food and nutrition. 5. Tamale merchandising. The
latter is to train students to fill executive positions in department stores, such
as that of educational directors, welfare workerk personal service workers, etc.
A large part of the work is gtyen In the college of business administration,
and opportunity is given for practice work in department stores under supervi-
sion: Thus an opportunity Is given for an outlet for textile and clothing du-
dentabsuch as has been provided for food students in institutional management.
Lincoln C,ollegIN. Lincoln, Ills becomes a junior college and will
hereafter place special stress upon the home economics courses.
The department' of home economics at the University of, Arizona
was made into a School, and a similar recognition was given home
economics in the Florida State College for Women, at which place
the head of the department
home economics was made the dean
of the whoa
388
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EbUCAT1ON, 1916-1818.
Delaware College for women has rearranged the curriculum in
home economics and acIpted the conditions imposed by the Smith-
Hughes Act.
Kingfisher (Okla.) College organized home economics in 1916 and
placed special stress on diets:for children and invalids and home
care of the sick.
SURVEYS.
Home economics has been recognized as of special importance by
being directly represented in several recent educational surveys
the survey of the public school system of San Francis.co; the Survey
of public education in the state of South Dakota; the Tennessee edu-
icational survey; the survey of the schools of
lyria, Ohio; and the
survey of the schools of Columbia, S. C.
In all of these survey reports home economics has been given sepa-
rate chapters or sections of chapters, thus enabling those interested
to announce certain principles and policies for the organization and
administration of the courses in universities, colleges, normal schools.
and public elementary and secondary schools.
ORGANIZATION OF WOMEN INTERESTED, IN HOME ECONOMICS
EDUCATION.
So rapidly has interest in home economics grown that one associa-
tion has not been found adequate for the conferences needed by teach-
ers of this subject; hence State associations of home economics and
regional associations have been organized.
These smaller organiza-
tions within States frequently meet with the State educational asso-
ciation and have representation upon its general prograin.
In many of the lafgerfcities, such as Philadelphia, New York, and
Chicago, there are strong city associations of home economics.
Home economics-teachers in lhnd-grant colleges were permitted to
,organize a division of home economics in tile college section of the
American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta-
tions.
,
The Anfican Home Economics Association holds an anmial meet-
ing and atilt presents programs in connection with the National Edu-
cation Association's annual meeting and with the Department of
Superintendence of the National Education Association.
The Southern Home Economics Association has held 'ont annual
meeting at Macon, Ga., and a second meeting at Blue Ridge, N. C.
The.Western Home Economics Association was organized anhield
one meeting in Portland, Oreg., in -July, 191 ?.
Conferendfitof supervisors of home economics in city school.were
called by the Commissioner of tduCation and met in Portland, Oreg.,
,, and in New York City._
,
SOME ECONOMICS.
889
HOME ECONOMICS AND NATIONAL SERVICE.
Notable contributions to studies in the.cost of living, of the dietary.
habits of American families, to instruction in food conservation, tc
propaganda for increased care of children, and to the problems relat-
ing to the effect of the war upon living conditions in congested sec-
tions of thevities have been made by home-economics women.
Many valuable leaflets, circulars, and bulletins relating to modifi-
cations of food preparations to meet war food conditions have been
prepared by teachers of foods and nutrition..
Dietitians for the base hospitals in America and for the Army
hospitals in France and Italy have been drawn from the ranks of
home economics teachers.
Many home economics women have gone into the service as Y. M.
C. A. canted workers or as managers, of the Y. W. C. A. hostess
houses at Army camps.
Many other home economics women have also been called into
"Washingfon to aid in preparing 'material for publication by the
American Bed. Cross Association, the Foo*Adminstration, and the
Department of Agriculture.
Two honor sororities have been established" in the colleges of the
country, and through them certain studies of economic importance
'have been made for which there was no other organized agency:
A new field for home economics women is that of financial advisers
of other women.
Banks are finding that it pays to have their cus-
tomers given expert advice in budget making.
LEGISLATION RELATING TO pomE ECONOMICS.
The most notable Federal legislation relating to home economics
was that.known as the Smith-Hughes Act, by which Federal money
was appropriated to assist in the establishment and maintenance of
vocational schools in industry, home economics, trade, and agricul-
ture. and which further provided national aid for training .teachers
for these vocatiletiftl schools.
This Federal legislation has made necessary further legislation by
the-legislatures of the various States whereby they have accepted
the provisions of the bill and have made appropriations to match
the Federal money granted.
Tho SmithHughes bill was signed by President Wilson Febritary
23, 1917, and when a Federal board' wa.% appointed they organized
and appointed a director, who in turn appointed an assistant director
to be in charge of vocational home.economics and the administration
of that phase of work done under the hpard.
A complete and final interpretation Of the law as it relates to home
economics education has not, as yet, been pronougiced.
fft,
390
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19111-1918.
An act of Congress which had important bearing upon home
economics education was that which, through an emergency appro-
priation for the Department of Agriculture, made possible the main-
tenance of urban extension in home economics. Urban agents have
been appointed in many cities.
These various recognitions of the need of more general intelligence
relating to home making have greatly increased the demand for
specially trained home economics women. The demand has exceeded
the supply.
1
CHAPTER XV.
HOME EDUCATION.
By ELLEN C. 1 /MBAHll.,
Becrtary. Home Edueotim Ult
ow.
The
nservation of childhood and youth is a problem that is
occu
ing
e attention of educators, publicists and welfare workers
in
is and other countries.
Conservation of child life is not sep-
ara le from the problem of conservation of womanhood.
During
the past two years greater service was demanded from the women
throughout the country. Some were called upon to take the .places
of men who had joined the army; some were left to assume the double
duties of father and mother.
Help must be given to broaden the
outlook of the women, many of whom live in homes so isolated that
opportunities for development are. lacking.
The viewpoint of the
men who have been across the sea has been .liberalized by contact
with foreign lands and peoples. It will help in the readjustment.
of the returning forces if each agency of general welfare will con-
sider the needs of the home in working out programs.
School for mothers. In England and Wales schools for mothers
1
have been authorized under the Government board of education.
Under the new regulation, existing or contemplated schools for
mothers will receive Government grant-aid each year for promoting
the care, training and physical care of infants and young children.
Schools for mothers are described as educational institutions pro-
viding trainingsand instruction for mothers in the care andmanage-
ment of infant and young children.
Instruction is to be eider three
heads: Systematic classes, home visiting, and infant consultation.
PrOvision of specific medical or surgical care is to be only incidental.
Payments of grants will be made upon the basis of the work done
by the institution 'during theprevious year.
This work will be c.41-
ordin a ted with existing institutions, such as maternity centers, baby
clinics, and infant dispensaries.
A writer in " The Home Nursery School " points out thaLthe par-
ents' responsibilitiei do not end in bringing children into the world,
feeding and clothing them, and sending Them to school. The chit-
,
r,
391
4.
ENGLAND.
_
392
BIENNIAL SURVEY OFr EDUCATION, 19113-1D18,
dren have a right to- a definite Place in the home. This is universally
acknowledged 'among the middle and upper claSses.
The children
-have their nursery, their own room, where they keep their own things,
and, within certain well-defined limits, do as they like.
You do not
find these children in the streets after school hours, and this not
only because they are not allowed there, but because they find in their
homes sufficient interests to keep them there.
Then he speaks of the
impossibility of setting aside a room in the workingman's home solely
for the use of his children, and remarks that the inability to provide
such an apartment is not a sufficient reason for giving the children
no place at all. He further says:
In these days of self-sacrifice when those among us who are wise look
Into the future with longing and hope and plan for a better world, we must
strain every nerve to provide the best we can for the children, realizing that it
is they who will come into the good heritage purchased by the blood of their
fathers. They are .he pivot on which all will turn, aml we must do our part
now to give them the best education possible, built up on the strongest. deepest
religious basis.
So we see clearly that they must have their rights, their share
in the home, a definite place that belongs to them.
UNITED STATES.
In the United States, governmental, State, and local child-welfare
agencies are devoting their energies tliti4ding up a strong and
intelligent generation.
An appeal to,conserve childhood4and youth has been made to
business men, to parents, to teachers, at4to churchmen by Margaret
Slattery in The Second Line of Defen .Z5r She says:
The Arcricnn home needs once more to be the center of Inspiration for deeds
that must be done for the new liberty and the true democracy, struggling more
desperately than ever it his struggled since the world began to free Itself from
the bonds that bind.
The intelligent American home created by two people
who have had every material advantage is failing In its duty If. In these days
when the world fights for the very existence of the principle of the right of the
weak, they do not Instill into the hearts of their children the fundamental
principle upon which brotherhood is,built.
If parents permit their children to grow up In an atmosphere of autocracy
and special privilege, it will mean not only shrinking their souls, warping their
mnds, cheating them of their rights as American children, but it will mean
threatening the future of the Nation with more dire calamity than it faces
to-day overseas.
America calls upon parents
.
6
to look t4 their own sons and daugh-
ters; to tench them the meaning of top for God and love for man ; to train them
in ethics; to train them in a sincere hatred of shams, a deep love 'of truth; a
passion for justice; to show them the folly of extravagance.
.
It is
their right to be taught from the very beginning that no one on earth 'can
legitimately get "something for nothing." that every human belpg owes, sOme-
thing to his brother, and that work is. greatest gift of God.
ci
HOME
EDUCATION.
393
WORK OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN HOME EDUCATION.
Department of the Interior.The Federal Government through
the home education division of the Bur to of Education has reached
over a half million homes'svith some kifid of educationai material.
Through the cooperation of over 75,000 wOment especially selected
because of their qualifications in rural- districts in 2,100 counties, it
became possible tofrreach more than 70,000 mothers of little children
under 3 years of age, with informatioh regarding the care and train-
ing of the children.
Several, publications were used to carry on the work for child wel-
fare, among them being :
Care of the Baby ; Save the Baby ; Duty of Parents in Regard to Sex ; Care
of the Baby in Hot Weather; Reprint of the Chapter on Home Education,
C,ounnissloner's Annual Report, 1916; Reading Course fOr l'urents; Neighbor-
hood Play ; Circular Letter No. 1, 1916-1917, Problems of the Boy and Girl
in the Home; Circular Letter No.
3, 1916-1917, Problems of the Foreign
Mother in the Home; How to Select Food; One Thousand Good Books for
Children.
Field work for the extension of home education. Three tours in
the interest of home education and child welfare were made.
Special
collaborators held meetings in the following towns and cities:
Lees-
burg, Fredericksburg, Danville, Bristol, and Abingdon, Va.; Ashe-
ville, Lincolnton, Wadesboro, and Greensboro( N. C.; Rock Hill,
Florence, Columbia, Lancaster, and Charleston, S. C.; Augusta, At-
lanta, Macon, Milledgeville, Dallas, Marietta, and Fairy, Ga:; Talla-
hassee, Tampa, Miami, Eustis, Tavares, Avon Park, Clearwater,
Clermont, St. Petersburg, Haines City, Monte Verde, Fort Pierce,
And West Palm Beach, Fla.; Montgomery and Birmingham, Ala.;
Columbus, Miss.; and Chattanooga and Nashville, Tenn.
The result
of this work was 'evident in the organization of parent-teacher asso-
ciations. .
Someaf the typical requests for help have been foematerial on sub-
jects as follows: Something to help bring up the children right; ma-
terial to better the home; literature on moral training; on home
making and child nurture; tome study for boys and girls; bulletins'
on home matters; literature for a population of Swedes and Cornish,
German, Dutch, and Irish ; care of the sick; books suitable to children
who have completed the common-se5ool course; help for bringing
the home andlthe school together; reading matter on plays and
games; literature on the care and .training of children; outlines for
programs for child study ; literature for the formation of. parent-
teacher associations where there is no church, no society oiler
. kind.
Home reading circle. In order to answer some of the demands it
was necessary to institute the home reading circle with selected'
394
rrEN NIA'. sURVEY OF EnrcATION, 1916-1918.
courses on various subjects.
Committees of specialists selected the
books in these courses with the cooperation of the Bureau of Edu-
cation.
Three new courses were issued during 1916-1918 in addition to
seven courses previously distributed. They are listed as follows:
Course No. 7, Thirty World Heroes: 1. Moses: Exodus and Deuteronomy ; 2.
Socrates: Dialogues and Discourses of Plato, Socrates; 3. Alexander: Alex-
ander the Great; 4. Julius Caesar: Seven Roman Statesmen, Life of Julius
Caesar; 5. Jesus Christ: The Syrian Christ, Iltirmony of the Gospels; 6. St.
Paul ; St. Paul the Traveler and Roman Citizen ; 7. Marcus Aurelius: Golden
Book of Marcus Aurelius, Marcus Aurelius and the Later Stoics; 8. St. Augus-
tine: Confessions; 9. Mohammed : Heroes and Hero Worship, Mohammed and His
Power; 10. Alfred the Great : Story of King Alfred, Life and Times of Alfred the
Great ; 11. Joan of Arc.; Jeanne D'Arc, Joan of Arc; 12. Dente: Makers of Flor-
enee. Vision of Dante Alighiert; 13. Michael Angelo. Makers of Florence,
Michael Angelo; 14. St. Francis of Assisi ; Everybody's St. Francis, Life of Fran-
cis of ARSIS1 ; 15. William of Orange: William the Silent, Rise of the Dutch Re-
public; 10. Galileo: Great Astronomers; 17. Shakespeare: Shakespeare, His
Mind and Art, Life of Shakespeare: 18. ltiollere: Mollere, His Life and Works;
19. Cromwell : Life of Cromwell : 20. Napoleon : History of Napoleon Bonaparte,
Napoleon-Warrior and Ruler; 21. Pestalozzi : Pestatozzl, His Life and Work ;
22. Goethe; Life of Goethe ; 23. Rousseau: Rousseau and Naturalism In Life and,
Thought ; 24. Darwin: 1.1fe and Letters; 25. Scott : More Than Conquerors, Life
of Scott ; 26. Livingstone: More Thou Conquerors, Personal Life of David 1:1v-
Ingstone; 27. Florence Nightingale: Life of Florence Nightingale; 28. Elizabeth
Frye: Story of Elizabeth Frye; 29. Pasteur : More Than Conquerors, Life of
Pasteur; 30. Tolstoi, the Mnn and His Message, Reminiscences.
Reading Course No. 9, Thirty American Heroes: 1. Columbus: Columbus the
Discoverer ; 2. Father Marquette: Heroes of the Middle West, Father Marquette;
I. William Penn; Wi lam Penn, The True William Penn; 4. Washington; Wash-
ington, A Virginia 'railer, George Washington; 5. Franklin : Benjamin Frank-
lin, Autobiogr
of Franklin, Life of Franklin; 6. Hamilton: Alexander
Hamilton; 7.. efferson
Life of Jefferson, Life and Writings of Thomas Jeffer-
son; 8. Daniel Boone: Daniel Boone, Daniel Boone and the Wilderness Road;
9. George Rogers Clark : How George Rogers Clark Won the Northwest. The
Winning of the West ; 10. Lincoln: Men Who Made the Nation, A Short Life of
Lincoln; 11. Lee ; Life of Lee, Lee, the American ; 12. Horaeempann: Horace
Mann, Educator, Patriot and Reformer ; 13. Hawthorne: 'Me
Hawthorne;
14. l'arkman: Life of Parkman , 15. Sidney Lanier : Life of Sidney Lanier ; 16.
Mark Twain: Boy's Life of Mark Twain, Life of Mark Twain ; 17. Morse:
Masters of Space, Letters and Journals; 18. Fulton: Robert Fulton; 19. McCor-
mick : Cyrus Hall McCormick; 20. Edison: Thomas A. Edison, Life og.Edison ;
21. Booker' T. Washington: Up From Slavery ; 22. Trudeau: Autoblogi'hphy of
Edward L Trudenu; 23. Jacob Rib,: The Making ofan American; 24. John
Muir: Story of Mk Boyhood and Youth; 25. John Burroughs: Our Friend, John
Burroughs; 28. Mary Lyon : Life of Mary Lyon ; 27. Frances E. Willard: Life
of FiSTIOeS Willard; 28. Clara Barton: Life of Clara Barton ; 29. Alice Freeman.
Palmer : Life of Alice Freeman Palmer; 80. Anna Shaw: Story of a- Pioneer.
Beading Course No. 10, American History: 1. European Background of
American History; 2. The Colonies; 8. Montcalm and Wolfe; 4. Old Virginia
and Her Neighbors; '5. Beginnings of New England; 8. Men,- Wemen, and
Manners in Colonlkialtneb; T. Dutch and Qutker Colonies in America; 8. The
HOME EDUCATION.
.395
American Revoldtion ; 9. Lecky's American Revolution ; 10. Story of the' Revo-
lution; 11. Critical Period-of American History; 12. Henry Clay; 13. Life of
George Washington; 14. Rise of the New West; 15. Winning of the West;
16. Economic History of the United States; 17. Division and Reunion; 18. The
Lower South in American History; 19. Abraham Lincoln; 20. Reconstruction,
Political and Economic; 21. National Problems (1884-1897) ; 22. America as a
World Power ; 23. America in Ferment.
There are about 8,000 readers now enrolled in the reading circle.
Among these are men and whinen, boys and girls, in almost every.
profession tind occupation.
In New York State 720 are enrolled;
Pennsylvania, 522; California, 477; Ohio, 440.; Massachusetts, 413;
New Jersey, 346; Oregon, 286.
Enrollments have been made in
Alaska, Canada, Canal Zone, China, France, Hawaii, Porto Rico,
and Philippine Islands.
State librarie8 cooperate.State libraries will furnish the -books
for readers in the reading circle of the Bureau of Education and
cooperate in every way as far as their funds permit, as follows: Cali-
fornia, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken-
tucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Mon-
tana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota,
Ohio, Oregon; Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas,
Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
Many local fibril -ies havetaken active part in enlisting readers and
in securing the books.
.1
Reading circles formed.Reading circles have been formed by in-
dividuals, teachers, and librarians.
In California the largest circle
has been in existence nearly three years. It has an enrollment of
108 mothers end teachers, and an active membership of 70. (-The sue - :
ce.sp of this circle is due to the leadership.
THE COMMUNITY PROBLEM.
Cooperation between home and school was further developed
throughout the States during the years 1916-17, 1917-18, and 'is
becoming a recognized necessity in Icommunities of thinking parents.
Education in the home must be supplemented by education in the
school, attd vice versa. When this is sufficiently understood there
will be Mwer misunderstandings between parents and teachers and
greater intelligence. in the training of the children at home and at
school.
Parent-teacher associations. An incr
number of parent-
teacher associations has been reported and here is a noticeable at-
tempt to serve the community in- a better and more efective way in
the work of these organizations.
Two States, Michigan and Kentucky, have effected'State organiza-
tions of parent-teacher associations. Local organizations of parent-
896.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
teacher associations in towns and cities have increased in number
according to report I received by the Bureau of Education, which.
through the cooperation of the woman's department of the National
Council of Defense, is preparing a liit of such. organizations.
About
.7,000 organizations are engaged- in activities relating to the home
and the school.
To promote this work the Bureau of Education,
through its .hre education division, has sent out publications as
follows:
.
How to Organize Parent - 'Teacher Associations; How the Parent-Teacher As-
uriation Helps the Home, the School', awl the Community; Suggestions for a
Program; Keeping the Children in School ; Suggestions for War-Time Activities
of Parent-Teacher Associations; Stirgestions for Leisure Hoots.Of Children:
The Des Moines Plan of Parent-Teacher Associations; Alms and Purposes
of Education.
The National Congress of Mothers and Parent-teacher Associations
has cooperated with the Bureau of Education since 1913 in carrying
on the work of home.education. This organization has given ma-
terial aid as well as publications to further the work.
Through the kindergarten division of the Bureau of Education,,55
circular letters were issued on the training of little children.
These
letters, 'prepared by- mothers who were trained as kindergartners,
deal with the following subjects:
Story-telling for Patriotism; The Child is Not a Possession; Love and Pa-
tience Accomplish Mist with Children; How the Childreb Keep a Weather
Calendar; Give Children Toys which Answer Their Needs; The Intelligent
Mother May Guide a Child's Play.
A 'notable publication of the year 1917 on the function and de-
velopment of parent-teacher associations and the reasops why they
should be organized in every school district was Angelo Patri's A
Schoolmaster of the Great City.
The author's own experience af; pupil, teacher, and school principal
is the basis upon which he has founded his opinions and developed his
work.
He discovefed that the problems of the school were corn-.
munity problems; that "the culture of children would have to be
a cooperative effort between the people and the teachers."
In ,a
chapter on "The parents at work" all of the essentials are prebented
-for developing the work of parents and teachers, graduailyodrawing
together the home and school, and bringing the collective influences
'to bear upon.Ahe.education of the children and their natural develop-
ment.
During-1917 parents'-meetings in a New York City school were
the outcome of this zaalization. It has been generally conceded that
play and recreation have a direct bearing upon the healthy life, of
the community. It is with this in view that the Eureati of Educa-
tion has sent out letters with suggestions regarding the .` Leisure'
Me.
:
HOME EDUCATION.
397
hours of children." No less important are the hours If little chil-
dren when most of their activities are connected with play.
The committee on Public Information 'of the city of Boston,
through its women's committee, issued leaflets in which are sug-
gested Home Playthings for ChildrenLeaflet No. 1, the first three
years, and Leaflet No. 2, play and work for children froln 3 to 6 years
old.
These leaflets,_ distributed at the Children's House in Boston,
offer rich opportunity for the development of the children.
The following, two.lists of toys and objects are printed in ledflet
form, Nos. 1 and 2':
.
Toys for the first three years.Ball, colored worsted boll hung above Crib
(to look at or to play with) ; rattle, celluloid dumb-bell (to hold and to shake);
prisms, hung it( sunny window (for color) ; cloth bag filled with newspaper,
hung In crib (to kick); other objectS above crib (to reach) ; rubber doll or
animal J" to chew and to admire") ; floating bath toys (to (liven) ; big soft
ball (to creep after) ; small celluloid ball (to bounce) ; cloth picture books;
rag doll (to hug and love) ;
;oft animals (Teddy bears, cats, etc.) ;
simple
wooden carts (to drag about) ; simple wooden animals (to drag about) ; kiddy-
kar, or rocking-horse chair (for physical exercise and for, fun).
Toys for children from 3 to 6 years of age.For playing housedolls (large
and small), furniture (beds, tables, chairs, etc., well made), carriage, tea sets,
stove, kitchen dishes (tin), carpet sweeper, tub washboard, etc.; for farming- -
barn and barnytietik animals in plenty; Noah's arks, wagons (with horses to
harness), wheelbarrows, wagons (large), reins; for transportationtrains of
cars, model wood toys (trains, motors, etc.) ; for buildingiablocks (hell -made
cubes, bricks, etc.) ; gamespicture-puzzle blocks, tops, tenpins, balls
(large
and small), bean bags, soap-bubble pipes (clay) hand-wo,rk tuaterials
(black-
board-fastened to wail), large colored crayons, large pencils, blunt scissors,
plasticlne or clay, paints (tube paints, large Japanese' brush), pictures and
paste for scrapbook making, paper and cardboard to make toys, toy making
from boxes and other materials In the home, materials from out of doors (seed
stringing, burdock furniture making, acorn tops, tea seta, etc.).
Department of Labor.Education in the home has been stimulated
by the movements to conserve child life.
Literature on the care of
babies has been issued by Obvernment and State authorities, so that
every mother in every.State may learn about the needs of her child.
The "Children's yearAoinstituted in 1917 by the Children's Bureau
of the United States Department of Labor, has done much to bring
communities to a realization of the value of child life and,has- helped
in establishing clinics where babies have been weighed and measured.
Parents hnd teachers have cooperated in this form of child-welfare
work. The program included the saving of 100.000 babies dining
the year.
With the cooperation of the woman's 'committee of the
National Council of Defense local committees were formed in each
State and each State was assigned its quota of children to be saved.
To assist in carrying on this work the Department of Labor issued
leaflets and circular letters. these publications are a contribution
398
BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATIoN, 1916-1918.
to home education which are valuable in the conservation of child
life.
Some of the leaflets are:
Children's Year Working Program; Children's Health ('enters; The Public
Health Nurse; Saving Mothers; The Children's Year Campaign ;
Save 100,000
Babies; April and May Weighing and Measuring Test. Cart 1: April and May
Weighing and Measuring Test, Part 2; April and Muc Weighing and Measuring
Test, Part 3.
Through the press service the Children's Bureau issued circular
letters of value to mothers under the following headings:
American Mothers, Attention!; Doing War Work at Home; When to Begin
the Care of a Baby; American Mothers. Will You Help "To Hold the Line "?;
American Mothers, Uncle Sam is Depending on You !
; Children and War Food
Substitutes; American Mothers, Watch Your Children's Teeth !; The Nation's
Eyes; The Family Purse and the Children's Food; War Savings and Chiltireo's
Summer Clothing; The Fourth of July and Baby Saving; Keeping Baby Fit
in Summer; The Mother and the Problem of Child Labor; Traveling with Chil-
dren; Patriotism and Play; What One Family is Doing forPlay Week; Play
and War Savings; Teaching Children to Play the Game; When Is a
(71111d
Healthy?: The Good Manners of To-day ; and "Carrying on" the Roby Test.
Department of Agiiculture.The care of the family has received
much attention by the United States Food Administration. The nec-
essary restrictions incident to war conditions have created a demand
for information regarding food. Food leaflets have been issued re-
garding Milk, Vegetables in Winter, Potatoes, Dried Peas
and
Beans, Save Sugar, Wheatless Breads and Cakes, Fresh Vegetables,
Use More Fish, Rice, Hominy, Start the Day Right, A Whole Din-
ner in a Dish, Choose Your Food Wisely, Instead of Meat, Food for
Your Children, etc.
The 'Food Thrift. Series has been helpful to
the home-maker.
Department of Commerce.--The Bureau of Standards of the De-
partment of Commerce has issued a bulletin on., Materials for the
Household dealing with struciural materials, flexible materials, sta-
tionery cleansing agents, ftlefs, etc.
Treasury Department.---A publication of the Public Health Serv-
icewhich is much needed in the homes is the one on Prevention of
Disease and Care of the Sick which has recently been published.
STATE BOARDS OF HEALTH AID HOME EDUCATION.
Some of the States through their boards of health have supplied
the homes during the past two years with educational material re-
garding the care and feeding of children. The following States have
issued Mothers' Handbooks which are now Available under various
titles: Indiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New
York, North Carolina, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin.
HOME EDUCATION.
399
It is evident that State boards of health are sup
inz in these
bulletins ample information regarding the value and
eed of birth
registration and of how infant mortality may be r
aced.
Scien-
tific knowledge for the mother regarding her own are and the care
of her baby is included in all of these bulletins.
At least two States
make use of Dr. L. ,Emmett Holt's Save the Babies, published by the
American Medical Association.
The baby's food is given much attention and there is always in-
cluded a section on the, preparation of artificial food and the dan-
gers to be avoided.
There is a certain uniformity in the form of
these handbooks indicating perhaps a concerted action on the part
pf State boards of health to provide the home with scientific informa-
tion in the effort to conserve human life.
Kansas has included some suggestions on the physical, mental,
moral, and social development of the child at different periods, also
suggestions on education through play.
Many of the 'State boards of health, not having handbooks de-
voted to child welfare, have included in their monthly publications
Articles on the care and feeding of babies.
Several bulletins of the
West Virginia State Department of Health have been almost ex-
clusively devoted to the care of babies.
Pennsylvania has issued
several bulletins devoted to infant life.
Another publication on child care that finds its way into the homes
is in the form of leaflets and letters. At least two States send out
letters to expectant mothers.
Massachusetts, New York, and Penn-
sylvania send literature in foreign languages.
The following list of publications for home use has been made
from material available in various States during 1916-1918.
It is
probable that there is still othermaterial issued by the States which
is not listed:
BABY BULLETINS.
California.Saving the Babies; Children's Year Bulletin ; Childhood and
Health.
Connecticut. tees Government bulletins.
Idaho.If You Have a Baby; The Child:
illinot.§.Otir Babies; Better Babies; Register the Baby's Birth; Prevention
of Blindness In Babies.
Iowa. ills Lordship the Baby; Save the Babies; Measles, Bulletin No. 4.
Kansas.Conservation of Child Life; Letters to Expectant Mothers; Kan-
sas Mothers' Book.
Maine. Feeding and Care of the Baby; Hints on Nursing the Baby, Circu-
lar 27; Diet of Children; Health of Home and School, Leaflets Nos. 24, 26, 21.
MassachusettsIFood for Children Two to Six Years-Old ; Baby and You;
Letter to an Expectant Mother; For Mothers with Babies -(in seven foreign
languages).
Montana. Care of Children in War Time.
400
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Nebraska. Your Baby, How to Keep It Well, 1917.
Pew Jersey. The Public Health Nurse; Is Your Baby Registered; Saving
Mothers.
New York.Save the Children.
North Carolina. How to Keep Your Baby Well; Save the Babies; Baby
Welfare.
Oregon.To Expectant Mothers; Are Your Baby's Eyes Sore?
.
Utah.Save the Babies.
Iraahington.,Is Your Baby Healthy?
LEAFLETS AND CIRCULARS ON CHILD CARE.
Idaho,If Yalu Have a Baby.
11fainc.Dlet for the Child (12 to 18 months) ; Diet for the Child (18 months
to 3 years) ; Diet for the Child (3 to 6 years) ; Leaflet No. 21, Health of-Home
and School, Emergencies in Childhood; Leaflet No. 24, Health of Home and
School ; Leaflet No. 26, Guldeboards to Infant Welfare; Circular No. 271, Hints
on Nursing the Baby.
Massachusetts. List of Illustrated Lectures and Moving Pictures on Health
Topics.
Films on child welfare are available on Bringing It Home, The Long
Versus the Short Hand, etc.; For Mothers witlf Little Babies (translations
in French German, Gr
k, Italian, Polish, Portuguese, and Yiddish) ; A Health
Creed for Masachusett
Boys and Girls; Food for Children from Two to Sit
Years Old.
New Jersey.The Pula' J alth"Nure.e; Saving Babies a Community Prob-
lem; Is Your Baby Registered?: Saving Mothers.
New York.Special Bulletin No. 1, Infant Welfare Campaigns; Special Bul-
letin No. 2, Before the 'Baby Comes; Circular No. 3, The New-Born Baby;
Circular No. 4, Artificial or Bottle Feeding; Circular No. 5, The Summer Care
of Babies; Cirthilar No. 6, Care of Milk in the HoMe.; Circular No. 7, From the
Bottle to Table Food; Circular No. 8, Avoid Infection; Circular No. 14, 1917,
The Conduct of.an Isolation Period for Communicable Diseases in the Home;
Circular No. 19, 1917, Amusements for Convalescent Children; Circular No.22,
1917, Sore Eyes of New-born Babies.
BULLETINS ON CHILD WELFARE.
North Caro/Mo.Special Bulletin No. 50, How to Keep Your Baby Well;
Special Bulletin No. 75, Baby Welfare.
North Dakota.Child Conservation.
Oregon.To Expectant Mothers; Are Your Baby's Eyes
Sore6
2
Pcnnaylvatiia.Form 20, Save the Babies (published in English, German,
Itallan,`Polish, Slovak, Yiddish, Lithuanian, and Magyar) ; Form 45, Flies;
Form 47, Birth Registration (published In English, German, Italian, Polish, and
Slovak); Form 48, Home Milk Supply (published in EnQsh, German, Italian,
Polish, and Slovak) ;,,Form 49, Blindness In Infante.
South Dakota.Save the Babies.
,Waahington.Is Your Baby Healthy?
Wieoonsin.Baby Bulletin.
The divisions of child hygiene in the Kansas and Massachusetts
State Departments of Health issue letters to expectant mothers once
each month on 'prenatal' care.
HOME EDUCATION.
401
In New York and Kansas "Little Mothers' Leagues" have been
organized under the direction of the State departments. Leaflets are
issued to help in organizing young girls in helping theft parents on
the care and training of young children.
A recent bulletin on the Care of Children in Wartime, issued by
the Montana State Board of Health, has some interesting and valu-
able data on the " Lessons taught by the ,war," "Infant mortality,"
" Lax school laws," and " Feeding of school children."
Montana has
also issued a useful outline for a Study Course on Public Health. It
contains an outline for the study of many subjects relating to family
life, among them being "The homemakers' responsibility," "The
c,are of food," " Health and the house," etc.
In many States the bulletins of the State boards of health, issued
regularly during the past two years, contain material especially
prepared for the home. ,The following partial list will give an
idea of what some States are doing:
Kansas.Bulletin, Vol. XII, No. 12, 1917; The Conservation of Child Life,
(1) "Reduction of 'the infant mortality rate;
Blank for child conservation
house-to-house survey," etc. (2) "Care and treatment of dependent and crip-
pled children "; (3) "Public health protection of school children ";.4Bulletin,
Vol. XIV, No. 7, July, 1918, When and How to Tell the Story of Life; Bulletin,
Vol. XIII, No. 12. 1917; The Conservation of Child Life.
Kentueky.Bulletlo, Vol. V, May, 1915, Household Economics, (3) "Making
a home," (5) "Needs of the home," (6) "Suggestions for study," (10) "A
modern farm kitchen," (1'1) " Rights of the child." (12) "Care of the children
in the home."
MaineBulletin, Vol. IV, No. 2, March, 1916.
Michigan. Public Health Bulletin, Vol. VI, No. 4, April, 1918, "General
care of the baby," "Child-welfare campaign," "Problem of clothes for little
ones," r Child welfare," etc.
New Hampshite.Bulletin, Vol. IV,, No. 6, April, 1916, "The summer care
of Infants," " Save the babies' eyes," etc.
New fork. Health News, new series, Vol. XIII, No. 5, May, 1918, Save the
Children, etc.; Special Bulletin No. 1; Infant Welfare Campaigns; Circular
No. 27, Milk and Its Relation to Health.
North Dakota.Bulletln, Vol. II, No. 2, April, 1918, child welfare number.
Pennsylvania. Bulletin; N9. 16, The Conservation of Infant Life in Penn-
sylvania; Bulletin No. 31, The Baby the Most Important Problem In Modern
Life; Bulletin No. 34, How to Organize a`Baby-Saving Show; Bulletin No. 09,
Flies a Factor in Infant Mortality.
West Virginia. Bulletin, Vol. IV, No. 8, July, 1917, "Care of the baby,"
" Register your baby," etc.; Bulletin, Vol. V, No. 3. July, 1918, "The baby say-'
log campaign," " Save the babies," "The care of the babies," etc.; Bulletin,
Vol. V, No. 2, April, 1918, "A drive for baby saving," "Motherhood and prep-'
'ration for it," "Baby welfare," etc.
171029 ° -21Bull. 88-26
CHAPTER XVI.
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
11) WILLARD S. SMALL
Speedo liAt in School flyuirne, Bureau of EducatiOn.
Covrcsrre.Physical education
In the preparation of teachers.Malnutrition and the
nutrition clads.
Health supervision.Closing school so a measure for controlling
epidemics. Eye hyglene. Ornl hygiene. State legislation for physical education.
The Nation's need of physical education.Physical education and military training.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS.
Effective physical education of the children -of the elementary
schools will always be conditianed largely upon the regular class-
room teachers.
Obviously physical education must have a large
place in the preparation of teachers if they are to play well their
part. in the conservation of the physical resources of childhood.
It must be recognized that this part of the preparation of teachers
fundamental and vital, not an accessory to the formularies of
mental training and discipline.
There are about 250 normal schools in the countryState, county,
and city schools.
Returns from 145 of these to an inquiry by the
Bureau of Education show the following facts as to extent and char-
acter of physical educatitin:
1. Number requiring health certificate at entrance
44
2. Number requiring medical examination
68
3. Number requiring health certificate for graduation
24
4. Number requiring physical exercise of all students
124
Gymnastics
100
Dancing
fib
Athletics
4'T
Games
102
IS. Number requiring practice teaching:
(a) In calisthenics
74
(b) In gymnastics
68
(c) In dancing
(d) In athletics_
40
(e) In games
91
.
6. Number having special teachers of physical training:
(a) Male
(b) Female
7. Number having gymnasiums
110
h. Number having swimming-pools
53
111
404
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF, BDUCATION, 1918-1918.
The first striking fact is the relative neglect of physical standards
for teachers. Less than one-third require a health certificate for
entrance; less than one-half require a medical (or physical) examina-
tion at any time; just one-sixth require a health certificate for gradu-
ation.
It may be notedin piritHrtnttMTETAITYFFT,r
certificate required
is rather a certificate of freedom from disease than a certificate of
vigorous health.
Two important. omissions will be noted : Thi; time devoted to physi-
cal education and the kind of instruction in health habits and health
knowledge.
,
The encouraging things in this report are the number requiring
physical exercise of all students, the emphasis upon games, both in
required exercise and in' practice teaching; and the number having
gymnasiums. There is a distinct gain in these respects in the last
10 years.
From these returns and from other inquiries, studies, and observa-
tions two important generalizations may be made:
1. In a few normal schools a broad and true conception of physical
education prevails.
It is'recognized as organic and general, not as
specialized psychomotor training. It sees that its job is to know
how children grow into health and to-control the conditions and
practices that are favorable or unfavorable to such growth.
And it
sees, further, that the way to make such principles effective in the
schools is to make them effective in the preparation of teachers.
Certainly the following elements enter into such a program:
Physico-medical examination at entrance and 'annually, at least,
during the course; health certificate for graduation ; daily physical
exercise, at least one hour, of an enlivening and joy-producing
kind; practice teaching of such exercise for children; playgrounds
and gymnasiums necessary for such exercise; practical study of
hygiene as exemplified in school life and environmenl; instruction in
normal physical diagnosis.
2. The second conclusion is that complete fulfillment of these con-
ditions in normal schools is rare.
A. few schools meet all the con-
ditions with a considerable degree of thoroughness; more meet some
of the conditions well and are short on the rest or meet them in-
adequately; and others meet all these conditions inadequ,$ely or
not at all.
There is, hoNVever, light upon the horizon.
Most of the newly
enacted laws interpret physical education in the broad sense indi-
cated above.
Some of these, tho compulsory in form, are hardly
more than permissive in substance, but they all point 'to a new em-
phasis on physical education in the normal schools.
Several of them
specifically include the normal schools in the application of the
law. In other States, some normal schools without the stimulus of
1
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
405
law are doing excellent work. In many instances readjustment of
programs and ideals will be necessary.
Three things will be re-
quired: (1) Time, (2) careful planning of the course in physical
education, and (3) broadly prepared teachers.
A minimum of one hour a day. of enlivening and joy-producing
exercise has already been suggested. This serves a double purpose;
to conserve and develop the health of the students and to produce the
raw material of personal experience without which it is-hopeless to
undertake to train teachers to teach.
.
Complementary to this at least one hour (Period) per day should
be given to instruction in the principles and practice of physical
education.
Not to enter deeply into details, under " principles"
must be included the basic sciences anatomy, physiology, and hy-
gienegeneral, individual, and group; and the values of physical
educationeducational, social, civic, and economic.
Under " practice," must be included certainly practice in hygienic
inspection of school plaiat ; in cooperation with medical inspectors
and nurses; in conduct of posture examitprtions and tests; in direc-
tion of drills, gymnastics, and games,' community recreation pro-
jects; and in teaching habits and ideals of health.
START ORGANIZATIONS.
The war has given stimulus to many voluntary organizations seek-
ing to improve the health of school children.
It may not be in-.
vidious to mention esPecially the Child Health Organization.
This
is an outgrowth of a committee of the New York Academy of Medi-
cine on " War-time problems' of childhood," formed primarily to
study the problem of malnutrition among school children.
"The
revelation of the extent to which malnutrition had been shown to
exist among school children of New York and its steady increase,
due to ignorance of food values and the rising cost of food, was
brought to the attention of Secretary Lane, of the Department of the
Interior, who urged the formation of a national committee composed
of lay and medical members to study the problem and advise means
for its solution.
In order to avoid the creation of an entirely new
association, an organization to promote the health of school children
was perfected as one of the branches of the National Child Labore
Committee, which has always been interested in health education."
The following is a program that the Child Health Organization
has set itself:
1. To teach henjth habits to children and to secure adequate health
examinations for all children in the public schools of the country,
ipe
including
(a) Stimulation Of children's interest by placing weighing and
measuring scales in every school and acquainting children with ways
and means of reaching the normal weight and height.
406
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
(b) Determination of proper standards for examinations with
special reference to normal nutrition and growth.
(c) Methods of examination; how extensive for general appli-
cation.
(d) Health records, which should cover the entire school life of
the child and, with scholarship record, accompany him in his prog-
ress through school, and in making his application fora work permit.
(e) The arousing of a public demand for health examinations,
the teaching of health habits, and the keeping of health records as
a part of the regular routine of school life.
2. To consider the urgent problem of malnutrition among school
(a) A more careful study than has yet beer made to determine
its extent and degree, botl$in urban and rural communitiv.
(b) A study of the measures proposed to combat this condition.
such as, (1) special nutrition classes; (2) making it possible for
children to get one-or more hot meals at school; (3) instruction of
the community in/the proper feeding of children of school age.
(c) To furnish information to educational and philanthropic
organizations regarding the practical arlication of the results of
these studies.
3. To safeguard the health of children in industry; this involves:
(a) The-requirement of physical-fitness for each particular job.
(b) The periodical examination of children who remain at work
in factories, stores, and other establishments.
(c) The cancellation of permits to work at jobs not suited to the
children from the health 'viewpoint.
4. Propaganda to awaken the public to the necessity of conservitig
the health of the school child as a basis of national security and
stability.
5. To promote or coopers
with °Ow bodies in securing legisla-
tion for the attainment of these objects.
The Bureau of Education. through_ it' Division of School Hygiene
and Physical Education, in collaboration with the thild Health Or,
ganization, is issuing health education material based .upon the
principle that normal increase in weight is the .best rough and ready
health index"nd that by frequently recording the weights of chil-
dren in a classroom the interest of children in health habits will be
stimulated and sustained. The material consists of classroom weight
records and a series of simple health education
iphlets.
Another notable contribution to the devie
teaching health is
the Health Crusader plan of the National T
losis Association
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
407
MALNUTRITION AND THE NUTRITION CLASS.
.To combat malnutrition by instruction and the formation of
health habits is the obje4t of the "nutrition class." An experimental
nutrition class was conducted under the auspices of the Bureau of
Educational Experiments ir. Public School No. 64, New York, in
1918. The class was conducted under the direction of Dr. W. R. P.
Emerson, of Boston.
In Public School No. 64, Manhattan, where th(periments were conducted,
894 children were weighed and measured. The heights and weights were com-
pared with standard measurements, so that the ratio of actual weight to average
weight for height could-be determined for each child.
This average weight for
children who measure 153 inches is 69 pounds. A child of this height who
weighs only 62 pounds is 7 pounds, or 10 per cent, less than the average. The
accompanying table alsQws the percentage of children in four different grades
who were(1) 7 per ant or more under the average weight for their height,
(2) within 7 per cent of average weight, and (3) more than 7 per cent over the
average weight for their height.
Percentage of overweight and underweight children.
Oracle
VII.
Grade
VI.
Grade
v.
Grade
I.
Total.
Children 7 per cent or more overweight.,, Per cent .
22.0
18.3
16.b
1270. 8
128
15.8
From 7 per cent overweight to 7 per oent Number..
110
160
79
185
540
underweight
her cent..
83.6
67.8
62 2
72. 5
67.4
Children 7 per cent or more underweight
Number..
1'ar cent..
25
14.4
39
15.9
27
21.3
43
16.9
134
16 R
INtmber..
173
240
127
255
800
Total
1Percent ;.
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
11
Different conditions were provided for these four classes, and an attempt
has been made to determine to what extent various methods of. procedure were
successful.
These conditions may be grouped under the following general
captions:
I. instruction in health habits.A child should be taught proper habits of
eating; sufficient Mastication, the elimination of water as a flush, regular meals
at a time of minimum fatigue, stimulants such as tea and coffee not to be used.
These are some oI the things toward which a child's attention should be.directed.
et
II. Removal, of physical defects. Adenoids, enlarged tonsils, and defectisk
teeth are contributing factors in undernourishment.
They supply toxins which
interfere with destion, and the adenoids and tonsils prevent the taking in of
sufficient oxygen.
III. Rest and lunchca. Undernourished children are unable to store up suffi-
cient energy during the ordinary night's rest or through the usual number of
meals. A rest period once or twice during the day provides an opportunity
for recuperation, and food taken at more frequent intervals is more beneficial
than the same amount consumed in the usual three meals.
IV. Direct feeding.It has been assumed in ninny instances that the reason
for undernourishment or malnutrition is inability to procure thAecessary food.
408
BIENNIAIJSURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-1918.
If this Is the conditioV, food should he supplied.
One group of children Was
given only a midday (neat, which was supposed to meet all the demands in the
way of quantity and quality of food.
Another group was given only instruc-
tion In health habits, with recommendations for rest and food and the removal
of physical defects.
Another group was given the instruction In health habits
and provision was made for rest periods and mid-morning lunches, with recom-
mendations for the removal of physical defects.
Still another group was given
all of the provisiona.so Air mentiohed.
Comparison of results In these different
groups shown that the poorest progress is made wheie nothing is provided Ar
except a sufficient quantity of food. The greatest progress was made by the
children who were instructed in health habits, and who were simply adri.red
to have frequent intervals of rest and more frequent meals.
The physical defect which seems to have the greatest effect on the nutritive
processes, judged by the New Yorli experiment, is that of the naso-phayngetti
obsta4ction. Out of the 1&. children included in the classes, 09 suffered from
this breathing obstruction. Two out of every three undernourished' children
had difficulty in getting sufficient oxygen.
Comparisons of the progress made
by those who did not need an operation, by those who needed and did not have
an operation,clind by those who needed and had an operation performed, show
a serious handicap is imposed on children when the obstruction is allowed to
remain'
SEX EDUCATION.
The war has lifted the veil of fal4 modesty Am the question of
social hygiene and sex education.
Effective methods of instruction
in the cantonments have beendeveloped.
The Commission on Train-
ing, Camp- Activities through its camp community service has done
much to educate the public.
The State health departments and the
United States Public Health Service have carried on effective educa-
tional propaganda.
Religious and educational societies as well as
medical societies are seriously grappling with the.great problems of
sex education. The bureau, in cooperation with the medical section
of the Council of National Defense, has issued a pamphlet, " Keeping
Fit,"for high - school bog, giving simply and briefly the main factors
in physical fitness, including sex.
The appreciation of this pam-
phlet has been instantaneous and sincere.
Requests have come for
large numbers of copies not only from high schools but also from
the Young Men's Christian Association, Boy Scouts, industrial firms,
and many other sources.
The Public Health Service and the Bureau of Education in co-
operation are planning a thorough inivestigation of ,practicable
methods of sereducation in the high school.
The Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, created by Con-
gress in the summer of 1918, is authorized to pay the sum .of
$300,000 .
'
to-such universities, collegeig or other suitable institutions or organizations as
in the judgment of the Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board are qualified'
$ Report tarnished by Dr. Meld Mitchell. Bureau of Educational Experiments, le Wei
Eighth Street, New York.
44
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
409
for scientific research for the purpose of discovering and developing In ac-
cordance with the rules and regulations prescribed by the Interdepartmental
Social Hygiene Board more effective educational
measures In the prevent on
of venereal diseases and for the purpose of sociological and psychological re-
search related.thereto.
MEDICAL SUPERVISION.
In all foreign countries the medical spervision of schools has suf-
fered during the war.
School medical officers, like all other members
of the medical profession, have been called to military service.
In
our own country the same condition prevails, though to a less degree.
For example, the consolidation of all heap superyi4ion and physical
education activities under the school authorilty was successfullyjn-
augurated in Holyoke, Mass., in 1915-16.
bin 1917 the efficient
director of the work went elsewhere, and under war conditions no
competent successor could be iotind.'
In few States or co
nullities,
however, has there been any improvement in the wort of school
medical supervision.
North Carolina appears to be one exception.
The revised law whit
went into effect at the beginning of the pres-
ent school year requNes that teachers shall make a preliminary
examination of all pupils, and provides for detailed examination of
all suspected chidren by the county medical officer or by a phy.,.cian
designated by the State health department.
The report of the first
year's work tinder the new law shows that " more than 3,000 teachers
properly filled out the cards after careful preliminary examination
of more than 150,000 children"; ai4 that of this "number of chil-
dren. 34,387, or nearly one-fourth, Fravo been carefully examined by
the school physician or a specially trained school nurse."
The re-
port further shows much successful follow-up work and the estab-
lishment of dental.clinics.' "The most gratifying feature of the
year's work has beetethe uniformly satisfactory work of the teachers
in completing the prelimilary examination of the children. "'
..
CLOSING SCHOOLS AS A MEANS OF CONTROLLING EPIDgMICS.
The following resoltition was adopted by the American Hearth
Association ut its annual meeting in October, 1917:
Resolved, That It Is the sense of the American Public Health Association that'
the Federal Bureau of Education should attempt to discover what is proper
practice as to continuing
of measles, whooping cough,
riet fever, diphtheria, smallpox, and
t schools as a means of controlling
epcontinuing
or closing
e
and that they should publish their conclusions in the annual
report of time Bureau and in bulletin form.
'see reports of superintendent of schools. Holyoke. Jan., for the years 1916, MO,
sad 1917.
kit
410
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
This send
as accepted by the Bureau of Education upon the condition
that a collard
of the nwociation be appointed .to cooperate with the Bureau
in carrying out the purposes of the resolution.'
The following is a summary of the preliminary report of the coin-
mittee:
scope 01 inquiry.The committee decided to limit the inquiry to
the following three lines: (1) Summary of State law§ bearing upon
the question; (2) review of literature on tU subject; (3) i,nquiry to
be sent to 50 selected cities covering regulations, ruled of practice, and
results.
1. State laws.An incomplete survey of State laws shows very few
specific statutory references to the matter; rather general authority
to control is vested in an administrative body.
2, Review of literature.Review of more than 154 papers pub-
lished during the past 20 years in journals, in official reports, and
as chapters of books shows progressive abandonment of faith in, and
the practice of school closure as a measure of controlling epidemics
affecting school children.
Yet even in recent literature there are
still some expressions of opinion in favor of closuri under special
conditions.
Analysis of these special conditions shows that they
are of three types:
(1) Etiology of the disease unknown, e. g., in epidemics of in-
fantile paralysis, epidemic meningitis, and possibly a few other disl
cases, it may occasionally still be necessary to resort to closure of
schools.
(2) Severity of in epidemic that defies all efforts at control.
,(3) Inadequate medical supervision of schools.
With these qualifications, the consensus of judgment in theliter-
ature reviewed may be summarized as follows:
The closure of sclibols issan extremely clumsy, unscientific, and
unsatisfactory method of controlling epidemics among school chil-
dren.
It4esults not only in loss of school time and nioney, but it
fails to control, inasmuch as infected children are at large, playing
in the street, without restriction, and therefore spreading the in-
fection.
The modern method, consisting of careful daily inspection of
infected schools, isolation of sick children, and quarantine of con-
tacts is both more effective and more economical.
Closing of schools should be considerecras a last resort, to be used
only when thorough and systematic application of other measures
fails to effect control.
-
The committee consisted of Dr. W. C. Woodward, health °Mow, Boston; Dr. V. 0.
Curti*, health oldest, Newton, Mean; Dr. Bernard Kahn, acting director of medical
Inspecdoa of publiaehoola, Philadelphia; Dr. T. Clark, U. B. Public health Service; Dr.
W. S. Sea 11, Sanaa of Neat los, thalriaaa.
..\'
also recognized that in sparsely populated rural areas, where
aggregation takes place only in the schools, closure may be necessary._
It is further recognized, however, that this condition would yield
to adequate inspection.
3. Inquiry in selected cities.An inquiry consisting of 14 questions
was sent to 50 cities in 31 States.
Replies were received from 32
cities in 19 States.
The questions covered the following items: Ltyks
or regulations providing for closure of schools in event of epidemic ;
extent to which closure is practiced:, regulations governing exclusion
of cases and contracts; frequency of inspection for discovering cases
and supervision of contracts; home visitation for discovery of uses;
extent and methods of disinfection; extent to which culture tubes
ale employed for detection of diphther.ia carriers in schools and ,
the Shirk test for determination of immunes; laws and regulations
governing vaccination; results of measures of control and methods
of securing cooperation between school medica. 1 inspection service and
local health authorities.
Minute examination of the returns, many of which were very full
and explicit., confirms conclusions reported above from review of
literature.
Successful control of contagious diseases in and through the schools
is quite definitely. correlated with the following conditions: Absence
of closure; careful provisions for exclusion of cases and contacts,
emphasis being placed upon clinical data rather than upon fixed
period of exclusions; careful daily or frequent periodical inspeetio.n
of 'schOols; seinatic home visitation; reliance upon natural and
physical cleatTng rather than upon 6hemical disinfection.
Without exception the cities that report reliance upon these meas-
ures report that they have had no occasion to close schools since
such measures were adopted. On the other hand, the cities reporting
inadequate measures of inspection also report reliance upon closure
and disinfection by chemicals.
The two following cases are typical.
The cities are nearly the same size.
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
411
CITY A.
1. Regulations require closure for all the diseases specified except
whooping cough.
2. Rigid period of exclusion of casts.
8. Rigid period of oxclusioh of contacts.
,
4. As much daily inspection as can be given by four physicians
and one nurse for 40,000 children.
5. Home visitation ;6" check every rumor as far as possible."
6. Disinfection is practiced by formalin fumigation and washing
walls with strong solution.
412
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF. EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
7. No definite reply in regard to results except that closure was
resorted to twice last year, and that by utilization of teachers and
principals there has been a reduction of the preceding year's record
of active cases.
CITY B.
1, No law, but power has never been questioned.
2. All contagious cases are excluded until personally examined by
epidemiologist.
3. Contacts are excluded at the discretion of the epidemiologist.
4. Nurses inspect daily; doctors on call.
5. Nurses investigate all suspicious cases.
6. Do not practice disinfection.
7. Methods of control seem to be satisfactory. In the four years
since adopted, no occasion to close schools and very few recurrent
cases.
CON CLUSION 8.
1. Closure of schools as a means of controlling epidemics of the six
diseases specified is unnecessary, unscientific,.and unjustifiable.
2. Disinfection by fumigation is unnecessary and ineffective.
The
use df chemical solutions is generally unnecessary.
D'sinfection by
and sun and cleansing with hot water, soap, and scrubbing is to
be commended.
3. The proper method of control involves sufficient inspectorial
force of physicians and nurses to maintain cloak s4ervision of cases
and contacts; enforcement of isolation and qua
tine under elastic
administrative regulations; the employment of clinical and labora-
tory tests and reliance upon such data ; close correlation of the school
medical inspection, on the one hand, with the health department, and,
on the other hand, with the school forces; and continuous education
of the public.
4. The wide diversities in rule and practice revealed by this study.
should be eliminated or reduced. It is unreasonable, unscientific, and
absurd that there should be such variations in the minimum period
of exclusion as from 14 to 42 days (scarlet fever).
This is nearly
typical of many variations that could and should be eliminated.
They do not depend upon adequate or inadequate support of medical
inspection; they depend solely upon ignorance, indifference, or un-
reasonable difference of opinion. Much of ..this diversity would be
eliminated by acceptance by all school health officers of the standards
set up in the report of the " Committee on Standard Regulations for
Control of Communicable Diseases," submitted to, and adopted at,
the 1917 meeting of the Public Health Association.
(II. S. Public
Health Service: Public Health Reports, October 12, 190.)
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
418
EYE HYGIENE.
The report of the Provost Marshal General on the First Draft
under the Selective Service Act stated that " the specific source off
defect showing the largest percentage of rejectives was eyes," 21.68
per cent.
It is to be remembered that this was prior to the promul-
gation of the regulations providing for " limited .service." The sec-
ond report of the Provost Marshal General' shows that of " Grade
D disqualified for any military service," 10.65 per cent were rejected
on account of eye defects.
The percentage of men relegated to
"limited service" on account of eye defects is not given, but obviously
it was large. From the point of view of military efficiency, as well as
from the point of view of industrial efficiency and of general human
welfare the conservation of vision is still " one Of the most serious
problems of educational hygiene."' The most important contribution
to this subject since 1916 is a survey of the causes and extent of de-
fective vision as related to school environment and of effective meth-
ods for prevention and correction made in New York in 1916-17,
by Mr. J. H. Berkowitz for the Bureau of Child Welfare of the
Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. This study
covered the nature and extent of defective vision in school children;
the preventable causes of defective vision within the schools and the
factors in school life contributing to deterioration of eyesight; con-
servative and preventive measures; clinical facilities for correction
of eye defects and agencies for applying glasses to needy children;
and necessary improvements in facilities and methods in these vari-
ous fields.
Intensive investigations were made in a large number
of classrooms of. physical conditions and school practices relative to
eyesight. The facilities and methods of the municipal and privately
owned clinics and dispensaries were carefully investigated. A lim-
ited inquiry was made into the follow-up methods.
In final form the report' of this survey included not only the
results of the investigations in the New York schools but also data
from about 4Q other cities in,the United States and from foreign
cities, summaries of important earlier investigations, appendices
(text of important reports difficult to obtain), and bibliography.
ORAL HYGIENE.
As was to by expected from our knowledge of the condition of
teetlt of school children, a large amount of dental disease was found
amonglthe drafted men. The percentage of rejections for this cause
was not large: 8.50 per cent in the first report of the Provost Marshal
Operation of the Selective Service System to December 20, 1018.
s Report of the Commt.slooer of Education, 1910, ch. 10.
This report is soon to be publiphed as a bulletin of the Iltheou of Education.
414
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
General, 5.69 per cent in second report ; but it is stated by Dr. Fones,'
as result of his word with men stationed at Bridgeport, that "the
appalling need for prophylactic work among these soldiers and the
interest and willingness of the men to have this treatment can
hardly be realized." Thus the need of systematic work for the con-
servation of the teeth of school children is again emphasized.
This work must be both prophyla.tic and reparative.
In most
cases where dental clinics have been established in the schools, the
emphasis is 'upon reparative work for indigent children.
As an
educational project, however, obviously emphasis should be placed
upon- prevention and conservation.
PREVENTION LllfPrIASIZED.
Bridgeport, Conn.
.Arguing that it is impracticable to repair
the decayed teeth of 11 the school children and that it is repugnant
to American ideas to dispense charity in the public schools, Dr.
Alfred C. Fones, of Bridgeport, has sought to "evolve a plan for
the prevention of dental decay and the establishment of clean mouths
its an active part of our great free educational system."
Following is the substance of the plan as reported by Dr. Fones in
the third year of operation:'
We have tried to work out this plan In Bridgeport, and after three years we
find that our educational and preventive dental clinic is the most 'important
part of our school and health systems.
Under the plan oilwthis clinic every
child undergoes an examination of his mouth and receives a prophylactic treat
omit of his teeth, accepting it as much a part of the school curriculum as
his geography lesson. Every child is taught a method of brushing his 'teeth
and is educated in the care of his mouth Just as he is taught physiology or
calisthenics.
In this way the municipality accepts one-half the responsibility
of aiding and educating the children in the prevention of dental decay, while the
home care of the mouth and proper feeding is assumed by the child and his
parent.
The work of the clinic is divided into four distinct parts. First, the actual
elea\ting, polishing, and examination of the children's teeth in schools.
Sec-
ond, the tooth brush drills and classroom talks.
Third, stereopticon lectures for
the education of children in the higher grades.
Fourth, educational work in
the home carried on by special literature to gain the cooperation of the parents,
it, may be well at this point to make clear to those outside the dental pro-
fession what a prophylactic treatment really is.
It consists mainly in the
thorough cleaning, by means of orange wood sticks in hand polishers, of every
surface of every tooth. This means the removal of all stains and accretions on
the teeth and especially of the sticky, mucilaginous films known as bacterial
placques, which are the initial stage of all dental decay.
The importance of
removing these placques can thus be readily understood. This work of preven-
tion of dental decay is essentially a woman's work, and to the dental hygienist
it opens up paths of usefulness and activity in Helping humanity in masses.
i"An Educational and Preventive Dental Clinic."
Nat. Dental Assoc., 21at An. Sea.,
Oct. 23-26, 1917.
Mouth Hygiene for U. 8, lioldlers, Nat.-Dental Assoc., 21st An. Seas., N. Y. City, Oct.
28-28, 1917.
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
416
In 1913-14 we trained the first class of dental hygienists in Bridgeport, and
two of these women were selected as dental supervisors when our clinic started
In the fall of 1914. We had received $5,000 to carry on a demonstrating pre-
ventive clinic for the children of the first two grades of our schools, and our
corps consisted of 8 dental hygienists and 2 supervisors.
In but one year
our city officials were so impressd with the results of our work that the appro-
priation was doubled, the corps enlarged, and a woman dentist added, and now.
the fourth year of our clinic, we have a corps of 20 dental hygienists, 2 super-
visors, and 2 women dentists, and an appropriation of $21,529.
The money is
appropriated through the board Je'fit,t1th and the clinic is conducted by a sub-
committee of this board.
Time will not permit giving a cjetailed report of our clinic from its start
In 1914. but it may be said that the system now employed Is very similarto
that used originally.
The dental supervisors oversee aLdirect the work of the dental hygienists,
give classroom
talks, toothbrush -Wills, stereopticon lectures, attend to the
distribution of literature to children and supplies to the hygienists, and arrang-
ing for the moving and location of hygienists in each school.
The work of the dental hygienists consists in making the examination and
records of the teeth, giving the prophylactic treatments and instructions in
the home care of the mouth.
Wften the equipment is placed the hygienist begins work for the children of
the first grade and takes each grade in succession through the fifth.
The
charts are made of each child's mouth, one for the parent and one which is a
permanent record for the files, showing the conditions found in the mouth for a
period of fiVe years.
Aside from the actual cleaning
the children's teeth, the work of the super-,
visors with tooth brush drills is considered very important, and every effort
Is made to present this phase of mouth hygiene to the children in a way that
will be educational and int4resting.
It has been quite a problem to secure a
good brush that man be sold for 5 cents, and up to the present time nothing
better has offered than factory seconds of a good make of brush.
On the day preceding a toothbrush drill a notice Is sent to the parent
requesting that the child be allowed to bring his tooth brush to school, and
that it be securely wrapped In clean paper.
Announcement is made in the
classrooms that any child, may purchase a new toothbrush for 5 cents.
The
drill proper Is given with the children seated, while the assistants pass up
and doWn the aisles helping the children to hold the brushes correctly and
to make the right movements. There are four positions for holding the brush
and two movements in each drill. The chlildren brush to count in a stereotyped
form, ft being intended to teach mercly`fke 9orrect form of brushing and not
meant for the actual cleaning othe teeboilich would require running water
and dentifrice.
A second talk is given up to the care of the brush and the
necessity of hanging it in a clean place. The children repeat the drill standing,
and the brushes are wrapped In clean waxed paper to be taken home.
It is hardly possible to estimate the educational value of the toothbrush
drill in the classroom.
It is accepted by the children as part of the curriculum,
and therefore something to be learned and remembered.
The teachers have
aided in many ways to assist the children In forming the habit of daily
brushing.
When the children of the first and second grades 'receive their first treatment,
it is frequently found that while many of the deciduous teeth are decayed, the
few permanent teeth erupted at that age are sound, with the exception of the
six-year molars.
The very first small cavities are just appearing in thee.
41(
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-4918.
teeth, and we believe that th"mall children entering the prophylactic system
should-all start on the same basis, that Is with sound permanent teeth. We have
two women dentists who work with the hygienists in our schools and confine
their efforts to the tilling of the first permanent molar teeth.
We term this
preventive dentistry also, as the effort is made to thus prevent the development
of large cavities In these, the most important teeth of the denture.
As yet we are not fortunate enough in Bridgeport to have a free dental
clinic for the poor, but the work is now progressing rapidly on a welfare
building where such a clinic will he conducted.
In the meantime the board of
health employs a centrally located dentist to relieve toothache for any child
in our public schools presenting the relief cards issued by the.dental"committee
through the school principals, but no attempt is made to do any reparative
work.
REPAIR WORK EMPHASIZED.
The following facts in regard to plans and cost of operation of
dental clinics in four cities were gathered by the District of Columbia
Dental Society in the autumn of 1917:
Philadelphia.There are eight .free dental clinics fo
school chil-
dren, four of which are located in public schools and four in health
division (enters of the Bureau of Health. The entire staff in the
dental dispensary consists of :
(a) Chief of dental dispensaries.
(b) Thirteen assistants.
(c) One attendant
The cost is $15,000, divided as follows:
$9,100 for salaries of assistants, $700 per year each.
2,500 for salary of chief of dental dispensaries.
900 for salary of attendant.
2,600 for maintenance and supplies of clinic.
No specific number of children is allotted to a clinic.
Each one
takes care of as many as possible. During the month of May. 1917,
2,370 visits were made by children to the clinics, an average of nearly
300 per clinic per month. The children are brought to the clinics by
school nurses, parents, older children, probation officers, and others.
The assistant dentists receive $300.a year each for three hours of con-
..tinuous working service per day.
Chicago.Chicago supports nine full-time and four part-time
clinics. The budget for 1917 provides $11,000 for salaries and $1,500
for supplies.
Each clinic cares for an average of 10 or 12 children daily., In
1916, the report on dental service showed: New cases,-7,049; treat-
ments given, 30,749; fillings, 28.877; crown and bridge work, 63; ex-
. tractions, 20,554; visits of dental surgeons to dental clinics, 2,191.
Children are selected for treatment in the dental clinics upon the
basis of examination given by school health officers. The parent is
.settlia of defects found.
School nurses follow up these cases, and
if parent can not afford to pay for a private dentist the nurse
arranges to take the child to a dental clinic. The child is entitled to
free dental work if the income of the fimily iA..$8 or less per person
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
417
per week. The nurse collects eligible children at her school and takes
them to the dental clinic and brings them back again.
:fuses are
scheduled to dental clinics according to an arranged progran. .
The school dentists receive $100 per month 10 months of tin year.
The hours are from 9 a. in. to 3.30 p. in., with one hour for lulu '1.
Cincinnati. The health department and the oral hygiene commit-
tee of the Cincinnati Dental Society, in connection with the public-
school department, operate three free dental clinics for the benefit
of public and_parocliiiil school children whose parents are unable to
pay for dentaT services.
The movement was launched about eight
years ago by the Cincinnati Dental Society and was financed entirely
by this organization until 1912.
The oral hygiene committee still
supplements the insufficient appropriation made by the city.
The
city budget provides $4,500; the balanceis made up by the oral
hygiene committee.. There is well planned dental inspection once a
week in some schools, conducted by members of the Cincinnati Dental
Society. Children who are in need of dental services are referred to
their dentists, but if unable to pay can take advantage of free clinics.
Reasonable effort is made by principal's and teachers to minimize the
abuse of charity, and they must certify that the cases are worthy 'of
charity.
The dental operators are paid at the rate of $50 per month for
three and one-half consecutive hours per day. The pay of the dental
assistants is from $500 to $720 per annum.
Detroit.All free dental work is done under the direction of the
board of health. At the present time there are 12 clinics in the city.
These clinics are located in school buildings, hospitals, settlement
houses, and one in the board of health building. There is a fund of
$20,000 to maintain these clinics, and from this fund the salaries of
the inspectors who examine the mouths of children of school age
twice yearly are paid. During the past fiscal year some 20,000 chil-
dren were treated in these clinics. No social service division is main-
tained in this department, but dependence i5 made upon the school
teachers and nurses to " tip us off " whelOve are being imposed upon.
Salaries of operators as follows: $1,000, $1.200, and $1,800 per year,
respectively ; half-time inspectors, $50 per month. Clinic assistants
are employed at the rate of $40 per month.
STATE LEGISLATION FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION'
Within the past three Sears, eight States have enacted laws provid-
ing for State-wide physical- educationOtkrnely, Illinois in 1915; New
York in 1916; New Jersey, Nevada, Rhode Island, and California in
Bee Bureatrot Education Bulletin, 1918, No. 40, " Bect State Legislation for Physi-
cal Education."
171029.-21--Bull. 88--27
418
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
1917; Delaware and Maryland in 1918.
In six other States, Massa-
chusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Nebraska, Ohio, and Colorado,
legislative attention has been given to this matter., but no legislation
has yet been enacted.
In New Jersey and Massachusetts special
commissions made exhaustive investigations and reports as the basis
for legislative action.
Though this legislation in all but two States
was enacted prior Co the current year, it did not becoMe effective until
this year, except in New York and Illinois.
In New York, however,
the law was amended in 1918 so that the law in final form will not be.
in full effect until 1918-19.
The most significant .feature of this legislation is the broad and
comprehensive interpretation of physical education given either in
the statutes themselves or imthe administrative programs adopted by
;
the State departments of education.
In the less' York Program
physical education is interpreted as covering: "(f) Individual health
1
examination and personal health instruction (medical inspection);
(2) instruction concerning the care of the body and concerning the
important facts of hygiene (recitations in hygiene) ; and (3) physi-
cal exercise as a health habit, including gymnastics, elementary
marching, organized supervised play, recreation, and athletics."
In
the California statute the aims and purposes of the physical educa-
tion are specified: "(1) TO develop organic vigor, provide neuro-
muscular training, promote bodily and mental poise, correct postural
defects, secure the more advanced forms of coordination, strength,
and endurance, and to promote such desirable moral and social. quali-
ties as appreciation of the value of cooperation, self-subordination,
and obedience to authority, and higher ideals, courage, and whole-
some interest in truly recreational activities; (2) to promote a hy-
gienic school and home life, secure scientific sanitation of school
buildings, playgrounds, and athletic fields, and the equipment
thereof."
The Rhode Island syllabus states that " Physical education may be
defined as including healthful, sanitary environment ; medical in-
spection; instruction in physiology and hygiene; and-exercise in the
form of such motor activities as marching, gymnastics, dancing,
supervised play, and athletics."
With the exception of the Nevada law, all of these State laws
provide for compulsory physical education in all their public schools.
The most notable weakness is the faihire to provide adequate finan-
cial support for administration and supervision, and the failure to
provide administrative means for making the laws locally effective.
The results of the first year under the new law in New Jersey are
summaripd by the State commissioner as follows:
Physical training, systematically taught this year for the first time in many
schools, will be more effective next year.
It has already enlivened the schools,
EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE.
419
created new enthusiasms and contributed to the welfare of children and
teachers.
The public needs to realize that money expended for health
education, both rural and urban, is money better spent than for almost any-
thing else.
We need not only better medical Inspection, but also more
school nurses, in country as well as in city.
It can not be said with emphasis
too great that physical training is preparedness.
Its purpose is no other than
to increase our man and woman power.
THE NATION'S NEED OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
The war has suddenly revealed to us and to all other nations the
basic value of human life.
It is no longer merely the voice of the
philanthropist crying in the wilderness the doctrine of the individ-
ual's right to abundance of life; it is the Nation in its hour of crisis
'demanding the fullest physical capacity of all its men, women, and
children.
"The truth is pounded home with every succeeding en-
gagement on land and sea that the conservation of human life is now
a part of practical affairs;1Something to receive its place in the every-
day consideration of those responsible for national progress."
In
war's terrible markets human life is the basic legal tender.
Money,
munitions, ships, and all the other essentials for the prosecution of
war are but promissory notes.
This is recognized in the English education bill which at this date
(June 30) is-in the final stages of passage.
It includes provisions for
a comprehensive and thorough program of health conservation and
physical education.
This program covers Adequate medical super-
vision both of clrildren in sichool and children in industry, and physi-
cal education in all elementary, secondary, und continuation schools,
and the provision of proper equip1nent for the same, and provision
for physically and mentally defective children.
In France, a strong committee has been formed, of which several
members of the Chamber of Deputies are members. for the study and
promotion of physical eeticcation, social hygiene andrace conserva-
tion.
The committee proposes to cooperate cloely with the public
authorities, the universities, the faculties, the commercial centers, the
industrial centers, the financial powers, and the press.
Its program includes a general' method of rational physical in-
struction; a system of schools. of physical education for instructors
of the Army and of both sexes; simplification of school programs and
introduction of a physical test in all examinations; emphasis upon
outdoor exercises; outdoor schools and open-air colonies for physi-
cally abnormal children; complete reorganization of school medical
inspection; the employment of trained teachers of gymnastics; leg-
islation restricting juvenile labeii and a larger place' in the training
for military service to physical education and athletics.
In this country, likewise, we are recognizing that physical effi-
ciency of the citizens is not only. a matter of individual or local or
AP.
420
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
State concern, but also a matter of supreme national concern. The
fact that the first draft fligures show a wide variation in the per-
centage of physical effectives that the States can contribute to the
national defensean extreme variation of 33 per centlifts the ques-
tion at once into the field of national statesmanship. The experience
of the training camps is a conclusive demonstration of the need of a
national program that shall produce not only physically sound but
also physically educated citizens.
President Emeritus Eliot, of Harvard, in a weighty address on
" Certain Defects iti American Education" (Teachers' Leaflet No.
5, Bureau of Education, June, 1918) states the case clearly and
forcefully:
To secure for every child in the country a complete course of physical train-
ing is a great national object In war times and peace times alike, and part of
the expense of the course should be borne by the National Government. The
Swiss Federal Council prescribes the program of physical training for every
school in Switzerland, and appoints and pays the national inspectors who see
that this program is tarried out.
The federation also makes a small con-
tribqiiib to the cost of this training throughout the Republic. The war with
Germany has already taught us that the United States should henceforth and
nt once do the same thing In aid of tie much larger expenditures of the States
and the municipalities on the same all-important subject, and should make sure
that the training is actually given.
When a proper course of physical training
has been in operation in the United States for 12 to Its years, the productiveness
of the national industries will show a great increase, and the young men who
are to till the permanent Army and Navy of the United States will come to the
annual mobilization with bodies already fit for the work of a soldier or sailor.
The commission on the national emergency in education of the
National Education Association emphasizes strongly the importance
of physical education and health conservation in its program for
/
(feral legislation.
.--14-e
In its bill providing for the creation of n department of education'
and the encouragement of the States in the promotion and support of
education, it specifies that two-tenths of the $100,000,000 asked shall
be devoted to physical education and instruction in the principles
of hygiene and sanitation, and for providing school nurses, school
dental clinics, and otherwise promoting physical and mental welfare.
The American Federation of LabONinjts educational program
..__
includes the following planks:
y
The provision of ample playground facilities as a part of the - public- school
system.
Continuous medical and dental inspection throughout the school&
The organization 'and equipment of special classes for children who are
subnormal, either mentally or physically, and also special classes for children-
Who are found capable of making more rapid progress than is possible in a
standard school.
The establishment of complete systems of modern physical education.
EDUCAXIONAL HYGIENE.
421
Numerous patriotic, civic, health, and philanthropic organizations
have taken a _similar position.
A. national committee on physical
education has been formed with purposes similar to those of the
French "committee" already named.
More specifically it is devoted
to the promotion of State and Federal legislation for physical edu-
cation.
'the committee, in its proposed program for Federal legisla-
tion, adopts the interperetation of physical education as illustrated in
the best recent State laws. "It assumes physical activity as the basic
thing, but conditioned upon, and integrally. related with, wholesome
physical environment. individual physical examination and record.
medical supervision of schoolS and school children, development of
health habits and instruction in health knowledge, hygienic school
management and procedure, and cooperation with all agencies that
make foi physical upbuilding and the moral growth inevitably inci-
dent to sane, wholesome, active physical iife."
It asks that physical education be for boys and girls alike; for all
children between 6 and 18 years, inclusive, in all schools and in indus-
try; for provision for investigation and demonstrations in the in-
terest of progressively scientific standards; for Federal aid to the
States and Federal cor eration in the administration of all State
systems, but with guarIntees of State autonomy and initiative.
The National Physical Education Service 1 has been esta
shed
by the Playground and Recreation Association of Amer
at the
request of the national committee on physical educatio
o organize
and manage thA movement for State and Federal
eislation for
physical education.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND MILITARY TRAINING.
Physical education as interpreted-by the individuals and organiza-
tion cited above is not a substitute for military training.
With
respect to boys, it is premilitary training.
It is a program for pro-
ducing physically fit 'lien and women by physically educating boys
and girls during the period of immaturity.
The program stops at
18 years of age.
Efficient military training can not-begin earlier
than 18 years.
If universal military training' should be adopted.
this program would insure maximum preparstion
. of a maximum
number of young men for military training.
It
preparatory to
military training in the following ways: By the selection of boys fit
for military training through recurrent physical examination during
the growth period and the early detection and correction of reme-
diable defects; by systematic training through graded systems of
exercises adapted to children of different ages, through corrective
*Headquarters, 618 Connecticut Avenue, Washington, D. C.
-
422
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
exer6ses for postural and muscular defects, and through intensive
physical training and athletics for the olc;er boys; by systematic-
training into health habits and instruction in health knowledge; and
by increasing the physical efficiency of those whose defects vvotild.
confine them to limited service, through early detection of defects,
through specialized training of such individuals, and through keep-
ing them out of occupations for which they are unfit.
ti
CHAPTER XVII.
RECENT PROGRESS IN NEGRO EDUCATION.
By THOMAS JESSE JONES.
CONTESTS.
Introductory State superdisorsJeanes icdustrIal teachers County train.
Ing schoolsRosenwald schoolsPhelps-Stokes fund- Public school facilitiesRecent
publIcatIonsEducational
meetingsChurch
boardsPrivate
and
denominational
schools.
The past year has witnessed considerable progress in the field of
negro education, despite adverse conditions brought about by the
war.
Probably the most significant event of the year was the
appointment in Texas of a State supervisor of rural Negro schools,
whose salary- and expenses are paid entirely by the State.
Short
terms, poor schoolhouses, and low salaries continue to hamper the
works of the public schools, but the problem of Negro education has
been called to 'the attention of the white South by the recent exodus
of Negroes from that section, and some improvement has already
been made.
While there has been a considerable increase in the
actual amounts appropriated by the Southern States for .salaries of
colored teachers, the Negroes still receive no greater proportion of
the -sums expended for teachers' salaries.
The official reports of
State superintendents of public instruction. show that these officials
are trying to increase the school facilities for Negroes and are calling
the attention of the public to the matter. During the year bulletins
and leaflets dealing with various phases of Negro education have
been published by State departments of education.
The number of Jeanes industrial teachers has increased, and their
work has been so effective that die State superintendent recommends
in his official report that similar supervisors be employed for white.
schools. The cooperation of the General Education Board has en-
abled these teachers to organize home Makers' clubs during the
summer months.
In doing this home club work the teachers give
demonstrations of cooking, canning, and preserving. The General
Education Board has also cooperated with the States in maintaining
supervisors of rural schools and in furnishing equipment for county
training 'sch`Ools.
The county training- schools, supported by the
counties with the aid of the Slater fund, have passed the experi-
mental stage, and only the high cost of labor and materials prevented
the building of additional schools during the year.
The Rosenwald
fund has made possible-the erection of a number of rural school-
423
424
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
houses.
The Phelps-Stokes fund, which financed the investigation
of negro education, continues to cooperate with the Bureau of Edu-
cation.
Its work has been the maintenance of an information bureau,
giving eppert advice to schools and keeping before the public the
educational needs of the Negro.
The private and higher schools have had a very difficult year, be-
cause of the high cost of supplies, the difficulty of raising funds, and
the loss of teachers and students who joined the mili
ry forces or
went into some form of war work. The faculties of t
strongest
sZfibols were heavil/ drawn on by the Government and oth
agen-
Cies seeking men for responsible positions. All schools with su
ient
equipment cheerfully assumed the additional burden of training sol-
diers and giving special courses to students, in order to meet the
needs of the Army. Cooperation between denominational and inde-
pendent schools, public authorities and educational funds, has been
furthered by a committee on Negro education appointed by the
Commissioner of Education.
STATE SUPERVISORS.
At present 10 States, with the assistance of the General Education
Board, maintain supervisors of Negro 'viral schools.
Oklahoma and
Florida are the only States with a considerable proportion of negroes
that have no special supervisor. In Texas the supervisor is paid en-
tirely by the State.
The work of the State supervisors may be briefly summarized
under four heads: (1) The improvement of school facilities, by
urging county superintendents and boards of education to extend
school terms, pay better salaries, and provide better houses.
(2) The
development of county training schools, maintained by the counties
with the help of the Slater fund. The first object of these schools is
to train teachers for the rural schools. In offering some high-school
work and industrial training, these schools are rendering a large
service.
(3) The improvement of teachers in service by conducting
county institutes, and cooperating with State normal schools and
summer schools conducted by private institutions.
(4) The promo-
tion:of home-makers' clubs.
In North Carolina and Mississippi the
State supervisor has a colored man to assist him in his work. In
North Carolina the salary of this assistant is paid by the State
Co
Teachers' Association; in Mississippi it is paid by. the State.
The worn -o these assistants has
of great value.
'HANES INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS.
The following statement of the work of the Jeanes fund teachers,
who are county industrial supervikrarls furnished by the dire,ctor
of the Jeanes fund:
RECENT PROGRESS IN"-NEGRO EDUCATION.
425
The Jeanes fund, for the improvement of Negro rural schools; cooperated dur-
lug the session entlipg June 30, 1918, with public school superintendents In 209
counties In 14 States.
The supervising industrial teachers, paid partly by the counties and partly
by the Jeanes fund, visited regularly in these counties 5,717 country schools,
making in all 20,903 visits and raising for purposes of school improvement
$204.046.
The total amount of salary paid to the supervising teachers was
$6.1,1S2, of .which the county school authorities paid $25,334 and the fund $39,848.
The juisineFs of the e traveling teachers, working under the direction of the
county superintendent, is to introduce into tilt small country schools simple
home iiniu.stries; to give talks and lessons on sanitation, personal cleanliness,
etc.: to encourage the improvement of schoolhouses and school grounds; and to
conduct gardening clubs and other kinds of clubs for the betterment 'of the
school and the neighborhood.
The table here given shows the extent of the work done by these
teachers, and how it is financed:
Negro rural Rehoal fur !. Jeanes F'ttudatinn, 1918- 19.
States.
Number of
teachers.
Number of
counties.
Paid by
!sena fund.
Paid by
public fund.
Alabama
I 24
23
65, 7113.00
$3,804 S3
Arkansas
120
19
2,928.75
7,750.00
Florida.
4
4
1, 053.00
812.00
Georgia
Kentucky
I/.
24
1 g
24
9
3,810.00
1,995.00
3,080.60
1,065.00
Louisiana
115
14
"11 , 185. 00
2,848.00
Mississippi
120
25
4, 110 00
8,515.00
North Carolina.
79
39
5,815.03
7,56303
South Carolina
14
14
3, 485.03
1,70300
Tennessee
20
21
3,557. 50
5,110.00
Texas
8
8
1,540.00
1,303.03
Virginia
11R
18
3;973.00
3, 132. 00
Total
,
-1217
218
40,857. 15
44,591.83
I Including State supervising teachers.
Several of the State supervisors have found it wise to concentrate
their efforts on counties where Jeanes leacIfers are at work. In Ala-
bama, Kentucky, -Louisiana, North Carolina, and Virginia there is
a State supervising teacher. The work of the Jeanes teachers in Ala-
bama is described in the following paragraph-from the 1917 annual
report of the department of edlication :
SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS.
As an aid to the county superintendeabts and county boards of education
charged with the supervision of all seilools in their respective counties, it has
been possible to place in 24 counties, through assistance. from the Jeanes
Foundatlou, 27 supervising industrial teachers,' all of whom, with the excep-
tion of one man, are women with. Special training in industrial work.
They
supervise the elantentary industrial training In the rural schools of the county,
and assist in the general supervision of the Negro schools. The fact that-in
1918 there were only 12 of these supervisors employed and that last year the
number had Increased to 27 shows the success with which these workers are
meeting.
There is a growing disposition on the part of the counties to bear
426
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
vA,
an increased proportion of the salaries of these workers, who have proved
themselves to be of inestimable value to the school officials and people of Weil.
respective counties.
That State school officials have seen the value of the work done by
the Jeanes supervisors is shown by the following quotation from the
annual report of the superintendent of public instruction of Vir-
ginia, for the year 1916-17:
COLORED SUPERVISORS AND THE LESSON THEY TEACH.
Some of life's best lessons are taught by the simplest and most obvious illus-
trations, as in the case of the sluggard who was advised to observe the un-
recognized ant ; and so we may say that Li any man will observe the work of
the colored demonstrators or supervising teachersmen and women whose
services have been almost thrust upon the State by private generosityhe can
not hesitate for a moment in deciding what is the next step in the develop-
ment of our work among the white children.
These colored leaders have
increased teachers' salaries; they have also lengthened the term and have
brought into the schools so many new children that the taxpayer has found the
per capita cost materially reduced.
COUNTY TRAINING SCHOOLS.
At present there are 77 of these institutions, and several others
will be erected as soon as the abnormal price conditions of war times
have passed.
They are divided among the States as follows: Ala-
bama; 11; Arkansas, 5; Florida, 1; Georgia, 5; Kentucky, 2; Mary-
land, 1; Louisiana, 4; Mississippi, 3; North Carolina, 14; South
Carolina, 6; Tennessee, 6; Texas, 5;. Virginia,
These schools are
built and maintained by the combined efforts of the public-school
authorities, the Slater fund, the colored people of the county, and
the local white friends of Negro education.
This quotation from
the- report of the superintendent of public instruction for North
Carolina, 1915-16, shows the plan under which the county training
schools are built and maintained:
The establishment of three county training schools was mentioned in my first
biennial report.
These began work in the fall of 1914 in the counties of
Johnston, Pamlico, and Wake. These schools are established by the county
boards of education on the recommendation of the county superintendents.
Their main support is apportioned from public-school funds.
Some aid for
current expenses is given by the Slater fund, and the General Education Board
has made donations for equipment.
The best statement I have seen of the need of such schools, their purpose,
and the conditions for receiving outside financial aid is made by Dr. James 11.
Dillard, director of the Slater fund.
It is as follows:
One of the greatest immediate needs is for even fairly competent teachers
in the small public schools. The Slater fund has contributed much to the
preparation of teachers, but in the past its contributions in this direction have
been mainly to the larger and higher Institutions. There is now great need
for the preparation of teachers in a lower grade of ridv
cem nt.
The Imme-
diate conditions under which such work must be done
ay b
far from ideal.
RECENT PROGRESS IN NEGRO EDUCATION.
427
but the effort faces facts as they are. It is a fact that a very large majority
of the teachers in the small rural schools for negroes have got what they have
of education and training in their own or a neighboring county. Many superin-
tendents are showing interest in the improvement of some central school in
the county, which may serve the purpose of supplying a somewhat better grade
of teachers.
Aid from the Slater fund Is given on the following simple conditions:
First. That the school property shall belong to the State or county, thus
fixing the school as a part of the public-school system.
Second. That there shall be an appropriation of at least $750 from the public
funds for maintenance.
Third. That the teaching shall be carried strictly and honestly through at
least the eighth grade, including industrial work, and In the last year some
training, however elementary, for the work of teaching.
Under these conditions the Slater fund has agreed to appropriate $500 for
maintenance, and in the first year, where new buildings or repairs may be
necessary, to aid in supplying these In cooperation with amounts raised froth
other sources.
The regular State public-school course of study is followed in all the schools
through the seven elementary grades. In the eighth end ninth grades, where
there is a ninth grade, the State high-school course is followed with negro
history substituted In most cases for ancient history, simple teacher training,
and industrial work for the classics.
An effort is made to t
he simple
home industries throughout the school. These consist of cookin
ng, house-
keeping, laundry work, gardening, manual training, and the like.
Last spring
several of the schools made fly screens and endeavored to get the people in
the communities generally to use them. Very Ane gardening work was done at
the Method School.
Each of these schools receives annually $500 from the Slater fund for cur-
rent expenses.
The General Education Board gave $1,164 for industrial and
other equipment for the three schools In 1914-15, and $3,160 for the same pur-
poses for the five schools in operation In 1915-16.
One of the schools, Parmele, }n Martin County, received $2,000 from the
Phelps-Stokes fund in 1915 to ay in building. Three others received a total of
$1,300 for the same purpose from the Slater fund In 1915-16.
All these appropriations were made to supplement local funds to be used for
the purposes named.
At the Berry O'Kelly School, Wake County, a splendid new modern brick.
building is just being completed.
When completed, the plant will cost more
than $10,000. The Martin County school moved into a nice.new brick building
In 1915.
Repairs and improvements have been made in the other three coun-
ties.
Small, but satisfactory, Industrial buildings were erected in Johnston,
Pamlico, and Sampson Counties.
ROSENWALD SCHOOLS.
The following letter, sent to county superintendents in Georgia
by the supervisor in that State, explains how the Rosenwald fund is
being used to promote the building of good schoolhouses for colored
children:
To County Superintendent* of School*:
GENTLEMEN : The Rosenwald fund is available for assistance In constructing
model colored school buildings, in cooperation with local communities and
county authorities.
This fund Is offere4 for the purpose of encouraging the
construction of modern model schoolhouses.
Such houses will doubtless.
428
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
prove the kinds of residences of the people'and tend to elevate the moral and
civic Ideals of the people.
It is insisted At good schoolhouses should be built in suitable places to be
approved by the county boards of education, and should be built after an ap-
proved plan. It
further urgel dint the titles to public school property should
be held by the county boards of education.
Small district schools, in the absence of natural barriers, should be con-
solidated, thus bringing two or more one- teacher schools into a larger one.
Combining such communities, when it can be done, will create more enthusiasm
and render available larger assistance In constructing schoolhouses.
It is useless to say that we, as friends and neighbors of the colored people,
are add should be much interested In their schools and school buildings.
The
encouragement of the white people and school authorities is quite helpful in de-
veloping,school pride and Improvements.
Upon compliance with the following conditions, participation in the Rosenwald
fund is possible:
1. The schoolhouse Is to be for country children, and small towns may be in-
terested.
2. From 2 to 5 acres of land are to he secured by the colored people, at a
place approved by the school board, and The property Is to be deeded to the
board, of education for colored school purposes.
.b
3. The county superintendetit, the patrons, and the undersigned are to agree
upon a plan of building.
4. The superintendent of schools shall handle the funds and direct the con-
, struction of the building.
5. The community and county authorities must guarantee the completion
of
The house shall be painted
and
with at least two coats of paint; each classroom must contain at least 20 lineal
feet of good blackboard and have suitable desks for pupils and teacher; the
building must contain at 1st two cloakrooms, a workroom, and a small
kitchen. The smoke flues must be built from the ground.
0, Two closets, properly located. must be built.
7. It is understood that the school shall be run at least five months each year.
PROPOSITION 8.
For a one-teacher schoolhouse the community and county authorities must
raise in cash, material, and labor, $750. The Rosenwald fund will contribute
$400.
For a two-teacher house the community and county authorities will raise, as
above, $1,000
The Rosenwald fund will give $500.
In cases of consolidation of two or more schools the Rosenwald fund will con-
tribute more.
,
Any and all parties interesteq, in this niuch- needed work will address We
writer at Milner, Pike County, Ga.
Respectfully,
Oro. D. GOD ARI:10
-Special Rural School Suferrieor.
The Rosenwald fund 'is handled by the extension department of
TUskegee Institute.
The table below, furnished by the institute,
shows how title Rosenwald schools have been built and how they are
divided between the several States:
vo
RECENT PROGRESS, IN NEGRO EDUCATION.
Data of rural schoolhouae building aided by Mr. Julius Rosenwald.
(As of September 1, 1918.)
429
states.
Number
of school-
houses.
A mounts contribute!! by
States.
White
people.
19,445. 011
Colored
people.
Mr. Rosen-
lwald.
Total.
179
143, 7'8.1X1
$91, 764. 91
MS. 454 00
1199,435. 93
ArMinsas
22
10, 52S. 00
1, 40.5.00
8,654.00
9,500.00
30,114. 00
Georgia
23
2,970. 00
10. 202. 00
17,532. 00
7,500.00
38,209.00
Kentucky
a
6,015.00
2:A.53
1,041. 50
MOD 00
12,938. 50
Louisiana
49
9, 109 00
3,000.00
33.390. 00
17,660.03
63, 290. OD
Maryland
4
2, 753.5)
500.00
1,125.00
1,450. 00
5, 7'5.00
Mississippi
29
3,613. 50
13,614. 95
19, 253.25
12.276.93
48, 787.70
North Carolina
85
31,851.011
3,924 50
35,787. 75
24,365.00
95, 730.25
South Carolina
9
3,300. 00
8, 376. 00
5,696.00
3,900.03
21,2800
Tennessee
59
72,905.00
3, 870. 00
26,1513.03
39,175.00
142,100. 00
Virginia
38
26,555.00
750.00
21,784. 90
19,800. 00
68,889.80
Total
501
213,345. 50
51,399. 45
265,179. 23
193,616. 00
726,540.18,
The above figures represent amounts puA in the construction and
furnishing of the schoql buildings.
Besides the $193,616 spent in
this way by Mr. Rosenwald, he has put in $23,406.84 up to September
1 by way of agents' salaries, traveling expenses. etc.. in promoting
the movement for better schoolhouses in various States.
PHELPS-STOKES FUND.
For the past five years the Phelps-Stokes fund has financed a staff
of workers in-the Bureau of Education.
Since the publications of
Bulletins 38 and 39, 1916, the agents of the fund, as special collabora-
tors of the Bureau of Education have followed up the study of Negro
education with constructive work. One member of the staff who is
trained in business methods and accounting gives all his time to the
improvement of accounts and records in the schools.
Schools have
been given assistance in their efforts to aaapt their courses to the
needs of their pupils and community.
Fraudulent Negro schools have
been exposed. and the needs of worthy institutions brought to the
attention of interested persons. A bureau of information has been
maintained. Campaigns for the teaching of gardening and for the
improvement of living conditions in dorinitories have been carried
on.
The fund's agents have kept in touch with educational boards
of the various churches, other educational funds, the public-school
authorities in the several States, independent schools and land-grant
colleges, and have endeavored to have these agencies coordinate their
efforts.
Individual schools have been given financial aid for main-
tenance.
Fellowships for:the study of the race question have been
established at two State universities in the South. The relationship
now existing between the Eureau of Education and the Phelps-Stokes
fund will cease by operation of law on July 1, 1919, and no appro-
430
BIENNIAL SURVEY OP EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
priation has been made to carry on the work of the Bureau of Educa-
tion for colored schools.
PUBLIC SCHOOL FACILITIES.
The public schools for Negroes in the South, especially in those
',counties where the negroes outnumber the white people, are not
doing efficient work, because of small salaries paid to teachers, short
terms, and poor school buildings.
- In the annual report of the Ala-
bama Department of Education we find the statement that :
The amount paid for salaries in the public schools of the State amounted
to $3,145,604 for white teachersan average annual salary of $431 for each
man and $363 for each woman, almost precisely what they were the year before,
and despite the fact that the high cost of living is constdhtly Increasing.
As for the Negro schools, We learn that:
In the schools for negro children last year 641 men and 1,931 women were
employed.
?here was a slight decrease in the number of both men and women,
due to the e
of Negroes to other States.
There was expended in the
form of sale
upon the teachers so employed $399,970, a decrease of $20,185
from the p
ing year. The average salary paid to each man was $167
anti to each woman $152, and the length of the school term was 104 days.
The report has this to say about the Negro teachers in Alabama :
The grades of certificates held by that portion of the 2,572 teacialas who
were required to hold State certificates were as follows:
Life
120
First grade
23
Second grade
606
Third grade
1, 802
So far as the qualifications of the teachers are concerned, there seems to
be no improvement over the preceding year.
The results of the inadequate public-school facilities appear from
the discussion of school attendance in the report:
ATTENDANCE.
The average attendance in schools for whiteg in 1915 -16 was 214,294, and
in 1916-17 an increase of 5,740 brought the total up to 2zu,034. It is to be
remttrked that this net increase was the result of approximately a 3 per cent
increase in the number attending elementary grades and of. a 24 per cent
increase in the number attending in high-school grades. Based on the latest
census returns, the percentage of attendance upon enrollment was 63.
Be-
cause of the removal of Negroes to the East and North, the average attend9ce
in their schools showed a decrease of 3,459 from the number for 1915-16, of
97,384.
Using the school census as a basis, 50 per cent of the white boys and girls
Were in average daily attendance and 29 per cent of the Negro boys and girls.
Making due allowance for those of school age who attended district agricul-
tural schools, county high schools, private denominational and parochial
schools, and Institutions of dollege and secondary grade, the results are still
tar from satisfactory, as the'following tables will show:
et
RECENT PROGRESS IN NEGRO EDUCATION.
Enrollment.
4.31
Year.
Rural.
Urban.
White.
Nero-
White.
Negro.
I
1915-16
41116
2912 900
135.807 '
51,521
22, 81:
1916-17
293,389
133.325 I
54,838
23, 404
A rem pr. attendance.
Rural.
Urban.
Year.
White.
Negro.
White.
Nerro.4
1910-16
174,170
85,417
40,124
15, 426
1916-17
178,066
82,000
41,368
14,724
From an examination of the above, it would appear that there has beeti a
somewhat normal increase both in rural and in 'urban enrollment and attend-
ance in white schools and a positive decrease in the case of negro schools. This
latter condition Is due to the leave-taking of the negroes as already suggested.
From the above quotations it will be seen that the superintendent
of education in Alabama explains the decrease in the ]quinber of
Negro teachers and pupils by the migration of Negroes from the
South. The white men and colored men who hays investigated the
movement are agreed that the poor public-school facilities were
among the most important causes of the exodus.
The following table shows the increases in the amounts appro-
priated for the salaries of Negro teachers in five of the Southern
States. The figures for the earlier years are those used in Bulletin
89, 1916. It will be seen that, while in every case there has been an
actual increase, there has been very little increase in the proportion
. 4
of the total salaries, and in the case of Florida and North Carolina
there have been actual decreases in the proportion. In considering
the figures in the table it should be remembered that between 1900
and 1910 the white population of the Southern States increased
faster than the colored, and it is only reasonable to assume that this
has been the case since 1910.
Increase in salaries of Negro teachers in fire States.
Rates.
1/81e of
report.
Salaries.
Per cent
or toULI.
MO e of
report.
8sliwies.
Per Cent
of total.
Florida
Georgia
Louisiana
North Carolina.
Virginia
1910-11
1911-12
1911-12
1910-11
1911-13
1167,381
463, 622
211,318
340,856
421,381
14.2
14.3
7.0
16. 8
13.2
.
1916
1917
1916
1916
1916-1/
1214,291
656, 822
285,616
683, 272
626, '45
11.6
14.8
7.0
14. 1
14.7
432
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
INbREASED INTEREST ON PART OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL OFFICERS.
That educators and other leaders of thought in the South realize
that the situation calls for action js shown by the official reports of
State superintendents of education.
In his biennial report for the
school years 1914-1916, the superintendent of public instruction de-.
votes several pages to a discussion of the education of the Negro.
The last two paragraphs of his statement Fve reproduced here as
expressing what may fairly be considered the attitude of the think-
ing white people of North Carolina:
This question of Negro education is, after all, not a question of whether the
Negro shall be educated or not, for It is impossible for any race to remain
In this great Republic in the twentieth century uneducated.
The real question
is, therefore, how he shall be educated and by whom it shall be done.
If his
education is not directed by us, others that do not understand our social struc-
ture, that are ignorant of the nature and needs of the Negro and have false
notions of his relation to the white race In the South, will take charge of it.
Our safety, then, Iles In taking charge of it ourselves and directing it along
lines that shall be helpful to him and to us and in harmony with our civiliza-
tion anti society and with his nature.,
There is another phase of this problem of Negro education wot'thy of the
serious consideration 'of our people.
It is manifest to me that If the Negroes
become convinced that they are to be deprifed of their schools and of the
opportunities of an education, most of the wisest and most self-respecting
Negroes will leave the State, and eventually there will be left here only the
indolent, worthless, and criminal part of the Negro population. Already there
has been considerable emigration of Negroes from the State. There Is no surer
way to drive the best of them from the State than by keeping up this con-
tinual agitation about nhdrowing from them the meager educationa) oppor-
tunities that they now hEve.
Their emigration in large numbers would result
in a complication of the labor problem.
Some of our southern farms would be
compelled to lie untenanted and untitled.
The experience of one district in
Wilsoti County some yettra ago illustrates this.
The county board of educa-
tion found it, for various reasons, Impossible to purchase a site for a Negro
schoolhouse.
Before the year was out the board received several offers from
farmers in the district to donate a site.
Upon inquiry by the chairman of the
board as to the reason of these generous offers, he was told that when it was
learned that no site for the schoolhouse could be secured and that the Negroes
were to have no school in that distiict at least one-third of the best Negro
tenants and laborers there moved into other districts, where they could have
the advantages of a school.
Thisis a practical side of this question that our
people would do well to consider.
What happened in this district will happen
in the entire State If we give the best Negroes reasonable grounds to believe
that their public-school privileges are to be decreased or withdrawn.
In his annual report for 1916-1,7, the superintendent of public in-
struction of Virginia says:
COLOSSI) SCHOOLS.
Our seventh department of special effort Was concerned with the negro
schools. We rejgcted the Idea that the Negro should remain uneducated, but
were just as firmly of the ophuon that the old type of scholastic education
RECENT PROGRESS IN NEGRO EDUCATION.
433
which has been provided for him was.ln many respects a misfit. In our efforts
to give him a better chance mentally, morally, abd physically we have been
aided at every turn by the wise and earnest men who have been placed in charge
of the General Education, S'ater, and Jeanes funds, and very largely also by
the administrative officers of both our Federal land-gfant schools, the Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, and the Agricultural and Industrial Institute at Hafmton.
Nearly every county in Virginia with a large Negro population Is now served
by a colored Industrial supervisor, part of whose salary Is paid by one of the
foundations named above or out of the Smith-LeNer fund, which Is disbursed
by the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. These supervisors have gone among the
colored people and urged them, first, to build schoolhouses; second, to lengthen
the school term; third, to put their children in school.
They have also fostered
the industrial type of training which has grown ko much in favor among both
white and colored teachers duriag teceot yelps.
Our own State school for
coloreteoyouth, the Virginia Normin and Industrial Institute, at Petersburg, the
Colored State Teachers' Association and the Negro OrgvIzation Society have
also contributed intelligently and powerfully to the success of this movement.
VORIC OF THE NEGRO SUPERVISORS.
During the 1916-17 se,,sion 49 supervising industrial teachers were employed
to assist in the supervision of the Negro schools of 48 counties and 2 cities.
Their Instructions were to introduce industrial work as far as practicable and
to encourage ( tiler-forms of, educational progress. Something of the magnitude
of the work of these teachers and the results obtained may be brought out by
mentioning the following facts:
In the 4S counties in which they worked there reside 68.1 per Sent of the
Negro children of school age in the counties of Virginia, 61.5 per cent of whom
were enrolled in the schools; 8 389 visits were paid to 1,364 teachers working
in 1,024 buildings; 607 of these teachers extended their school terms partly
through money raised by the people, for which purpose they report the rats-
lug ofA9,640.74.
Theriupervising industrial teachers report that 851 of the 1.024 buildings
under their supervision have active school improvement leagues, and report
further that In addition to the money raised for term extension they raised
for other purposes $34,381.09, making a total voluntary tar for school purposes
In the 48 counties with supervisors of $44,011.83. To secure this splendid addi-
tion to the school revenues the counties expended a little over $8,000 for the
salaries of the supervising industrial teachers, the sum, total of whose salaries
amounted to a little less than $25,000.
The superintendent of education in South Carolina, in his report
for 1918, points out the difficulty that has hindered the development
of an effective public school system for Negroesthe lack of a public
sentiment favoring Negro education.
In recommending a special
appropriation of $20,000 to be expended for the betterment of Negro
schools, he says :
NEGRO SCHOOLS.
f"or the first time in the history of our public school System the State super
intendent'S office has undertaken definitely the betterment of our Negro schools.
Throbgb the cooperation of the General Education Board of New York, the
salary and the travelhig expenses of a Stile agent for Negro schools have been
secured.
171029° -7-21Bull. 88-28
484
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The task is difficult.
Rouses, terms, salaries, eouipment, standardsall
these are low.
Funds are limited. # foundation must be laid in public opinion
and in public support before a definite program canfbe outlined and undertaken.
The present welfare and the future progress of the State are indissolubly
linked ilth the development of our entire population.
A careful perusal of
the chapter dealing with Negro schools Will show specifically the work under-
taken during the year. The cooperation of outside agencies is readily acknowl-
edged.
The attitude of the Negro has been appreciative, and In my opinion
the time has come when the general assembly ought to authorize and direct
a campaign for better health and better industrial conditions among our
Negroes.
The foundation for such an effort lies in the schools. The prejudice that has
long hampered the progress of the Negro youth has been largely modified by
the events of the past two years.
The first step in the program for their bet-
terment would be a modest appropriation to be expended solely in Negro schools.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS.
From time to time the various State departments of education
issue pamphlets showing the progress that has been made in Negro
education. As representative of these, Bulletins 9 and 10 of the.
Georgia Department of Education may be cited.
These leaflets con-
tain the reports of the Home Makers' Club Workers and the Jeanes
Industrial Teachers. The Department of Public Instruction in North
Carolina issues a " Monthly Progress Letter" reporting the activities
of field workers in that State. The most significant publication of
the year is one issued by the Louisiana Department of Education,
entitled " Aims and Needs in Negro Public Education in Louisiana."
The frank and fearless discussion of the probleth, contained in this
bulletin, is shown by the following paragraph:
It may be well to point out hero that in some sections of the State the Negro
Is not receiving for the education, of his race the direct school taxes that he
contributes. To fail to grant him this amounts to confiscation.
Segregation
of funds or taxes- for the two races is undesirable, but let us not take from the
negro, by throwing all tax money into a general fund, what he Is clearly en-
titled to.
Surely this includes a just share of State taxes, a just Share of
corporation taxes, all fines that his race pays, and the indirect school taxes
that he pays as renter and as laborer in helping to produce the wealth of the
State.
In dealing with this question we must learn to apply the same stand-
ards of honesty and fairness that we use in dealing with the different white
schools and white communities. Only through the exercise of justice and fair
play may we expect justice and fair play in return, and as a result of this,
good feeUng and good citizenship.
EDUCATIONAL MEETINGS.
The National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools held
its fifteenth annual meeting at Harpers Ferry, W. Va., July 31
to August 2.
This was the most important educational gathering
of the year. A number. of State teachers' associations met during
the year. These associations have worked to raise the standard of the
RECENT PROGRESS IN NEGRO EDUCATION.
435
teaching profession, and have cooperated with State superintendents
in many ways.
On account of war conditions, the Association of
Colleges for Negro Youth was unable to hold its annual meeting.
CHURCH BOARDS.
The American. Baptist Home Mission Society has adopted the
policy ,of concentrating its efforts at one or two schools in a State,
and has therefore withdrawn its aid from some schools which it
supervised but did not control.
The American Missionary Associa-
tion is following the.policy of discontinuing schools where the publio
school facilities become adequate, and increasing the support of other
institutions. The Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church has discontinued its appropriation to Walden College,
at Nashville, Tenn., and the property of Walden has been given,to
Meharry Medical College.
The board has decided to sell the prop-
erty of New Orleans College, at New Orleans, La., and of Gilbert In-
dustrial Institute, at Baldwin, La. Only one school will be main-
tained by this board in Louisiana. It will be located in a section
where a secondary school is needed.
The Christian Woman's Board of Missions now maintains five
schools, and property has been purchased for another one.
The
Presbyterian Board of Missions to the Freedmen reports new presi-
dents at two schools maintained by the board.
The Society of
Friends has determined on the policy of enlarging the Cheyney
Training School for Teachers, at Cheyney, Pa. TheAmerican Church
Institute for Negroes of the Protestant Episcopal Church reports
a growing appreciation of the importance of accurate accounting
and businesslike administration in the schools under its control.
The educational boards of the African Methodist Church, the 'A.
M. E. Zion Church, the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church have
given evidence of their willingness to improve the accounting, build-
ings, and supervision. of students in the schools under their control.
PRIVATE AND DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS.
The financial problems which many of the private and denomina-
tional schools now face were brought to thesattention of the public
by the Commissioner of Education in -the, following circular letter,
which was sent by the bureau to 5,000 persons interested in Negro
education:
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
BUREAV OF EDUCATION,
Washington, October 8, 1918.
Dna Etta: I am writing to call your attention to the special war-time needs
-
of many of the colored schools.
As you know, most of the secondary and, higher schools for Negroes in the,
South are supported by private philanthropy.
These schools are largely de,
436 -
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916L-1918.
nominational, and have some assured, though inadequate, support from the
church organizations back of them.
But _mail), of the best private sch
Is
in-
cluding especially the effective small schools of the industrial type,
pendent in ,character, and have no income except from donations.
The demands which the many necessary war appeals have made on the public
purse have made it almost impossible for these pfivate schools to raise enough
money to keep open.
Church organizations have found that contributions have
been somewhat lessened, and the independent schools have experienced con-ry"
siderable diMculty in raising funds.
At the same time the high prices of food
and materials have made it necessary for the schools to raise more money than
ever to maintain the old standards. A number of the best teachers have, gone
into the service of the Nation, many of them teachers who, from sheer devo-
tion to the work, had served for low salaries.
The high cost of living has
forced other teachers to seek more remunerative fields of labor.
Some Negro schoOls are well known Lind have many influential friends.
But
many worthy schools, both of the academic and industrial type, are not so
widely known.
They need money urgently ; they need money not only to do
the necessary work that they have been doing for years, but they need more
money to provide the special training imperatively needed fbr large numbers
of colored people in the war emergency. Contributions to schools that are doing
a necessary war work should make a patriotic. appeal to anyone wilt) has the
tuenns to give to educati4n.
It should not be forgotten, however, that nothing is
gained by responding to appeals for gifts to schools that do not exist or have
ooivalue as educational institutions. Many such appeals are made.
Aeterminatiou of the relative merits and needs of colored schools has
a much more simple matter since the publication of Nos. 38 and 39, BuLLETh
1918, of the Bureau of Education, which list practically all. the colore4
schools of the South, with descriptions and recommendations for each school.
The bureau will gladly supplement the information contained in this report and
answer any questions in regard to these schools.
Sincerely, yours,
.
8
4
4.
I'. 11°. CLAXTON,
CUBIntissioner.
111
1
CHAPTER XVIII.
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.I
By EDWARD FRANKLIN BUAINER,
Professor of Education, Johns Hopkins University.
CONTE NTS.State
surccys--County
Purveys---"'town "
survey"4City surveys Voca
tional education surveys---Iligber educational institutionsNegro educationForeign
surveys--MiscellaneousUnpublisbed surveys.
The educatioinal survey has ceased to be a mere event or an occa-
sional happening.
It has been critically transformed into a perna-
Dent mean,; of progress.
Chang(
in the educational conditions of
.a given system are now to be expected not merely from the initiative
and push within, bit are actively ought for as the outcome of an
objective and unbiased study of the situation.
The establishment
of standards based on current practices and the core exact defini-
tion of the relations which should obtain in the dynamics of educa-
tional support and organization, of teaching and learning, have made
possible the inc-easing number of scientific approaches to the task of
formulating qt.alitative and quantitative judgments concerning com-
munities and their schools. The system of schools set up and main-
tained by a State, county, or city is a most important form of human
behavior, and therefore worthy of the intensive study essentially
characteristic of a survey. The synthetic judgment in which the
`study culminates, prophetic of vital readjustments to he made, is
possible only to the survey whose scientific acumen is guided by a
fertile ithagination drawing from the now rich stores of ranks,
standards, and measurements possessing bolh accuracy and ap-
plicability.
I This- chapter is the fourth report In the special Berke presenting a record of .tbe,
educational-km/ay. movement.
In the, report of the CommissioneNf Education for the
year ended June 80, 1914 (Ch. XXIV, vol. 1, pp. 518-562), and also June 30, 1915 (Cb.
XVIII, vol. 1, pp. 433-492), appeared the first two reports of schdol surveys in the
United States.
The educational Inquiries and surveys, the reports of which, with two
exceptions, had been published up to the close of each of the two years, respectively,
were analysed with reference to the place and time, the authorization, the details of
the staff, the situation leading to the inquiry, the method and scope, and the funda
mental problems investigated, with a summary of the more important finding, kat, the
recommendations.
The third' report, appearing In the report of the Commissioner of Education for the
year ended June 80, 1916 (Cb. XXI, vol. 1, pp. 353-871), included those surveys of
which the reports had been published during the year under review or were in process
of publication, and listed those surveys the reports of which remained unpublished.
This fourth report presents an account of the surveys which have been published during
the Henn= 1916-1918 or ars in process of publication, listing those which mai Sot be
published.
,
437
16
488
BIENNIAL SURVEY OP RDUOATION, 1916-1918.
The permanency of the survey
s an American means of educa-
tional progress is clearly sho
.y the greatly increased number
made during the biennium of 1.
1918, which this report reviews.
Of thop 157 surveys (including 7, the reports of which are unpub-
lished) made during the past seven years, 73, or 47 per cent, were
made during the last two years.
The 147 published reports present
the results of extensive, or special, studies of districts, iii whole or
in part, thus distributed: United States, 1; States, 18.; Counties and
" towns," 40 (reporting on conditions obtaining in 67, 3 counties in
one instance being " typical " of a State) ; cities,' 59; higher institu-
tions, 10 (covering 24 institutions) ; vocational, 13; and special, 6.
The average number of surveys per year made during the entire
period is 22.
During the biennium the annual average is over 36.
The 69 survey reports published (or in press) during these two
years show in their distribution a steady widening of the field of
application: State, 8; county and "town," 24 (reporting conditions
prevailing in 49) ; city, 22; higher institutions, 5; vocational, 6; and
special, 4.
The survey continues to extend its services- in general, ranging from
an almost complete reorganization of a system to the easing of a
local " situation "; and in particular, such as showing the limitations
of the school plant and furnishing a building program for several
years to come, specifying costs of operation and instruction and re-
vealing untouched financial,resources, discovering the attainments of
pupils in classes, buildings, and districts, and thus pointing out new
functions in the field of supervision, extending more exact inquiry to
include additional subjects as music, drawing, and school gardening,
and formulating the teaching norms characteristic of a city, county,
or State.
The survey has more than " paid for itself" by showing'
that we can not Cheapen education.
It has heCorne an effective means
for the explanation and the preparation of a supporting community
for the rapidly and inevitably_ increasing costs of public education
(eig., the bond issues of St. Louis, St. Paul, and Harrisburg). A
most striking feature of the survey changes in the biennium is to be
found in the adoption of some of its distinctive methods by superin-
tendents, particularly of city schools, in their annual reports or
special publications. This form of " auto " surveying at once dis-
seminates in the community more accurate and intelligent informs-
,
tion concerning schools, and places a new interpretation upon the
meaning of educational administration in practice. Important in-
, crements to our scientific knowledge of educational processes and' re-
sults are being made through the ereater attention given to the
measurement of the achievements of pupils by the inclusion,of stand-
ard scales and testi*. What can we tell about a school system having
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
489
exact information about this, that, or another trait, is a question
the survey has enabled us to answer with increasing certainty.
The
duty of comprehending the educational survey is thus laid alike upon
the public, both parent and taxpayer, the practitioner, and the stu-
dent of education, for it has ceased to be a mere event or an occa-
sional happening.
In connection with these general features and before taking up
the details of survey activities during the biennium, it should be
noted that a view of the special significance of the educational survey
as a means of progress and of the activity of the Bureau of Educa-
tion in forwarding this movement by extensive participation therein
is set forth in the report of the Commissioner of Education for the
year ended June 30, 1917 .(Vol. I, Chap. II, pp. 19-44).
It is
important to observe how legitimately the educational survey has
fitted in with the conditions of national progress as previsioned in
the congressional legislation half a century ago. The Commissioner
of Educatio'n thus calls attention to this situation, as a preface to
the extended summaries of several important surveys conducted by
the bureau which are included in this account of its varied activ-
ities during 1916 -17:
In Its educational survey work the Bureau of Education is carrying out in
the most direct manner possible the task contemplated in the original set
[1807) creating the bureau.
It is precisely this function that the
educational survey fulfills.
It is becoming more and more evident
that the educational survey constitutes a type of service most appropriately
rendered by the Federal Bureau of Education.
STATE SURVEYS.
Illinois.' This survey presents most of the results of a State-wide
survey growing out of a resolution passed by the Illinois State
Teachers' Association in 1913.
After a period of conferences and
committee orga.nilation, it was decided to investigate "the children;
the teachers; the program of studies; the school plant; final es;
organization, administration, and supervision; the _school ana the
community; conditions affecting vocational education; and the rural
schools," with a special investigator in charge of each division.
"It
was not possible to present complete and detailed 'reports uponall
of these topics, partly because the investigators were not free to
secure the information at first hand and partly because of limited
resources." "The committee was handicapped not only by a lack of
funds, but by the failure of certain agencies'to cooperate with the
movement and by, the unfriendly attitude of certain members of the
Illinois School Survey:
Cooperative Investigation of School Conditions and School
Efiltleoci. Initiated and Conducted by the Teachers of Illinois in the interest of All the
Children of All the People.
By L D. CoTmtui, director,
377 pla
Published by order of
The Illinois litateTiachers' Association, 1917.
440
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
teaching force." The method of securing information employed the
questionnaire extensively, with the visitation..of a total of 173 rural
schools by three investigators.
The report of the Illinois school survey, accordingly, includes
11 reports on the following specific topics:
The economic status of teachers In Illinois, by L. D. Coffman.
Program of studies In town and city graded elementary schools, by W. C.
Bagley.
The technique of superintendence, by L. D. Coffman.
School finances, by David Felmley.
Student population add related problems in high schools, by J. A. Clement.
Spelling scores for 54 Illinois cities, by J. F. Bobbitt.
Arithmetic scores in seven Illinois ciders. by J. F. Bobbitt.
Some exceptional high-school pupils in Illinois, by E. E. Jones.
The rural schools: Reports by Caroline-Grote,..Edgar Packard, and Joseph H.
Alabama. The 1915 session of the Legislature of Alabama au-
thorized the submission to the qualified electors of the State. to be
held in November, 1916, of an amendment to the constitution permit-
ting the several counties in the several districts of any county to levy
and collect a special tax not exceeding 30 cents on each $100 worth
of taxable property for school purposes. The department of educa-
tion of the State, accordingly, undertook a special study of educa-
tional conditions *which would enable the voters to act in the light of
knowledge when voting upon the proposed amendment. It issued in
July, 1916, " A Comparative Study of the Public School Systems in
Alabama and Other Typical States and an Exhibition of Educational
Conditions in the 67 Counties of Alabama."
(Bulletin No. 55, 32
pp.)
The States chosen for comparative purposes included Florida,
Georgia, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Ohio, Tennessee, and Washing-
ton, the data being derived from the report of the Commissioner of
Education for 1914. The study of ,conditions in the several counties
in the State related only to whites, including both rural and city
districts.
The special topics presented include: Children in school
and Out; length of school year and average attendance; average an-
nual expenditure per pupil enrolled; teachers and teachers' salaries;
average number of pupils per teacher; grades of certificates; invest-
ment in school plant ;*and illiteracy in Alabama. The entire material
of the bulletin is organized after the pattern of " A Coinparative
Study of Public School Systems in the 48 States," issued by the 'Rus-
sell Sage Foundation in 1912.
Colorado..-The "Report of an Inquiry into the Administration
and Support of the Colorado School System made under the Direc-
tion of the United States Commissioner of Education" was issued
as Bulletin, 1917, isio. 5 (98 pp., 48 tables).. The scope of this study,
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS..
441
which was made upon the request of'the Colorado State Survey Com-
mittee, " was confined to an'investagation of the administration and
support of public elementary and secondary schools and their imme-
diate effects upon conditions determining the character of work dine
in these schools."
The inquiry was made- by A. C. Monahan and
Katherine M. Cook, both of the Bureau of Education, who were ,in
the State during a considerable time in the months of September, Oc-
tober, and November, 1916. The detailed topics taken into considera-
tion include the State of Colorado and its educational system, gen-
eral administration, revenue and support, and the administration of
school instruction.
Chapter II presents a summary of the 25 recom-
mendations made to meet. " Colorado's greatest need in public educa-
tion" which was found to be "a type of centralized organization,
now wholly lacking, which would furnish the leadership and guid-
ance necessary to insure State-wide progress."
Arizona_Because of its recent admission to statehood and the
formative stage through which its educational development is passing,
especial interest attaches to the study of `` Educational Conditions-in
Arizona : Report of a Survey by the United States Bureau of Educa-
tion," and issued as Bulletin, 1917, No. 44 (196 pp., 8G tables, and
15 plates). The inauguration of the movement leading to the survey
was made by the Arizona School Officials' Association early in 1915.
Toward the close of this year, the State superintendent of public
instruction requested the Bureau of Education to conduct the survey,
which was begun in the autumn of 1916. The members of the bureau
assigned to the study included A. C. Monahan, J. C. Muerman, Kath-
erine M. Cook, W. S. Deffenbaugh, F. B. Dresslar, H. W. Foght, and
`Samuel P. Capen. The study made of the State university was as-
sisted by Livingston Farrand. In addition, assistance was rendered
by State and educational _officers, and questionnaire returns from 81
per cent of the teachers and several hundred other citizens in the
State.
The topics xesented in the report include the State of Arizona and
its educationaRystem;the status of elementary and secondary educa-
tion, the State normal school and the department of education in the
State university.
Chapter II, which deals with secondary and ele-
mentary education, comprises about two-thirds of the report told
presents considerations of State administration, county and district
administration, revenue and support, urban school districts, high
schools, elementary school attendance, and instruction. The problems
involved in the supply of teachers were the chief feature of the study
made of the State normal school and the department of education in
the State university.
44g
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
The 10 groups of recommendations for the improvement of educa-
tional conditions in the State are:
I. Centralization of the State school system, placing the rtsponsibility of the
administration of the public-school system definitely upon die State board of
education and the State department of education working in cooperation with
the county boards of education and school - district trustees.
2. Reorganization of the State board of education, conferring upon it enlarged
powers.
3. Provision for a nonpolitical State superintendent who shall be the head
of an enlarged and more effective State department of education.
4. Provision for county control of county school funds through county boards
of education and nonpolitical county superintendents.
5. Reorganization of the method of apportioning State funds on a basis which
recognizes county and local effort.
6. Requirement of a higher standard of general and professional education
for teachers, a revision of die method ,,f certification, establishment of a cer-
tification division in the State department of education, which shall be also a
teachers' employment bureau.
7. Means to encourage the erection of suitable school buildings and to pre-
vent the erection of undesirable ones.
8. Rearranged course of study especially to meet the conditions in the one-
teacher school&
9. Provision for expert supervision of rural schools.
10. Reorganization of the method of handling State textbooks to prevent un-
necessary losses.
South Dakota.A complete scheme for the reorganization of the
system of public education in South Dakota, in order to bring its
administration into conformity with the best current practice, to
secure a more effective unification of the schools and higher institu-
tions, and to eliminate various disturbing political factors, is pre-
sented in the recommendations of the report made by the State edu-
cational survey commission announced in June, 1918. The commis-
sion was appointed by the governor in accordance with the act of
the legislature in 1917, appropriationhaving been made to meet the
expenses of the study.
The inquiry was conducted under the di-
rection of the Commissioner of Education, the field work and prep-
aration of the report being in charge of Harold W. Foght.
'The report, which will be published as a bulletin by the Bureau
of Education, includes these topics: The topography of South
Dakota; economic conditions; the kind of schools best adapted to
an agricultural people; the present system of education; rural elemen-
tary and high schools; town and city elementary and high' schools;
State, county, and rural school organization and administration ;
supervision of city, town, and county schools; the preparation and
certification, of teachers, and teacher training in the several public
and denominational institutions; the State university; the State
college of agriculture; the State school of mines.
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
448
Chapter XXI presents a summary of the most important legis-
lative and administrative recommendations offered, among which
are the following: (1) Constitutional amendments enlaiging the
powers and duties of the present
fate board of regents so as to
unify the system and to secure the election by this board of the
State superintendent of public instruction; (2) reorganization of
rural schools so as to reduce to a minimum the number of one-teacher
schools and to increase the number of consolidated and rural high
schools, to secure enlarged school plants, homes for teachers, and a
more permanent staff of teachers receiving more adequate salaries,
and, to readjust the school year in conformity with the growing
season and the occupational interests of communities; (3) reorgan-
ization of school districts outside of present independent town and
city districts into the county-unit system, with county boards of
education having specified powers and duties, including levying a
uniform county school tax and equalizing educational advantages
among all school children in the county; (4) the prevision, new for
South Dakota, for a State school tax amounting to about one-third
of the total school maintenance, and also a permanent millage tax
for the support of the higher institutions in lieu of present legisla-
tive appropriations; (5) the imprivegient of teachers' qualifications
and teaching conditions.
lows. The novel attempt to discover and formulate State norms
in the attainments in certain subjects by children under instruction
in public schools is exemplified by the two following monographs:
" Handwriting of Iowa School Children," by Ernest J. Ashbaugh,
University of Iowa, Extension Division Bulletin No. 15, March 1,
1916 (24 pp., 10 tables, 6 figs., 4 "graphs) ; and " The Arithmetical
Skill of Iowa School Children," by Ernest J. Ashbaugh, University
of Iowa, Extension Division Bulletin No. 24, November 1, 1916 (63
pp., 17 tables, 31 figs.).
The first study attempts to answer these questions:
1. How well do Iowa school children write?
2. Do children Improve their quality of writing regularly as they progress
through the grades?
8. Do children attending school In towns and cities write better than those
attending the rural schools?
4. Do the children In the larger cities write better than those in towns or
amaii cities?
5. How do children In this State compare with children in other States?
6. Is the quality of writing of the average eighth-grade child sufficient to
satisfy the ordinary demands of everyday life outside of school?
The data on basis of which the answers could be formulated were
secured during the school year 1914-15, being a total of 28,000 papers
received from 110 cities and towns and from rural schools in 14 coup=
1
444
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
ties. The scoring of the papers was based on ltyres's measuring scale
for handwriting.
In general, it was found that, "on the average,
Iowa children are writing as well as children of like grade elsewhere
in the United States and at a greater speed, with the exception of the
eighth grade, which is only a little slower."
-
The second study attempts to secure answers to these questions:
1. How skillful are Town school children in performing the four fundamental
operations In arithmetic?
2. How does the skill of Tow'a school children compare with that of children
of like grade in other States?
S. How does the skill of children in small towns compare with that of chil-
dren In larger towns and cities?
4. What use can be made of standard tests?
The data were secured by the extension division of the university,
through whom arrangements were made for the giving of the Courtis
Series B tests during the last two weeks of the school year 1915-16.
Papers were secured from about 13,000 pupils in 52 cities and towns,
the teachers checking the papers and recording the number of "at-
tempts" and "rights." Class-record sheets, which were accepted as
accurate, were then handled by the extension division in order to
secure the information sought by the four questions. It was found
that the speed is greater in the lower grades than in the upper, and
the accuracy may be improved in most grades, especially in addition
and multiplication.
In comparison with the children of Indiana,
Kansas, and Minnesota and the Courtis general scores, Iowa children
excel in most grades and operations. The study seems to throw
"some light on the justice of the criticism " which specifies the inac-
curacy in arithmetical ability on the part of children who complete
the common-school course.
In "Vocational Guidance in Music," by Carl E. Seashore (Uni-
versity of Iowa Monographs, First Series No. 2, September, 1916, 11
pp.), announcement is made of the provision in the psychology of
music studio for the conduct of music surveys in the public schools.
This development Of grade tests in music for vocational guidance
represents additional equipment for school survey purposes.
Wisconsin.A contribution toward the improvement of teaching
in public schools, as well -as the formulation of a measure of the
tatccess of the instruction given and representative of the practices
characteristic of the State, is presented in "A Report on the Use of
Some Standard Tests for 1916-17," by W. W. Theisen, and issued
by C. P. Cary (Studies in. Educational Measurements. in Wisconsin,
Bulletin No. 1, 1918, Madison, pp. 120, 45 tables and 9 figures).
These "tentative Wisconsin standards of achievements" in spell:-
g, arithmetic, handwriting, composition, and reading were derived
an extended plan cif cooperative research, aided by members
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
446
of the State department of education, city and county superintendents
and teachers, under the direction of the State supervisor of educa-
tional measurements.
In addition to the pupils' work, the study
sought by questionnaires certain facts as to the course of study and
organization of instruction in the subjects tested in order to find
possible correlative explanations of the results obtained in some of
the tests.
The spelling of 3,1,534 pupils,in rural, " State graded," and high
and. city schools was tested by the Ayres scale, and. found " to be
from one-half year to a full year behind" its standards, city pupils
falling below the others. The attainments in the four fundamental
operations in arithmetic of varying numbers of the third to eighth
grade pupils in 'a total of 21 cities were measured by the Woody
test series A, and proved to be up to standard in the three lower
grades, but below in the three upper grades.
The handwriting of
7,231 children in rural, graded, and city schools, second to eighth
grades, was scored in quality by the Thorndike scale, and compared,
also, through copversion by Kelly's method, with Freeman's and the
Iowa standards, and shown to fall below them, excepting that the
best Wisconsin handwriting both in quality and speed appears to be
in the rural schools.
The Hillegas scale and the Nassau County sup-
plement to the Hillegas scale were used in the effort to secure a
representative State measurement of the results in English composi-
tion of 5,848 children of the third to eleventh grades in 15 cities, and
revealed that " the children as a whole in these Wisconsin cities do
not make a commendable showing." Results in the reading of 7.549
children, tested by the Kansas silent reading test, as reported by
18 cities, two cities including scores made by high-school pupils, show
Wisconsin children to be below the standard performances in the
third and fourth grades, and above in the fifth to eighth grades.
COUNTY SURVEYS.
Georgia.Whilit may be designated as the Georgia method of
county school survey, illustrated in the material of former reports,
continues to be applied during the biennium by M. L. Duggan, rural
school agent, acting under the direction of the State department of
education. The present list includes:
No. 11. Tnttnall County, 1918.. No. 12. Seteven County, 1916. No. 15. Brooks
County, 1917.
No. 18. Hart County, 1917.
No. 18. Spalding County, 1917.
No. 19. Towns County, 1917.
No. 20. Jones County, 1018.
No. 22. Candler
County, 1918.
No. 23. TM County, 191&
No..24. Ben Hill County, 1918.
By noticing the different existing features placed under the several
rubrics used in describing existing conditions, one can see the several
lines of change and improvement, which are appearing in rural see-
446
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
tions in this State from year to year. For example, No. 11 specifies
that "moonlight" schools or " no moonlight" classes are organized.,
No. 1ft notes as a new feature " clubs" or " no clubs," such as canning,
corn, pig, and poultry, organized. Nos. 16 and 18 emphasize the con-
trast in outlays for schools as compared with courthouses and jails,
and urges a wider extension of a county tax levy and a district tax
levy.
No. 19 lists the rubrics by means of which one may score a
school as standard.
No. 22 shows the importance of compulsory
attendance, and No. 23, the advent of " the school pig."
A most interesting application of the " survey " type of handling
official statistical data in the training given to prospective teachers
may be found in "A Brief Social and Economic Survey of Muscogee
County," by Ella Jones, and published by the Georgia Club as a
bulletin of the State normal school, Athens, Ga., June, 1917 (14 pa.),
and "A Brief Social and Economic Survey of Floyd County,"%y
Estelle Hughes, September, 1917 (15 pp.).
Similar studies have
been made of Clarke, Putnam, and Webster Counties by students at
the normal school under the direction of Prof. F. A. Merrill.
Indiana.That survey reports may serve two forms of educational
service is illustrated in the " Educational Survey of Greene County,
Ind.," by Supt. Daniel C. McIntosh, published in ,June, 1916, (110
pp.). "To present the facts, just as they were at4the time
investigation (1913-1916), so they may be understood by everyone,
and then to make some practical suggestions to better conditions,"
were the main objects of this study. The report was also submitted
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master
of arts in the school of education, Indiana University. The material
was collected by the county superintendent, with the aid of teachers
and principals in the performance of their respective duties, and is
arranged in 10 chapters, 29 tables, and 26 figures.
The details in-
clude: The location and history of the county ; the topography, re-
sources, and transportation; the economic, social, and religious condi-
tions; the history, organization, and administration of schools; the
physical plant; the teachers; the pupils, programs and curriculum;
financial; summary and recommendations. The appendix includes
the blanks which were employed in collecting the data and a brief
outline of the survey of a rural county.
Texas."A Study of Rural Schools in Travis County, Tex.," by
E. E. Davis, of the University of Texas, department of extension,
division of school interests OBulletin of the University of Texas, 1916,
No.,67, 53 pp.), is also a study that served a double purpose, namely,-
" to make an accurate and scientific estimate of public education" in
a part of Travis County, and to be a chapter of a thesis offered in
connection with the requirements for the degree of master of arts
'EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
447
in the University of Texas.
The scope of the material includes:
Economic and social conditions; finances; grounds, buildings, and
equipment; course of study; teachers; pupils; conclusions and recom-
mendations. In dealing with the course of study use was made of a
number of tests for measuring the achievements of pupils, such as
Ayres's scale in handwriting, Thorndike's reading scale, Courtis's
series B, for speed and accuracy in arithmetic, and Starch's reasoning
tests, scale A, in arithmetic. An attempt was made to use Ballou's
scale for measuring English composition, but, owing to certain
difficulties, the plan was not executed.
In February, 1917, a " Survey of the Public Schools of Walker
County, Tex.," was made by the United States Bureau a-Education.
It made special study of the academic education and professipnal
training of the teachers, their certificates and tenure of position;
salaries; grades taught; school grounds; buildings and equipment;
water, toilets, lighting; length of term.
A. summary of the main
findings appeared in the " Texas School Journal," March, 1918,
(pp. 13=15).
Missouri. "A Sanitary Survey of the Rural Schools of Northeast
Missouri," by Prof. Willis J. Bray, was published in "The Rural
School Messenger," November, 1917 (pp. 47-80). The data in this
report were obtained by the tabulation of the answers to more than
100,000 questions.
These answers were from representative rural schools in each'of the 26
counties in this section of Missouri. These questions called for a simple state-
ment of fact and not, with one single exception, for an expression of opinion.
The answers obtained can be relied upon as an exact statement of facts in
almost every case.
The scope of inquiry included school grounds, school buildings;
and schoolrooms, health conditions of children, dental inspection,
adenoids, eye defects, hearing, malnutrition, speech defects, water
supply, heating of schoolrooms, disposal of dust and dirt, infectious
diseases, and disposal of sewage. "The data when received were
, tabulated by counties, and the totals under each item obtained by
adding corresponding items from all the counties."
New York.The " Report of the Survey of Public Education in
Nassau County, N. Y.," conducted in 1916, has been published as a
University of the State of New York bulletin,./4%,652, December 1,
1917 (287 pp., 112 tables, and 16 figures).
It comprises two parts,
the first of which is the report of the survey concluded by L. S.
Hawkins, of the New York State department of education, and
George D. Strayer, of Teachers' College, with the assistance of
M. R. Trabue, who had charge of the direction of the field work
and the compilation and report of the findings. The second pail
includes the report of the survey conducted by A. C. Monahan, J. C.
443
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-1918.
Muerman, Katherine M. Cook, and Belvia E. Cuzzort, representing
the United.States Bureau of Education.
The first part devotes its
attention largely but not exclusively to the five tow
or super-
intendent districts; the second part to " practically a
e farming
territory in the county and all the small villages.'
The survey
reveals extraordinary conditions, which are to be understood in
light of the fact that the plan of school administration was " in-
augurated over a hundred years ago" and has been essentially out-
grown.
Accordingly the survey suggests the basic need of a single
county organization. In the attempt to measure school conditions
and achievements of pupils use is made of more recently established
forms' of measurement.
The school plant is estimated by means
of Strayer's score card.for city school buildings.
About one-fourth
of the report (pp. 146-217 and pp. 21'9-287) is given to the. measure-
ment of the achievements of pupils, including English composition
(Hillegas), reading scale alpha (Thorndike), completion test, len-
gauge scales C and L (Trabue), arithmetic - (Woody, Courtis, series
B, Stone's reasoning), penmanship
(Thorndike), and spelling
(Ayres). In accounting for the- low achievements in fundamental
subjects the survey believesothat the causes "are not probably to be
found in any lack of mental ability or willingness to work on the
part of teachers or supervisors. The blame must be put, no
ndi-
viduals, but on an old worn-out system of school admit
n and
supervision."
The inquiry into the achievements of pupils led to
the development of the " Nassau County Supplement to the Hillegas
Scaje for Measuring the Quality of English Compositions" (pp.
160-162).
By means of this scale, which is somewhat more easily used by
teachers than the Hillegas scale, teachers may check up with one
another two or three times each year and know how their pupils
.compare with pupils of the same grade and age in neighboring
schools.
The county supervisors recommended by this report will
be able, by means of this scale, to make comparisofls between schools
in the county and between the Nassau County school system and
other school sytems wherever it seems necessary.
The median
results obtained. by using this supplement are exactly comparable
to the median remits obtained by using the Hillegas scale itself.
"TOWN " BREVET'S.
Connecticut.In order to improve local school conditions and to
better the administration of public education, the State board .of
edtication of Connecticut instituted in 1916 an
educational inquiry "
in the several " towns" of the State Nthich were *under State super-
vision and received State grants. The surveys of the schools were
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
449
made by agents of the board of education, by personal inspections,
aided, where possible, by the cooperation of school committees, super-
intendents, and citizens.
The published reports of these inquiries,
include the following: "Glastonbury, 1916," by N. Searle Light
(pp. 37, Connecticut Hulletin 29); "Seymour, 1916," by N. S. Light
and E. W. Ireland (pp. 26, Bulletin 30) ; "North Stonington, May,
1916," by G. C. Swift (pp. 29, Bulletin 32) ; " East Windsor, May,
1916," by N. S. Light (pp. 34, Bulletin 45) ; " New Hartford, 1916,"
by E. Ward Ireland (pp. 33, Bulletin 30, Series 1917-18); "
"ent,
1916-17," by E. Ward Ireland (pp. 33, Bulletin 56, Series 191 -18).
The scope of these inquiries usually included: The early hist ry of
the town and the beginnings of school activity; location, topog aptly,
and resources; the town's finances and school revenues and expendi-
tures; populatiOn analysis; the school population, attendance, clas-
sification, and pro r s of pupils; school buildings, equipment, and
grounds; teachers;
struction, observed er tested; administration
and supervision. The conditions varying in these towns, a uniform
scheme of inspection and testing could not be applied.
Conditions
were reported as found. "A system of control which maim possible
a janitor's striking and cursing the superintendent of schools in the
'presence of pupils is abominable.
And this incident ort a day of
visitation by the writer haS not been the only occurrence of a similar
nature" ((Glastonbury). The indifference of the school committee
to school conditions, and a failure during four months to secure a
public meeting or conference led to the adoption of the novel plan of
sending within one month -a series of seven postals to the voters of
the town setting forth the main findings in the form of questions.
" The people were entitled to the facts" (East Windsor). Tests of
the results of instruction were devised in arithmetic, language,
spelling, geography (location), and history (dates) and given in
Seymour, New Hartford, and Kent, the results being exhibited in
the appendices.
CITY 8U RVE78.
Boston, Mass.The greatly increased cost of public education in
Boston has led to two surveys of the eityI selliool sytem.
The main
features of the first survey, 1911, were state 'n the report of the Com-
missioner of Education' (Chap. XXIV, )7"ol. I, 1914, pp. 521-523).
In 1915 the finance commission was requested by the mayor of the
city to investigate the great increase in schooLexpenses.
" With the
appropriation of $5,000 in hand, the finance conunission Jdecided to
supplement the report of 1911 with an investigation by an educk.
tional expert." This inquiry extendenrom October 1,1915, to Jan-
uary 22,1916, the results appearing in the "Report of a Study of
Certain Phases of the Public School System of Boston, Mass., made
171029°-21Bu1L 88-20
450,.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916l919.
under the auspices of the Boston Finance Commission," City of
Boston, Document 87, 1916 (219 pp., .9 chapters, 16 tables, 12 dia-
grams). A second document, "Report on the Boston School De-
partment with Especial Emphasis on the need for a Reorganization
of its Central Administrative System" (66 pp.), contains a review
of the report of the survey committee (pp. 6-49), and a review of the
assistant superintendents' " reply " (pp. 50-61).
The personnel of the survey committee, with their special topics
of study, included James H. Van Sickle, director of the study and
chairman of the committee; George D. Strayer. administrative offices
and supervision districts; Lewis H. Carris and Egbert E. MacNary,
prevocational and vocational features of the schools; Edwin Hebden,
vocational needs of Boston children ; Leonard P. *Ayres, the construc-
tion of school buildings; Earle Clark, general study of costs; Don C.
Bliss, the organization of supervision and the work of speciill classes;
Henry S. West, the high school situation.
"Though the director
holds himself individually responsible for each and every part of
what ,is hero presented the report represents the combined judg-
ment of all who participated in the study."
The report does not present itself as " a complete survey " of the
schools of the city, inasmuch as the scope of the study was festricted
to those phases of the system "having to do chiefly with organization
and costs," specified as follows: Cost of administration of the school
system, with the various duties of the administrative officers; the or-
ganization of high and grammar school districts and the arrange-
ment of duties of principals; the proper number Of pupils to a
teacher; the lengthening of the school year ; the elimination of extra
pay to teachers for service in vacation schools; the shortening of the
common school course from eight to seven years; the value of the
new schools and studies established since 1911; method of paying
salaries to teachers; whether or not the system of furnishing addi-
tional school accoihmodations is being carefully and economically
planned: The director observes that a complete survey would in-
clude many additional topics, among which are:
1. The relation of the course* of study to individual differences eristiog
among children and to modern social demands.
2. The quality of teaching.
3. The achievements of pupils.
4. The adequacy of present provision for physical welfare of children, pre-
'vocational and vocational training, special classeW, playgrounds.
. The possibility of improving the present system of recording and report-
ing school facts, including the Consideration of the question of clerks in ele-
mentary and In high schools.
8. An Industrial-commercial survey.
7. The classification of children in the school system, Including a -study of
retardation, elimination, and progTess of children, together with a considera-
tion of promotion rates, failures by studies, and the like.
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
451
8. A study of the distribution of expenditures among the several units of
the school. system for the sake of discovering any further possibly of saving
without a decrease in the effitiency of the school system.
9. An investigation of the adequacy of the present school plant, with special
reference to the effect of such accommodations or equipment upon the health
and achievement of school children.
10. An Inquiry concerning teachers, Including the recruiting of the corps,
their salaries, tenure, improvement in service, and the like.
11. A study of the present efikiency of general and special supervision, with
particular reference to the contribution made by the supervisory corps to the
growth and development of teachers.
12. The care of school buildings, including the qualifications, compensation,
and control of janitors.
13. Apparatus and materials for the purposes of training and instruction
(textbooks, laboratories, workshops, libraries, schoolroom decorations, etc.).
14. The legal basis of the school system.
The relation of the school depart-
ment to other departments of the city government and to the State legislature.
The discussions and findings of the study are presented in Mlle
chapters dealing with the reorganization of the administration of
schools; reorganization of district supervision; the high-school situ-
ation; special departments, including practice and training, promo-
tion and research, physical welfare, industrial arts and household
arts, evening and voluntary continuation schools, community centers,
music, and kindergartens; vocational education; vocational needs of
,Boston children ; expenditures for school purposes in Boston com-
pared with expenditures in (22) other large American cities; the
constrtstion of school buildings; subsidiary matters.
Among the
recommendations which, in the summary, fill nine pages (pp. 6-14),
the following may be mentioned: Reorganizing the; administration
so as to secure a responsible executive .bead, who should. btsuperin-
tendent of schools; a more adequate plan.of supervision by redistrict-
ing the areas, and taking account of the relationship between the
number of pupils in average daily attendance and the number of
masters employed; the general organization of junior high schools so
as to extend their advantages to all parts of the city and at the same
time reduce schoOl cats; the 15 special departments should be re-
grouped into 10; the prevocational departments should be reorgan-
ized as a part of the junior high schools; while Boston ,ranks second
among the 21 cities in expenditure per inhabitant for operation and
maintenance of schools, the expenditure per unit of wealth is rela-
tively low; the city'S plan of erecting school buildings through the
agency of an independent schoolhouse commission has not been suc
cessful from the standpoint of cost.
San Francisco, Cal.The detailed character of the study of the
school system of San Francisco is uiunistakably indicated by the 28
pages (pp. 621-644) required to present the brief digest of the im-
portant recommendations whichire made in connection with the dis-
ti
452
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
mission of the several topics taken into consideration. The presuppo-
sitions which serve as a preamble to this summary could well serve
as the foreword to the survey-of every public School system in order
to bring together school officials, citizens, and surveyors upon a com-
mon platform from which to view with like-mindedness all findings
and recommendations.
On January 3, 1916, the Commissioner of Education ilpdertook the
organization of the survey which had been proposed as early as
December, 1914, by representatives of the San Francisco Chamber of
Commerce, and with which the San Francisco board of education co-
operated. The Bureau of Education furnished fhe services of five
specialists and the board of education seven members of the commis-
sion, who were nominated by the Bureau of Education from a list
approved by the board of education.
The commission, as finally
made up, ,and the topics to which each member was assigned, are as
followki. William T. Bawden, director of field work for the survey
commission, manual training, vocational education; Henrietta W.
Calvin, .home economics; Fletcher B. Dresslar, school architecture,
sanitation, buildings, and equipment; Arthur W. Dunn, civic educa-
tiob; John L. Randall, school and home gardening; Frederick E.
Farrington, education for immigrants; William M. Davidson, organ-
ization, administration, financial and fiscal problems; Charles A.
McMurry, elementary schools, courses of study, methods of teaching;
John W. Withers, elementary schools, courses of study, methods of
teaching; J. Stanley Brown, secondary education; Henry Turner
Bailey, fine arts; Will Earhart, music.
The amount of time spent in the field included the month of Feb-
ruary by eight members and the monthof August, after the opening
of the new school year, by four members, aggregating a total of 347
days in San Francisco.
Every elementary school, every high school,
and 16 evening schools were visited.
One hundred and thirty-nine
conferences were held with groups of'teachers and principals.
The
expense of the survey was estimated at..$8,500.
The report is con-
tained in ". The Public School System of an Fiancisco, Cal. A Re-
port to the San Francisco Board of Education of a Survey made
under the Direction of the United States Commissioner of Educa-
6:0," Bulletin, 1917, No. 46 (644 pp., 221 tables, 16 figures).
The scope pf the survey is readily seen from the following topics,
to each of which a separate chapter is.devoted: The city of San
Francisco; a statistical study of the school system; organization and
administration; the finances of the school; school' buildings and
grounds; the elementary schools; tests of the achievements of pupils;
the high schools; civic education; music in the public schools; in-
struction in art; home economics education; manual training; voce-
tfonal educatikisf education of the immigrant; edueational and ece
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
453
nomic value of school-directed gardening.
A striking feature of
this survey is the new and special subjects which a
included, indic-
ative of conditions which are peculiar to the western
Lion of the
United States, particularly on the Pacific Coast.
The
inth, tenth,
fifteenth, and sixteenth topics touch upon these specific co ditions.
The tests of the achievements of pupils were madabin th
subjects-
of penmanship, spelling, reading, and arithmetic, the prepartion of
the report on the results in each, respectivelYebeing made undSr the
direction of Frank N. Fieeman, L. D. Coffman, N. L. Garrison, and
Carter Alexander.
So far as form is concerned, the writing of the
children was found to be good; in spelling the city as a whole ranks
considerably above the standard average for a large numbeof cities;
in arithemtic, the children made an unusually good showing in
speed, but not in accuracy, and did not evidence the usual increase
in this quality with. progress through the grades. Instruction in
reading stands in need Of standardization so as to insure grade to
grade progress and greater uniformity in school situations, and thus
to facilitate transfer and promotion of students. The intensive
stwly of the 13 and 14 year old pupils in 11 elementary schools,
selected at random and prepared under the direction of F. J. Kelly,
in the interests of the development of a program for vocational edu-
cation, indicates a new mode of attack upon the problems in this
field.
Grand Rapids, Mich.One of the most searching studies of a
school system, that has yet been made, is to be found in the report
of the "School Survey of Grand Rapids, Mich., 1916" (506 pp., 17
chapters, 112 tables, 94 diagrams).
The survey was originally
phtnned by the board of education to study the efficiency of instruc-
tion. As the results of the study of the instructional problems were
obtained, it became apparent that this system was securing a dis-
tinctive type of results which doubtless involved high cost, and, ac-
cordingly, the scope was extended to include a compaeative study
of the costs.
The following, including Charles H. Judd, comprised the survey
staff and the topics to which they were assigned:
Charles S. Berry, special clages; John F. Bobbitt, elementary school
curriculum and school buildings,; George S. Counts, arithmetic; John
B. Crag* music; Calvin 0. Davis, high schools; John I-I. Francis,
junior high schools; Frank N. Freeman, writing; William S. Gray,
reading; Benjamin F.. Pittenger, statistical material (in part) on
teachers and promotions; Harold 0. Rugg,°school finances; and
Matthew, H. Willing, English composition:
A Dr. Judd or...knized the staff, edited the results, and contributed
15ka portions ofThe report not:otherwise indicated above. .
454
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The report comprises the following topics in chapter order: The
teachers; nonpromotions and failures in the elementary schools;
introduction to tests; reading; composition; arithmetic; penman-
ship; music; instruction in the elementary schools; introduction to
high-school report; secondary schools; special classes of the public
schools of Grand Rapids; buildings and equipment; the cost of public
education in Grand Rapids; the business management of the public
schools; administrative organization.
The final chapter presents a
summary of the entire report (pp. 484-506).
In addition to the results secured in the application of the stand-
ard tests which were used to discover the ability of children in each
of the school subjects studied, the survey is conspicuous by reason
of its specification of the functions of supervision in the development
of instruction.
Detailed analyses of grade progress in the several
subjects are so presented as to indicate both to principals of build-
ings and to supervisors hew the checking up of the results of teach-
ing can be carried forward diagnostically both in particular build-
ings and in particular grades.
The report in general shows that there is a very satisfactory con-
dition of progress in the Grand Rapids school system. Instruction
is of a high order, and the results are relatively superior. The de-
tailed recommendations, which have been outlined iithis summary.
and are presented in full in the report, would make for an improve-
ment of a school system already well organized and carrying on its
work in a very adequate fashion.
Special mention may be made of the use of a new composition
scale which is derived from material gathered in a similar test in
Denver, Colo.
It is interesting to note that, as in the San Francisco
survey, music is made a subject of study in the Grand Rapids sur-
vey.
A new type of foreign language courses is suggested for the
junior high school.
Emphasis is placed upon the recommendation
that advanced courses in the senior high school should be given a
"practical or functioning trend." The extended analysis of the data
relating to high-school teachers sets a new degree of attainment in
survey methods. The discussion of the study of the problem of the
cost is clarified by the preliminary definition of the 10 different
terms used in this report
Grand Rapids is compared with 18 cities
in the items of expense.
Bt.
Afo.--rOne of the largest and most carefully planned
public-school surveys which has been conducted during the biennium,
is that of the public" schools of St. Louis. This survey "was organ-
ized by the board of education for the purpose of securing a definite
body of facts on which to base its financial policy and with which to
persuade the -citizens of St. Louis of the wisdom of this policy," and
was conducted," primarily to aid in the passage of a bond issue of
EDUCATIONAL SUIIVEYS.
455
.
$3,000,000.". The survey was authorized by the board of education
on May 11, 1916.
The survey of instruction was, accordingly, un-
dertaken and completed during the closing weeks of the school year
1915-16. The final reports of the different sections of the survey
were filed with the board in August and September, 1916.
The cost
of the survey was $9,780.06, exclusive of the printing of the reports.
The survey was published December, 1917.
The organization of the work of the survey included: (1) Gen-
eral organization of school system; (2) records, observations, and
tests of schools, elementary schools, including nonpromotions and
promotions, observations of instruction, the course of study, reading,
arithmetic, and handwriting, special schools, and high schools; (3)
administration: supervisory organization, including music, -draw-
ing; and physical education ; divisions of administration, including
attendance department, department of hygiene, and appointmentoof
teachers and teacher training; (4) building: construction, hygiene,
use of buildings for classes; (5), finance.
The respective assignments of the members of the staff to the above
topics are indicated in the following list of the reports, which, for
purposes of publication, were grouped in seven volumes.
vol.
I. Part 1. General statement
Charles H. Judd.
Part 2. Administration and organizntIon..._
C. Morrison.
Part 3. Appointment of teachers and teacher train-
ing
Charles H. Judd.
Vol.
II. Part 1. Nonpromotlons and two-quarter promotions
In the elementary schools
Charles H. Judd.
Part 2. Observations of elementary school instruc-
tion
_George A. Mirick.
Part 3. The curriculum situatiotf
.3. F. Bobbitt.
Part 4. Reading
William S. Gray.
Part 5. Arithmetic
_Charles H. Judd.
Part 6. Handwriting
Frank N. Freeman.
Part T. Special schools
_Walter F. Dearborn.
Vol. III. High schools
A. B. Meredith.
Vol. IV. Finances
_H. 0. Rugg.
Part 1. Public school costs in St. Louis.
Part 2. The business management of the public
schools.
Vol.
V. Part 1. Construction of school buildings._
W. R. McCornack:
Part 2. Hygiene of school buildings
F. B. Dressler.
Part 3. The use of elementary and high-school
classrooms_
__S. 0. Hartwell.
Vol. VI. Part 1. Music_
J. Beach Cragun.
Part 2. Drawing
F. H. Daniels.
Part 3. Physical education
'George W. Ehler.
(Volume VI is not published, and it is
expected will not be.)
Vol. VII. Part 1. Child accounting and attendance
H. C. Morrison.
Part 2. Medical inspection
A. Peterson.
456
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
The splendid record which the St. Louis schools had been making
through a long 1,eriod of years gives reason for special interest and
satisfaction in the results of this survey. One of our leading school
systems thuS has its enviable record confirmed when brought to the
test of present scientific standards of measurement. The scope of the
inquiry is readily, gathered from the extended general statement of
the findings and recommendations in Volume I (pp. 5-40.
Perhaps the most distinctive and valuable point emphasized in
the St. Louis survey is the close connection between the erection of
school buildings and the educational policy of a system stated in
terms of the course of study and teaching activity. This identifica-
tion of interests appears again and again in the course of the report
and is summarized in the following statement of the director:
The fact is that a school building. is in a very important sense of the word
a concrete embodiment of the whole school policy. When one thinks of a school
building, therefore, he must think of it in terms of the'plans which the school
administration has for the use of this building.
For example, if a school build-
ing contains a gymnasium and a swimming pool, it Is perfectly evident that the
administrative officers who put the gymnasium and the swimming pool into the
building contemplate using it as a part of the regular educational equipment.
They will by their policy of construction be called upon immediately to provide
the time and instruction necessary to use this material equipment.
The
moment they begin to try to provide time for the use of the swimming pool,
they will raise a number of questions with regard to the relative importance
of swimming as contrasted with arithmetic and reading.
The swimming pool,
therefore, comes to be .a part of, every consideration of the course of study.
What has been said with regard to the swimming pool could be said with regard
to all of the other characteristits of the building.
,The school system becomes aware oflack of proper building equipments
long before the citizens In general become aware of the fact that the course of
study and the general policy of the school system are being invaded.
It is in-
evitable, of course, If there is a lack of funds, that the school organization will
ultimately be cramped because of this Inability to enlarge the work of the
schools. But the ordinary citizen is not likely to realize that the lack of funds
metals a reduction In the richness of the course of study and a deterioration of
instruction.
Gary, Ind.The advancerhent of educational science and the pro-
*motion of adininistrative practices in controlling the school experi-
ences of children, as reflected in opinion, on one hand, and, as known
by deliberate comparative judgments and exact measurements, on
the other, have shared in a rare good fortune during the biennium.
No experiment in public education in the United States has more
uickly or widely influenced the formulation of opinions, and like-
se carried conviction within an increasing group of official minds
elsewhere than the undertakings and apparent novelties at Gary,
Ind. The impression made upon many a visitor by its demonstra-
tions of what can be done for children, if not what.children can do
for themselves, under the study-play-work program led, to efforts
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
457
to reproduce fts obvious features more or less formally in other sys-
tems.
Indeed, so plainly had some of its leading issues involved
been controverted that it was impossible to poll citizens by the
question: Are you in favor of "garyizing" our schools?
In view of what " Gary " had become in American public educa-
tion the most important survey of the biennium is that of its schools.
The value of the survey as an instrument for the measurement and the
interpretation of educational progress has had no more fortunate
opportunity for revelation than in this study.
The comparative
merits of the traditional methods as over against the surveying
methods of estimating the basic worth of contributions to both ad-
ministrative and instructional experiments may now be exhibited
by the critical student more accurately than ever before. Our edu-
cational enlightenment has been exceptionally advanced by the re-
port of the study of the Gary schools which was undertaken in 1917 by
the General Education Board at the request of the board of educa-
tion and the city superintendent of Gary. The report, "The Gary
Public Schools," New Ycrk, 1918 (over 1300 pages), comprises
seven parts " dealing with the more characteristic or important
aspects of school work at Gary," preceeded by a general volume,
" The Gary School: A General Account," which summarizes the
separate reports and presents "a comprehensive view of the entire
situation:"
Part 1. A General Account.
Abraham Flexner and Frank P. Bachman.
Part'2. Organization and Administration. George D. Strayer and Frank
P. Bachman.
Port 3. Costs,
school year,
1915-1916.
Frank P. Bachman and Ralph
B4man.
Part 4. Industrial work. Charles It. Richards.
Pt4t 5. Household arts.. Eva W. White.
Part 6. Physical training and play. Lee F. Hanmeil
Pat 7. Science teaching.
Otis W. Caldwell.
Pa til 8. Measurement of classroom products.
Stuart A. Courtis.'
Thii scope of the survey is more clearly indicated_ by the spetal
topic§ considered.
In addition to the summarizing by chapters of
the several separate parts the general volume presents data and
'ipterpretations on: Gary, its industries and its people; course of
study; teaching staff ; classroom instruction (judged by observations
extending over four months and based on a total of 228 recitations
in the eight grades and the high school); auditorium and religious
instruction; enrollment, attendance, and pupil progress; and con-
clusion., The special topics of the other parts are:
Part 2. Present -day problems; program ; plant ; organization ; use of plant ;
supervision and administration; comparative cost.
'The publication of the report did not begin until Dteember, 1918. The successive parts
cost, respectively, 25 cents, 15 cents, 25 cents. 25 cents, 10 cents, 10 cents, 10 cents, and
80 cents, and will be sent on receipt of the amount specified, by the General Education
Board, 61 Broadway, New York City.
458
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Part 3. Accounting methods; current cost of entire system; current cost of
regular day schools; current cost of larger day schools; current cost of the
school shops; capital outlay for grounds, buildings, and equipment; fixed
charges; financing the system.
Part 4. Shop work in Gary schools; shops and tests (machine, forge, foundry.
printing) in Emerson School; shops and tests (printing, woodworking, sheet
metal plumbing, painting, shoe) in Froebel School; shop work in Jefferson
School; drawing and handwork; forms and records; summary and conclusions.
Part 5. Aim of household arts work ; cooking, time schedule and enroll-
ment; the cafeteria ; staff and instruction; tests; merits and defects; sewing,
time schedule and enrollment ; equipment, staff and instruction; tests; merits
and defects.
Part 6. Place of physical training and play; facilities; teaching staff ; in-
struction; tests and results; merits and defects.
Part 7. Science teaching as a part of a modern curriculum; science teaching
in the Gary schools (general plan, time allotment) ; daily teaching schedules
and composition of classes; nature study and garden work in primary grades;
staff and instruction in nature study; botany and gardening; zoology; physics;
chemistry; tests; pupil helpers in science work; conclusion.
Part 8. Introduction; tests and testing conditions; handwriting; spelling;
arithmetic; composition; reading (the presentation of the general results of
each of the five subjects tested is followed by a critical discussion) ; factors
affecting performance; conclusions.
The several authors received special assistance in various phases
of their work from Frank L. Shaw, Edith Holman, Anna C. Thorn-
blum, Trevor Arnett, Frederick Cleveland, Frank E. Spaulding,'
Anna M. Cooley, Shattuck 0. Hartwell, Frank W. Ballou, Paul H.
Hanus, LeOnard P. Ayres, Edwn d L. Thomdike,'Charles H. Judd,
William S. Gray, and groups of assistants, some of whom were
especially trained to do specific tasks with unquestioned accuracy.
Each part of the report is amplified with numerous tables, charts,
illustrations, and special appendices, some of which are richly sup-
plied with samples of the evidences supporting the conclusions.
Taken as a whole, the Gary study is probably the most analytic educa-
tional survey yet accomplished. By reason of the ample resources
available for, and the freedom enjoyed in, the undertaking, it was
possible to increase the number of aids and devices used, to vary the
approaches to the study of particular phases, and to cross section at
different angles the processes and the results characteristic at Gary.
In marked contrast with the usual survey, which addresses itself
to the task of finding the secret of "a local situation," the results of
the Gary survey, in a peculiar sense, necessarily become vital for all
educational interests, especially 'in the United States. The evalua-
tions discovered are direct contributions, derived from the ascertain-
able results of an experiment on a large scale.
" While Gary would
hardly have been selected deliberately as the fittest place for a con-
siderable experiment in public education, nevertheless, ftorn one
point of view, perhaps no place could have been chosen where there
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
459
were fewer obstacles and where conditions were more favorable to
innovation." That the schools are feeling the impetus of experi-
mentation is indicated by the "complication" of various detailed
features which tends to baffle analysis and evaluation in light of long-
established practices, and also by this observation : "There has been
a distinct process of development, at times such rapid and unstable
development, that our account will in some respects be obsolete before
it , printed."
Gary is credited with ha sing " adopted the progressive, modern
conception of school function, formulated its conception in clear
terms, and with all possible expedition prqvided facilities adequate
to the conception."
fts experimentation in utilizing its plant by all
the children has resulted in its distinctive contribution to school or-
ganization.
" Gary has attempted to practice democratic theory in
school conduct and discipline."
Over against these achievements it
is found that the execution of the plan is " defective " both in respect
to administration and supervision, that in the fundamental necessi-
ties of education, the " old line" branches, the achievement falls short
of usual performances, and, in respect to the expansion of the cur-
riculum by the addition of scientific materials, community work, and
physical education, etc., "that mere practical occupation is not alone
brogdly educative."
While it is found to be difficult to measure ac-
curately by cost computations, because " the town buys different op-
portunities under different conditions," it is concluded that the ad-
vantages offered " probably cost less than the same advantages on a
more conventional plan of school orga-nization."
The most distinctive feature of the survey is its persistent effort to
establish'its conclusions on the basis of objective evidence.
Wherever
possible standard and provisional tests were made, including funda-
mental subjects, science teaching, industrial work, household arts,
and physical education.
Indeed, in view of the exceptional mono-
graphic treatment of the measurements of classroom products, the
survey may be regarded as a testing of 'the tests.
The more marked
developments at Gary and of the survey use of tests are almost coeval,
and there is accordingly a fitting timeliness in this effort to make
" a critical study of the results secured," and thus arrivc at their true
value in the interpretation of specific educational processes.
Standard tests in five of the common subjects were given in the
four larger schools and included elementary and high-school grades.
The subjects are handwriting, spelling, arithmetic, English com-
position, and reading.
Handwriting was tested by three methods:
The Cleveland free choice, Courtis dictation, and specimens obtained
from the composition tests.
The Ayres scale, was used in finding the.
quality.
Spelling was measured by the Ayres scale; the material
s
460
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
being collected in three ways: The Cleveland survey lists of dis-
connecthi words, sentence dictation at a definite rate, and the 'spell-
ings inthe composition papers.
In arithmetic, use was made of the
Courtis Series B test in fundamentals and of the multiplication and
fraction tests of the Cleveland survey.
Narration was the only
form of English composition measured, the te.st given followed the
plan in the Denver survey, the quality being rated by the Hillegas
scale and the papers scored for different sorts of errors.
Oral read-
ing was tested by Gray's scale, and silent reading by a reading-and-
reproduction test, by the Kansas Silent Reading test, and by the
Trahne language scales B, C, D, and E. The total number of tests,
including repetition, was 55.
The total number of papers scored
and tabulated was 69,282.
Unusual care was exercised in securing
control of the conditions under which the tests were given.
Dupli-
cating the scoring of papers and checking by the examiners were
precautions taken to secure accurate, data, in addition to the special
training given, as in English composition and reading, to the scorers
for the task of scoring the papers. The general conclusion derived
. from the measurements is
That the product of classroom teaching of the fundamentals listed above is
poor in quality and inadequate In amount; it approximates In character the
product of the poorer conventional schools, and reveals in no particular the
slightest indication that it has been affected either favorably or unfavorably
by the enriched curriculum, or other special features of the Gary schools.
The results do not mean at .all that the movement for the socialization of
school work Is wrong, that the new type of organization is injurious, and that
a modernized program is a failure.
When the investigation was undertaken,' it was exrtcted that de-
cisive results would be secured, it must now be emphasized again and again
that the effects of the newer ideals of education have not been measured,
because at Gary these Ideals are operating under such conditions that they
play little or no part in determining the product of classroom teaching.
The Gary survey, accordingly, brings us to the point where one
Inust question, whether or not, vital experimentation outruns the
range of " standardized " tests?
Must these be revised, or even en-
tirely reconstructed in order to keep up with die modern socialized.
school?
Must measurement forsake'," the fundamentals " and pursue
" the newer ideals of education " in order to preserve fie integrity
of the science of education?
Harrisburg, Pa."The Plain Truth About the High School
Situation in Harrisburg" (24 pp.) is another instance which shows
how completely the building project of a school system involves the
education which it undertakes to give to its children.
This docu-
ment contains (pp. 14-24) the report of James H. Van Sickle who
was invited by the special high-school committee to examine the
'problems presented by the high-school situation.
His conclusions
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
4.61
and recommendations were based upon a week's observation in the
city and transmitted to the chairman of the committee, August 1,
191G.
In presenting the three alternate plans which the city could
adopt., the report gives a special review of the arguments for the
junior high school as a part of a city plan of organization. At the
,
general election on November 7, 1916, the sum of $1,250,000 was
voted for the use of the school district in making proper high-school
provisions.
Framingham., Mass.The impossibility of the local authorities
and citizens reaching a satisfactory solution of the problem which
involved a needed school building in 1914 led the school committee
of the town of Framingham to invite James H. Van Sickle,,George
D. Strayer, and Ernest C. Moore, as a special committee, to study
the situation and to report on the building needs of the town. .This
report is published in the 1916 " Report of the Board of School Com-
mittee and of the Superintendent of Schools" as Appendix A
(O. 49-73).
Several methods of analysis-were used for determin-
ing the building situation, such as the growth of the schools, and the
indicated future. needs of the town, including the Strayer score
card for city school buildings, increase in population in school at-
tendance, the retardation and elimination of pupils, the inadequacy
of the present plant, the drvailability of land, the industries into
which children may be expected to go, and transportation facilities.
On this basis a building program is recommended.
Brookline, Mass.On April 23, 1917, the report of an " Educa-
tional Survey of the Public Schools of Brookline, Mass." (436 pp.,
with numerous tables and charts), was presented to the school com-
mittee of Brookline, Which authorized the inquiry ,on June 5, 1916.
The survey staff included James H. Van Sickle,' director of the
survey; Henry S. West, Harlan Updegraff, George D. Strayer,
Eigbert E. MacNary, May Ayres, Bertha M. McConkey, James H.
McCurdy, Wilbur F. Gordy, and Edwin A. Shaw. The -method of
the survey, which included observations on the ground, distributed
over a period of six months, during which different members of
the staff were present at different times,
abled the director "to
gain the necessary insight into the complex'Irroblems involved which
would enable him to present a unified report" for which he assumes
'full responsibility.
The scope. of the survey is clearly indicated
from the topics to which the chapters are devoted: The Brookline
community; the school sYitem; school finances; school buildings and
equipment, elementary schools, high school, practical arty and man-
ual training buildings, public gymnasium, summary of existing con-
ditions and plans for the future; the school population; provisions
for safeguarding health; the kindergartens; the common branches,
462
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
with tests in arithmetic, spelling, penmanship, reading, and compo-
sition; the special branches; grades eight and nine; the high school;
the school of practical arts; a demonstration school for Brookline.
A summary of conclusions is presented on pages 5-26.
The most interesting suggestion growing out 9f this detailed study
of this wealthy suburb, which " has. been a pioneer in nearly all
phases of education which are agitating the public mind to-day," is
the recommendation that the school committee establish and main-
tain a demonstration school for Brookline:
As a result of an educational survey, something of a practical nature should
follow not only in the matter of buildings, organization, and general directions
as to educational policy, but in addition something that would afford a con-
tinuous opportunity to test and demonstrate the best things capable of being
done in the town of Brookline itself.
Other cities, Detroit and Boston. for instance, and a number of smaller cities
have established'departments of reference and research which deal extensively
with the particular school system as a whole. A demonstration school would
Meal intensively with a problem under controlled conditions.
The results in
°Boston and Detroit are published, and to a certain extent Brookline can share
the benefit of their findings.
But this is not enough. There are certain prob-
lems that Detroit's .efficiency office and Boston's efficiency office can not solve
for Brookline. These problems must be solved by Brookline and In Brookline.
There are other problems which no school system has yet undertaken to solve.
Here lies Brookline's opportunity, not only to benefit her own schools, but,
through ptblication of results to make a unique contribution to the cause of
public education. Her wealth and her standing among progressive American
communities lead one to expect from her some noteworthy contribution to the
general welfare.
Richmond, Ind.Attention has been given to tte place of the
kindergarten in a number of surveys of city schools, but the first
kindergarten survey, as suchv.is reported in the " Survey of the
Kindergartens of Richmond, Ind.," by Alice Temple, issued RP Sup-
plementary Educational Monographs (Vol. I, No. 6, September, 1917,
the University of Chicago Press, 54 pp.).
The' material for the
study of the eight kindergartens of this city was gatizered during.
visits made on nine days in January and February (19174), which
included also all the first-primary grades. Written material by the
kindergarten and first-primary teacher's, special conferences with
teachers, information from the office, and .the course of study planned
in' na supplied additional data for developing the treatment and
reaching the conclusions in the five chapters: The kindergartens;
room equipment; the teachers; the relation between the kindergarten
and th. first grade; curriculum and methods of the kindergarten,
including subject matter and metllods,
in
nual activities, language
it
and literature, physical activities, and
ic..
St. Put, Minn.The elaborate study o the St. Paul "situation,"
authorized by an ordinance- of the city counoil on May 28, 1916,
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
463
amended February f6, 1917, and conducted during the months of
January and February, 1917, will afford an opportunity to compare,
in part, the fortunes of public education under the recently devised
"commission " form of city government with its progress under the
form thus displaced.
The four major issues upon which a report was desired included: (1) The
situation with respect to the school plant, together with a program for the
developmeni of adequate school accommodations; (2) a study of the needs of
St. Paul for vocational education and a program for the establishment of this
type; (3) a study of the work done in the classroom with particular ,reference
to the development of more efficient teaching and a more satisfactory curric-
culum ; and (4) a consideration of the administration e; public education.
-The survey commission included George D. Strayer, chairman,
Lotus D. Coffman, and Charles A. Prosser, each of whom directed
one of the three sections of the study as organized.
The " Report
of a Survey of the School System of St. Paul, Minn." (pp. 962, 141
tables, 9 figures, 2 charti) comprises: Part I, The Administrative
Problem (pp. 5-210, 55 tables) ; Part II, The Instructional Problem
(pp. 211-660, 52 tables, 6 figures); Part. III, The Vocational Prob-
lem (pp. 661-832, 2 charts); and appendix (pp. 836 - 962,34 tables,
3 figures). The editing of the report and the delay in publication
suffered from a variety of circumstances, including war services of
some of the surveyors.
Part I, containing the general administra-
tion and school building survey, was prepared by George D. Strayer
and N. L. .Engelhardt, and treats of the administration of the schools,
school attendance and census, conservation of health, the cooperation
of the public library with the schools, buildings and equipment, and
cost of school maintenance. The adequacy of the city's school plant
was measured by the Strayer score card for school buildings. "Three
or more competent judges recorded their ratings on each building,"
" visited' by one man at a, time so as to permit of an unbiased, unham-
pered recording of the conditious actually found to exist in the
building." The report of Part I was submitted on April 15, 1917, and
contained a recommendation of a building program for five years
to come, involving a bond issue of $3,000,000 which was voted by the
taxpayers in June, 1917. A measure of the city's financial abilities
was secured by comparing educational costs with 24 other-northern
and western cities with populations ranging from 125,000 to 400,000.
The political control of a city school system under the commission
form of _government is noted by the survey committee, which places
itself off record as favoring the control of public education by a board of from
Ave to seven members elected at large, one each year 'for either five or seven
year terms of office at a special school election. This board, within certain limi-
tations, to 'be determined by the charter, should have the power to levy taxes
slid be responsible, for the expenditure of all moneys raised for educational
464
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
purposes. The board should, subject to the limitations commonly imposed
with respect to the limitation of debt and, upon the vote of the people, have
the power to issue bonds for the erectton of school buildings. The board should
be responsible for the erection of such buildings.
Part II; which deals with instruction and the course of study, and
the appendix, presenting data concerning the classification and
progress of school pupils, constitute over five ninths of the entire
report. *This part 'was prepared under the direction of Lotus D.
Coffman, assisted by the specialists indicated in the list of its topics:
Instruction and the "coarse of study; instruction in the first fonr
grades, by Flora J. Cook; instruction in the upper four grades, by
Lida L. Tail.. Ernest.Horn, and L. D. Coffman; measurement of
children's achies.oments, by 'M. E. Haggerty and M. R. Trnbne, as-
sisted by'C. L. Harlan, H. N. Fitch,-E. Laury, and J. Boraas; the
course of study, by Ernest J. Morn, Lida L. Tall, and L. D. Coff-
man; the secondary school system, by A. B. Meredith. The appendix
chapter on classification and progress of school pupil's was prepared
by Marion Rex Trabue.
The instructional problem was studied by means of data collected
in course of the application of six,in part, novel methods of secur-
ing information: By. direct observation of recitations; by the chil-
dren's own' work,- ,secured through tipaper written (or drawn, with
colored crayon, bk nonwriting first- graders) on the topic "How I
Havii Fun"; by teachers describing,in writing the,most satisfactory
lesson or lessons, and the points therein ,considered good, they had
given during the first half-year; by the written criticisms and dis-
Cu.ssions of teachers after observing a model lesson by one of their
number (e. g., h lesson in rending by a fourth-grade teacher) in
response to five specific questitms; by the examination' of data. fur-
nished by supervisors, principals, and teachers; and, by standardized
tests given the pupils. The study of the four upper grades did not
include the children's essays And the teachers' written description of
lessons. A distinctive, contribution is made, among the group of
suggestions offered for the improvement of instruction, in the form
of plans for making a.course of study for the schooli and for the
reconstruction of the syllabus of the course of study.
It is believed
that such work will definitely improve the classroom teaching, which
should be the aim of all who cooperate in this labor. " The problem
of the course of study is to determine what specific items of subject
matter are to be taught. The syllabus attempts to assure that such
subject matter will be taught.and with the greatest efficiency."
Over one-fourth--or 27.8 -per cent, to be exact. -of the report is
given to the results of the extended measurement of the achievement
of children in reading, spelling, handwriting, arithmetic,'grmmar,
composition, and language. TwelVe tests, were distributed between
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
465
-
January 26 and February 21, so as to measure all grades from the
first to the fourth year high school and " practically every child in
-the city" by one or more of the standard tests and scales. In order
to make the measurements representafive of city conditions, a unique
plan of securing-six rankings of all the schools on six different points
was adopted, and four different groups, "from the poorest"to the
best," were arranged, from each Of which two or more buildings were
selected in all tests. At a check on the accuracy of the measurements,
test data were secured in each instance, excepting reading in the ele-
mentary and the high schools and in grammar, from two groups of
schoolsthose in which the tests were given by the members of the
survey staff and those in which -the tests were given by the teachers
of the classes they were teaching under specific directions.
Tabula-
tions were made for the two groups separately and later tDe_results
,
compared and combined.
,
The following measures were used : -Spelling, Ayres; arithmetic,
Woody (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) ; handwrit-
ing, Ayres - (three -slant scale, 1912) ; primary reading; Haggerty
(sight and phonetic scales) ; rending in intermediate and grammar
a
grades,- Thorndike's scale, alpha 2, and Haggerty, visual voc t ulary:
grammar, 'Buckingham (to eighth grades) ; language, Trab e (lan-
guage scales B, C, D, and E in elementary schools and L ,and M
in high schools); composition, Nassau Coqnty supplement of the
Hillegas scale (elementary and 'high schools):
Computations were
made so as to render these-4%414ar tests comparable with the test
norms determined et various-times In the school year.
In order to
test the reading abilities of high-school pupils a new scale was de-
vised, involving " an understanding-of-sentence test."
It consisted
Of nine paragraphs selected from seven different writers, of varying
- 1 degrees of difficulty, each paragraph calling for written answers to
five specific .questions.
'While This test prbved to be 'suggestive, it
"was found-somewhat too difficult." The overlapping of the grades
and the variations amo
schools are shown in detail.
The recom-
mendations. include a sp
ification of- the supervisory values of test
results, a suggestion of the device of reclassifying pupils 'according
to specific grade abilities for brief, intensive drill in various subjects
' until they are brought up to grade, and the establishment of a bureau
of educational research.
.
Part III, The Vocational Problem; vas prepared by C. A. Prosser
with the assistance of W. H. Henderson, Mrs. Lucinda Prince,
Josephine T. Berry, Mt": Gsell, an advisory committee on vocational
..
education consisting of 20 citizens, and ,several organizations. The
study extended from February 6 to April 150917. and was made
at the total expenseOf $2,000.
The topics discussed include: -Why
.
-
171029*-21r-Dull. 88-80
.
466
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916- 1918.
vocational education for St. Paul; for what vocations should St.
Paul give training; hci;, far do the vocations train their own work-
ers, and how far do the St. Paul schools meet the need for vocational
,training; recommendations as to training needed; recommendations
as to types of school; and, vocational and prevocational training for
girls and young women. The appendix details short-unit vocational
courses, for men and for women. The limits of the published report
excluded four Apecial studies which were filed for public examination
in the office of the city commissioner of education.
Portland, Ore.One or two attempts have been made to estimate
the accomplishments in school, systems directly traceable to earlier
surveys.
It has occasionally happened that the publication of the
report of a given survey has been delayed so long as to permit the
announcement of the adoption of a few of the recommendations
growing out of the study.
The " Report of Supplementary Sarvey
of Portland.Public Schools," by P. W. Horn, April, 1517 (S4 pp:),
-...Js...._especially interesting as an estimate of the results pf a previous
surrey.
This investigation was made "in behalf of the chamber of
commerce and the city school board jointly" in the month of April,
the investigator spending two and one-half weeks in visiting schools;
inspecting the work during school hours, examining written work
prepared liy pupils, and interviewing %a large number of people who
had views to express in regard to the schools."
These inquiries were
to make a rapid survey of the Portland public schools with special
reference to tjieir advance or retrogression since the survey of .1913,
which was conducted liy,pr. Cubberley and a considerable staff of
assistants.
This resurve3gfinds,,that progress has been made by the
Portland schools in 48 different particulars.
In two respects a back-
wa.rd step has been taken.
Twelve ofthe original recommendations
which have not 'yet been put into effect should be acted upon favor-
ably.., Only three of the original recommendations it probably would
not be 'wise to carry out.
Eighteen recommendations are 'reaffirmed
or eddied in litre with the original recommendations.' It is found that
"the greatest obstacles in the way- of the Portland Schools to-day
are distrust, thtf impossibility of building up a better teaching corps
under present legislation, and the probability of limiting the school
tad levy to 6, mills on the dollarswhen at present 6.8 mills is needed."
,
Btooming ton,. Ifid.."--The litexatueeof educationalsurveys has been
permanently enric
by the publication of "A Survewof a Public
Schobl System," b Henry Lester Stnith.
(Teachers' College, Colum-
bia Universit
tributions to Education, No. 82,1917; 804 pp.,158
tables, 18 figures.)
This survey.was undertaken "with the two-fold
view of determining and remedying conditions" by using so far' as
possible .the-local resourcs.s within a school system and of the State
ti
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
467
university in its midst,.to which were added a small amount of out
,side supervision and direction. It accordingly stands as essentially
a cooperative survey. The entire pericid covered by the study is six
years, With most of the work having been done in the years 1912-13
and 1913-14, during the last of which assistance was given by George
D. Strayer. At different times various tests were given, respectively,
by Clifford W. stone, E. E. Jones, S. A. Courtis, and H. G. Childs.
Theses for the degree of master of arts in Indiana Univeisity were
prepared by eight graduate students who workedon practical school
problems in the city, and portions of five of thesA studies are incor-
porated in this publication. As to the practical educational value
of an " autosurvey," the author's experience warrants him "in pre-
dicting a survey undertaken by the teaching corps as a whole will
soon reveal to the superintendent that some of the accomplishments
of principals, buildings as a whole, or individual teachers will sur-
pass even his own dream of what ceild be accomplished."
The scope of the study is readily seen from the list of topics which
are .treated: The comnisnit-y and the plan of its public school sur-
vey; normal progress, retardation, and acceleration; census, enroll-
ment, promotions, failures, withdrawals, repetitions; finances; the
course of study ; achievement of pupils; teachers; supervision of In-'
sf ruction ; school buildings; general conclusions and recommenda-
tion's; ctiticisms of Bloomington school survey; and value of a sur-
vey similar to that made of Bloomington. In view of the dynamic)
tilaracter
of an educlitional system and the length of time during
which this study was in progress, a large amount. of the material
represents the accumulation of readjustments which the school au-
thorities and teaching staff were enabled to put into practice in
the succeeding years. This enrichment of school life was made possi-
ble through the more intelligent direction and' supervision resulting
-Mom the progress of the protracted studies.
.
Over one-third of the volume is given to the study of the achieve-
'
went of pupils aameasured by standard bests, withdrawals and fail-
'
ures, and correlation of rank in various subjects' The tests given in
arithmetic include the Indianapolis, Stone, -CourtisT.Haggerty and
Smith. The handwriting was measured by the Thorndike and Ayres
scales.
Spelling was tested by the Buckingham,-Rice, and Courtis
lists.
Composition and reading, were measured by the Courtis tests
in English composition and rates ofireading. 'Drawing was tesad
by the Thoridike drawing scale.
Bloomington will share in the
benefits of the State-wide application of the Thorndike visual va-
cabulary test and understanding of sentences test which were given
in a largiinuinbe.r.of Indiana towns.
468
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
In attempting to evaluate the results of self-examinations by a I
small school
the author concludes thus:
Above everything else, a survey of the Bloomington type results in riveting
ultimately the surveyor's attebtion on individual pupils and their performances
and away from the mass performance.
The result is that individual needs
become more quickly event and consequently more quickly ministered to.
VIP
Akron, Ohio.When the educational committee of the Chamber
of Commerce of Akron, Ohio, was organized in December, 1916, it
attempted to foster the widespread interest in public-school affair§
by making
so complete a study of the school system as to Make possible a community pro-
gram of education
We had in mind what is best for the young people
of Akron at the present time, and what. the line of growth of the educational
system should be, in order that each succeeding group of children be properly
educated to fit into its life in this city.
Horace L. Brittain, director of the bureau of municipal research;
Toronto, Canada, was invited to conduct the survey. He was assisted
by Thomas L. Hinckley, of his hureau, and received the cordial coop-
eration of the local authorities and school staff.
On July 10, 1917,
he presented his " R eport on the Schools of Akron, Made for the
Educational Committee of the Akron Chamber of Commerce."
(234
pp., 37 tables,numerous graphs and photographs.)
The three main topics included in the study are the raising and
administration of school funds, the physical plant and equipment,
and what the school revenue buys for the boys, and girls of Akron.
The consideration of the first topic presents general, financial' facts;
financial methods, and business administration. The observation of
the physical plant and equipment includes sites and buildings, ven.-
tilation and heating, lighting, cloakrooms, seating, cleaning of rooms,
and' a. school building pOlicy for Akron.
The answer to the third
topic led to an inquiry as to what is taught in the public schools;
hater the subjects of the course of study are taught in the elementary
schools; instruction in the high schaolsNeducational administration
and supervision of instruction; educational records and reports; pro-
motion of school children; retardation and overage; elimination of
children; the exceptional child; medical inspection and open-window
rooms in the schools; the, medallic and ,professional training of
teachers, their working day, their pay, and length of service; and the
mutual relations of the school and the community. The group of
findings and recommendations is presented in brief (pp. 21-35).
Tbe educational committee resummarizes the results of the study on
pages 5 to 12 for the benefit of the.citizens, to the end that the benefits
accrue to the school system as early as possible.
-
Elyria, 040.The radical character. of the chnikes effecting the
economic interests and the composition of the population recently
,Ss
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
469
appearing in some of our smaller cities, and the consequent bearing
upon educational problems are well illustrated in the report of the*
" Educational Survey of Elyria, Ohio," made under the direction of
the United States Commissioner- of Education (Bulletin, 1918, No.
15, pp. 300,.numerous tables and figures). The, survey was financed
by the chamber of commerce and received the cooperative support
of the school officers and teachers. The field work' was under the di-
rection of W. S. Deffeobaugh, with whom was associated seven other
members of the Bureau of Education and five persons from outside.
Each phase of the school system aid its activities studied vas as
signed to a specialist. A total of 94 distinctive recommendations
grew out of the conclusions reached in the study'of the following
spe,ial topics: Administration and supervision; schobl buildings,
high school; instruction in primary grades; instruction in intermedi-
ate and grammar grades; civic education; home economics; and
vocational education.
Measurements of the-results of teaching were made by use of Hag-
gerty's test for'reading vocabulary, the Cleveland survey word lists
selected from Ayres's spelling scale, Thorndike's scale for quality of
penmanship, Woody's (Series B) 'and Stone's scales in arithmetic.
It novel feature in the study of instruction in the primary grades is
of "
activities" of children in
four grades.
The tabulation (pp. 138-139) of these experiences
under home work, home games, vacation activities, and booliS read,
furnishes useful guidance for correlation with the usual school room
activities.
The occupational analysis of the high school population
and the vocational study of the 13 to 15 year old pupils in the ele-
mentary grades show a suggestive extension of methods appropriate
to the study of vocational problems:
Janesville, Wis.Upon the invitation of the bpard of education
-Auf Janesville, a-city of about 14,000 population. a survey was under-
lath-0 the Wisconsin State department of education. This study
offered Ireopportunity "to present in organized form for the schools
of Wisconsin . the views of the State department on ,city school
.administration.". The survey was organized under the genenkl
tion of C. P. Cary, Qie activd direction of the field work and the
preparation of the report being in charge of W. W. Thelon, who
was assisted by H. L. Terry, E. R. Buckingham, H. N. Goddard,
Amy Bronsky, Maybell G. Bush, Annie Reynolds, J. M. Dorrsns,
Janet R. Rankin, 61 S.. Rice, A. B. Cook, P. W. Dykema, Lucy D.
Hale, Cecile W. Freinming, Benjamin P. Janies, gdgar.r. Riley,
Frank J. Lowth, and students in several normal schools who
assisted in giving and scoring the tests in various school subjects.
The report, "An Edwitional Survey of Janesville, Wis.," issued by
47O
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUOATIdN, 1916-1918,
C. P. Cary, Madison, Wis., 1918 (329 pp), does not include all the
material presented to the board of education in connection with the
findings and recommendations. The published report is organized
so as to present, first, the problems of Administration, including the
problem of high - 'school organization, the building problemf teachers
and salaries, financing the school system, the board of education,
census, enrollment, and attendance; and, second, the problems of
instruction, including the problem of industrial education, class-
room instruction in elementary schools, high-school instruction,
special courses and instruction in special subjects, library work, time
allotments and course of study, measuring results in school subjects,
supervision of instruction, progress and classification of pupils, pro-
visions for special classes, home cooperation, health and recreation.
The measurement of results in school subjects include: The Woody,
Courtis, and Stone reasoning tests in arithmetic; the Kansas silent-
reading test in reading; the Ayres and Buckingham tests in spelling;
the Thorndike and Ayres scales in handwriting; the Hillegas, Thorn-
dike, and Trabue shales in grading the composition papers, and the
Trabue language completion tests B and C.
Columbia, S. C.An interesting geographical extension of the
survey movement was made when the board of school commissioners
of Columbia, S C., requested the United States Commissioner- of
Education to undertake the direction of a study of its public schools.
This is the southeasternmost city of the Union to seek the benefits
of a comparison of its educational activity with that of other cities.
The report, " The Public Schools of Columbia., S. C.," Bulletin, 1918,
No. 28 (192 pp., with numerous tables and figures), is a notable
example of the sympathetic and constructive type of educational sur-
veys.
In presenting the 23 general recommendations growing out
of its labois, the committee assigned to the task " has not undertaken
in arbitrary fashion to tell Columbia what her school system should
be nor how near the ideal in accomplishment she is nor how far away
from it.
This committee iA not competent to define the ideal school
system nor the ideal schol practice.
It can, however, brInA to to-
/lumbia's attention those practices which are held by other com-
munities, for the present, at least, to be the best."
There is offered,
accordingly, "a constructive program, the inauguration of which
should properly extend over, a period of years." " In justice to the
superintendent of schools:the fact should be. mentioned that from
tithe to time in his annual reports 'to the board of school colinnis-
siirners he has suggested many Of the things which this committee
recommends."
.
Te 4racteristic qualities of the survey appeal' even in the head-
ingleof the six chapters*of the report, most of which are phrased .in
It
RDUCA
NAL SURVEYS.
471
the form of suggestive problems and arguments. The city of Co-
lumbia and the rise of the public-school systems; are the schools of
Columbia adequately supported I insufficient maintenance means
meager salaries for school employees; insufficient maintenance limits
the activities attempted; insufficient maintenance has rendered the
supervision inadequate; the holding power of the system compares
favorably with that of other systems.
Some aspects of instruction
and supervision were studied by means of standard tests in spelling
(Ayres) and in arithmetic (Courtis, fundamentals, and Stone, rea-
sonings). The data record interesting and important contrasts be-
tween the white and the colored pupils. The survey was made in
1917 by the committee designated by the Commissioner of Educa-
tion, including four specialists of the bureau, F. F. Bunker, director;
Henrietta W. Calvin, J. L. Randall, and H. H. Baish, and Supt. C. B.
Gibson, of Savannah, Ga.'
Winston-Salem, N. C."A Study of the Winston-Salem Schools,"
by L. A. Williams and J. li.Johnston, 1918 (93 pp.), is a larger
outgrowth of the work of the home-county study clubs at the Uni-
versity of North Carolina which led the authorities of Winston-
Salem and Forsyth County to desire an extended survey of their
schools.
The educational study of the schools of Winston-Salem,
contained in this volume, is a part of the study of the larger system
of the social and economic conditions of Forsyth County and of the
industrial situation of the city.
The visitation of the schools was
made in February, 1917, the superintendent, principals, and'teachera
cooperating in every way possible. The topics of the report include:
Historical; organization ; the school plant; the pupils; the teaching
staff' and supervisory officers; and 4ances, The summary of the
study concludes by saying:
The superintendent knows that all these difficulties exist. He: has repeatedly
called attention to them. He needs more money and a larger force with which
to handle the problem. That many of these conditions now obtain is the.
fault not of the school officials but of a too small banking account for the
schools.
It is ptaned t,0 have this study continued by making an examina-
tion of the teaching results of the schools.
Alton, 111."A survey's finding is not worth much that could be
carried out at once; it furnihes rather a goal toward which we can
strive, an ideal that we can pursue."
With this expression of its
belief in the constructive character of a school, survey, the special.
committee presented on April 29, 1018, to the board of education,
city of Alton, Ill., the. 29 "necessary and feasible recommendations:
as obtainectirom the survey" which had been made during the
school year, 1917218, under the direction of*Sept. John W. Withers
472
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EpUCATION, 1916-1918.
(" Findings and Recommendations of the Surve3k of the Alton Pub-
4
lic Schools," pp. 88, numerous tables and figures).
The -cordial
reception of the report is indicated by the accompanying record of
favorable action upon 10 of these recommendations within less than
a month`thereafter.
The survey staff comprised eight assistant superintendents and
other school officers of the $t. Louis schools, each of *hom prepared
the reports on the following topics, respectively: Organization, ad-
ministration, and supervision; teachers; spirit; methods of teaching;
relations of teachers and other school officers,, relations of teachers
and children; course of study and school supplies; testing of the
results of teaching in the elementary schools; the high school; the
progress of children through the grades; and finances,
One -third
of the report i§ occupied with the results of the Pests employed in
six subjects: Arithmetic (Courtis, series B, and No. 8, series A),
reading (Starch), spelling (Ayres), written English (specially
devised to trace the "growth of sentence sense"), handwriting
(Thorndike), and geography (devised by Reavis and Branon, as a
completion test for the measurement of minimum geographic knowl-
edge of elementary-school children).
Mount Holly, N. J.The study of this small school system com-
prising a staff of 40 teachers and 1.110 pupils, conducted under the
direction of the State commissioner of education, is marked by a
particular interest in the problems of supervision and teaching.
"The lack of a body of significant school records, of a comparative
sort and covering a period of years, dealing" with a variety of prob-
lems such as " would he asked by a board of education and used by
a supervising officer in a continuous self-survey of a sWeirr-Ot
schools, would seem to indicate a failure on the part oft
school
officials to fully appreciate the importance of such knowledge as an
aid to increased efficiency, and fothe information of the. public."
The observational part of the survey, made in February and in May,
1918, was conducted by A. B4 Meredith and Z. E. Scott, of the State
department of education.
The application of standard tests was
made by Profs. ,C. H. Elliott and C. S. Crow, of the department of
education of the State University -of New Jersey, the account of
which constitutes three-fourths of the report, " Survey of the School.
System of Mount Holly, N. J., Northampton Township" (80 pp.,_.
with numerous tabligand figures). The tests used were: Engliikcom-..
position, in the graded and the high school .(Nassau County scale) ;
handwriting (Thorndike) ; spelling (AyreS and Buckingham) ; read-
ing (Thorndike, Alpha 2); arithmetic (Courtis, series B, and Stone,
reasoning) ; algebra, in first sear high school ( Holtz) ; and Latin,
four years of high aclool (Henmen). The repbrt closes with 29
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
473
recommendations, and a,list of the equipment of a biological labora-
tory for a high school class of 12 pupils.
Des Moines, lowa.The applicability of survey methods to specific
problems of a particular part of a school system is interestingly illus-
trated in the "Survey of the High Schools of Des Moines." by Ervin
E. Lewis ( University of Iowa Extension Bulletin, 1918, No. 37, pp.
64, with tables, figuregi, and map). The problems considered in this'
survey are stated as follows:
1. Are new high selfools or additions to present buildings
needed?
If so,
'how mjny? Where? When?
2. A e different kinds of high schools needed?
Should Des Moines continue
Its present policy of cosmopolitan high schools, or should special kinds of
schools, such as commercial, technical, or trade be established?
3. Are junior or six-year high schools needed?
4: What should he Des Moines' policy with reference to vocational secondary
education during the next decade?
,
The recommendations offered in answer to these questions are based
on the results of a careful analysis of the historical develqpinent of
high schools in the city 'and a comparison of 'Des Moines with 25
other cities of its size. A dearer perspective is gained by the con-
centration of those factors involved in the specific problems. The
I
survey, was authorized by the board of directors, sanctioned by the
chamber of commerce, and directed by E. E. Lewis, with whom was
associated a committee of the extension division and the college of
education of the State university, as well as assistants.
Muscatin'e,,lowa.The extent to which the'problem of a building
program, featured in several recent surveys, can be carried further
into a stock taking of till the school plant of a small city is illus-
trated in the " Survey of the School Buildings o
uscatine," by E. J.
Ashbaugh (University of Iowa Exte. ion IS
n,-1918, No. 41,
pp. 38, 14 figs.). By means of Straye
ore car
for school build-
ings, the seven large grade buildings, as well as the high-school build-
ing, were scored ih January, 1918, by two members of the survey staff.
It was found that the conditions of buildings and grounds were 22
per cent " good," 21 per cent " fair," and 57 per cent " back." The
findings are graphically detailed for the benefit of community-interest
and culminate in a group of recommendations " which will. sake years
to complete."
Paterson, N. J.An illustration of the progress made in the co-
operation of the Apartments of education in higher institutions 'is
found in the survey of the public sclftls of Paterson, N. J., which
was made in the 'spring of 1918 by 'the .staff and students of the de-
partment of educational administration of teachers college. ^ The
direction and guidance' of the survey lwere by George D. Strayer,
."\
474
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
N. L. Engelhardt, F. W. Hart, and E. S. Evonden. The details
were marked out in .the practicum in educational administration. at
the college.
Four major studies were undertaken: The ability of
Paterson to pay for educational advantages; the school building
plant; the achievement of pupils in the elementary schools; the
teaching staff and quality of instruction.
The material on the last
topic is not included in the report which appears in the "Annual
Report of the Board of Education of Paterson, N. J.,.for the year
ending June 30, 1918," (pp. 99-290).
The data for the, measurement of the achievement of the pupils
were gathered between March 14 and April 10, and are accepted
as being comparable" with the results of other surveys.
The sub-
sects measured and the tests given were competition (Nassau County
supplement), handwriting (Thorndike), spelling (Ayres), arithme-
tic (Woody, Stone reasoning; Courtis fundamentals), language
(Trabue), and reading (Thorndike, alpha 2).
The tests were so
arranged that everysgiade and every child in the regular elementary
schools was represented, in one or more of the subjects.
City school reports.The biennium under review has witnessed an
interesting addition to the literature of educational surveys in the
form of the reports of boatrds of education and superintendents of
schools. The following are a groilp of reports which illustrate th8
spread of the survey method, and its utilization in creating a more
intelligent publiC who support and pdtronize the schools :
"A Review of the Rockford (Ill.) Public Schools, 1915-16," by
Supt. R. G. Jones (126 pp., 58 tables, 53 charts), contains inforina.
tio-n which was
collected-and
and organized by the staff 14 the schools and submitted to the board
o'l\education by the saperintendent of schools. Its purpose Is to carry to the
homes of this city Information concerning the physical property; the curriculum,
the teaching staff, the attendance, some measurable results In teaching, and,
other matters which may, Interest.
/
This detailed and forceful presentation of the schools was pa
forth with the hope of making "every citizen of this city better ac-
quainted with an institution in which he is a stockholder." Tests of.
the achievements of pupils were made in penmanship, arithmetic,
spelling, composition; and reading.
The *Ileport of the Superintendent of Schools, 1916-17 " of Huron,
S. Dirk:, by Supt. F. L. Whitney (86 pp., 35 tables, 39 charts), "at-
tempts to give those more directly concerned a somewhat detailed
idea of the &went conditions obtaining in their public schools and
to let them know what the schools are attempting to do." The ma-
terial is arranged under these topics: Prganization end administra-
.tion; physical environment; teaching force; pupil accounting;
quality of instruction; pupil achievement ;end school costa, Tests-
,
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
475
of pupil achievement were made in first grade vocabulary, spelling,
arithmetic, handwriting, reading, composition, and algebra.
The first printed " Report of the Board of Education, 1912-4918,"
of Rochester, Minn., by Supt. H. A. Johnson (208 pp.), shows how
the survey movement has found lodgment in this rapidly growing
community.
In these days schools are surveyed, tested, and measured; but so many times
this is done hurriedly and by outsiders. In many cases the results can not help
but lack in thoroughness.
For the past five years oar schOols have been con-
stantly surveyed by the superintendent, working In a spirit of cooperatton with
his teachers.
The effort to Secure a definite measurement of the efficiency of their
schools led the liperintendent to act upon the suggestions contained in
the circular of he Bureau of Education, City-School Circular, 1915-
16, No. 21, offering "some suggestive points for superintendents in
the smaller cities who-are surveying their own schools?' The material
accumulated (pp. 31-141) includes tests-in reading, errors in English,
grammar, and punctuation, arithmetic, spelling, age-grade, refarda-
tion,'and acceleration, promotion", etc.' Mr. W. F. Miller, of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota, cooperated in givingthe tests from which were
derived the " cause and effect and analogies tests."
This report we hope will be studied by every school patron into whose hands
ft may fall.
It answers many questions which have been asked again and
again.
The tabulations will be thrown on a 'screen, at teachers' and parents'
meetings, so that every earent may learn their significance.
* Supt. H. 0. Dietrich, of Kane, Pa., is utilizing a novel mono-
.
graphic method of reporting the results of self-surveys in the schools
of this city. The board of education of Kane has issued the following
series of documents: (1) Estimates or po4itivism.
Which?
April,
1917 (15 pp.), reporting tests in spelling, handwriting, and arithme-
tic; (2) Child Accounting for the Schools of Kane, Pa., June, 1917
(8 pp., 7 tables) ; (3) Thp<iild,. Where is He?
October, 1917.
(8 pp.)'; (4) Education iniClars and Cents, March, 1918 (16 pp.);
(53 Does it pay? April, 1918 ('15 pp.), containing 15 exhibits from
publications of the Bureau of Education; (6) Stuggestions for Teach-
ers, June, 1918 (24 pp.), dealing with the course of study.
In 1916
he published-"An Evidence, the Curwensyille Schools" (23 pp.),
which was aerep-ort modeled on these lines.
Supt. Ernest C. Witham, in the "School Report of the Town of
Southington, Conn, in 1916, summarized the progress of the four
previous years, offered a program for the future, and informed his
constituency on such matters as retardation and results of tests in
English composition, writing, arithmetic, spelling, and improvement
of teachers while in service. In his report for 1917, with an increase,
in graphic and tabular presentations, le again exhibits the, quality'
476
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION; 1910-1918.
of instruction in the schools in arithmetic, English composition,
spelling, handwriting, algebra, and shows the holding power of the
high school.
"The Mirror; As We See Ourselves" (28 pp.), vas issued by
Supt. Frederick S. Camp as a partial " autosurvey " for the period,
September,.191q. to February, 1'918, as a report on the work of the
superv 'or of tests and standards of the public schools of Stamford,
Conn.
t includes an eighth grade study, grade progress table, time
allotn
nt, distribution of marks in eighth grade and high schools,
graph c exhibit of school buildings and premises, results of tests in
handwriting and eighth grade composition! and a report of the first
year's work of the supervisor of tests and standards.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEYS.
Vocational education, as a specific problem as well as an element in
school situations, has received attention during the biennium in both
special and general surveys. The passage of the Smith-Hughes Act
by Congress in February, 1917, brought to a Nation-wide conclusion
the first definite formative developments of the vocational type of
education, and fixed the program for its extension.
The original edition of the report of the Minneapolis Survey for
Vocational Education, published on January 1, 1916,', being soon
exhausted, has been thoroughly revised and issued as " the finished
result of the survey " under the title of " Vocational Education Sur-
vey of Minneapolis, Minn.," made by the National Society for the
Promotion of Industrial Education, by the United States. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 1917, Bulletin, Whole No. 199, Vocational Educas
tion Series, No.-1 (pp. '582, 25 chapters, 4 appendices, 20 tables, 3
charts).
Indiana.Four of the survey* ,for vocational education growing
out of the vocational education law passed in February, 1913, by the
Indiana Legislature, have appeared within the biennium. This series
of surveys is unique in that it attempts, under State authority joined
with local cooperation, to provide a State-wide program built up
out of the results of surveys of well-selected communities. The State
board of education, in accordance with the. provision of the act,
.organized a vocational division, placed in charge of W. F. Book,
deputy superintendent, with whom later were associated A. M. Smith,
special agent in charge of agricultural education, Adelaide S. Baylor,
.special 'agent to supervise domestic science, and Cluttles H. Winslow,
special agent for vocational research. The underlying purpose of all
thew surveys was
to ascertain from a study of the industries of a particular community the-
fteta- that would be needed to outline an efficient and economic program of
Bee Report of the Commissioner at Itdocatlop for the year ended June 80, /OM Vol. I,
pp. 186-187.
EDUQATIONAle SURVEYS.
.
477
vocational training for that colpibunity, and to ascertain from a study of the
public, private, and parochial schools of the community how far the vocational
needs of that community were already being met by existing agencies. ' The
ultimate purpose was tosuggest a definite/19gram for Organizing and develop-
ing vocational education in the particular city or district covered by the
survey
.
1
and thus "some definite hap might also be obtained for solving the
problem of providing an efficient scheme of vocational training for
the State as a whole."
.
.
The " Report of the Richmond, Ind., Survey for Vocational Edu-
cation," December 1, 1916 (586 pp., 41 tables, 51 illustrations), was
conducted cooperaaely by the. State board of education, the board
of education of Richmond, and Indiana University, assisted by an
extensive local survey committee of 51 members under the direction
of Robert J. Leonard, of tile university.
The field work extended
from February 1 to May 15t 1916.
Occupational information cxm-
cerning the forms of industrial, commercial, and household employ-
ment, juvenile employment, and home and school gardening fs col-
lected in detail, and the present provisions of the schools to meet
these needs are set forth.
Part IV presents the methods of the
survey and the forms and schedules used in making type studies.'
The " Report of the Evansville, Ind., Survey for Vocational Edu-
cation," January 1, 1917, by Charles It 'Winslow (510 pp., 65 tables,
t.
4 charts), with the assistance -of a local survey committee of 12 mem-
bens and the -cooperation of 23 organizations, was prepared in re-
sponse to the invitation of the Evansville board of education to the
State board of education " to make a survey of the city of Evans-
ville, looking toward. the establishment of a day vocational school,"
$2,800 being approptiatedifor the work.
The occapational analyses
present the situation iii furniture and woodworkingindustries; build-
ing trades, cigar factories, dressmaking, flour mills, garment 'making,
gas engine manufacturing; hospitals and nurses, laundries, machinist
trade, plow manufacturing, potteries, printing, railroad shop, retail
stores, stove 'manufacturing, vehicle manufacturing, gardening, and
general agriculture.
The resources of the schools and libraries for
vocational purposes are included.
Special attention is called in Part .4
,
VIII'to the vocational needs of ollofed people. 4
The "Report of the Jefferson County Survey for Vocational
Education," January 1, 1917 (88 pp.), was.inade by a survey com-
mittee of 13 members, including State- and local repAsentatives,
.
.
under the direction of W. F. Book, and contains the material of the
survey conducted during the months of June to December,,,
918.
This study, followed four.main interests, which are represented in
the organization of, the report, as f011ows.if
'(1) The economic situation, setting forth important facts pertaining to the
location; history, and industries of the county, the chapcter and extent of
.
478
BIENNIAL SURVEY OFEDUCATION, 1916-1918.
land and other property with which the farmer has to work; (2) the status
of huSbandry in the county ; (3) financial resources of the county and agencies
for rural betterment; (4) the status and work of the public schools of the
county.
The "Report of the Indianapolis, Ind., Survey for Vocational
Education," January 1, 1917 (Vol. I, 400 pp., 31 tables, 4 charts),
was prepared by Charles II. Winslow, who was aided by a State
survey committee of 28 members and 23 cooperative agencies in the'
city.
One-half of fhe fund'of $7,000 for the expense of the survey
was contributed by .ile,akate board of educatioknnd one-half by
the Indiana board of school commissioners.
TheTheld work- was,
begun on July 5, 1916. 'The Indianapolis survey, where possible,
is differentiated from the other surveys chiefly in empluisist,
by the effort to present process analyses by industries, to summarize the. results
of the survey in analysis charts of occupations, to consunmuitetrade agreements,
and to regard the conditions of employment and the vocational needs of boys
and girls 14 to 16 years of age,. and of those. who have passed the age of
compulsory school attendance.
The following tables of aguoment were e
red into: A two-year
part-time agreement for instruction in salesma ship, by four firms;
a continuation school agreement for instruction in salesmanship, by
four firms; agreement for a two -year day course in woodworking, by
16 employers; a three-year compulsory evening continuation school
agreement for plumber's apprentices, by GO employers; agreement
for a two-year day course ii sheet-metal work ; and for a one-year
part-time coupe for girls who wish to become telephone operators
is pending.
'Wilmington, D'elp--"Industrial Education in Wilmington, Dela-
ware" 4Bulletin, 1918, No. 25', pp. 10'2, 57 tables) is the report of a
survey 'made by Fred 'C. Whitcomb under the direction of the Com:
-missioner of Education.
It forms " a part of a comprehensive con-
structive' educational survey of the State of Delaware," undertaken
- by the Bureau of Education in cooperation with :the Delaware Edu-
, cational Cooperation Association. The purpose of the effort was
to Correlate the results of a study of the schools, of 'the industries,
.End oft
provisions' for industrial education in both scliools and
industries, i
a constructive, program. The field work was ac-
complished durin
he period from November, 1915, to January,
_1916, use being made o
he six forms, reproduced in the appendix.
The study 4s chtiracterizeebythe special attention given to the 18
or 14 year old
in accordance with the approach made to the
problem of vocational education found in recent surveys.
After stating the local featIrres cif education and employment legis-
lation affecting minors, the report piesents its material under the
following topics: A study of certain groups of public school pupils;
.
.
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
479
a study of the industries; young people in the industries; educational
needs of workers, and present educational opportunities; sugges-
tions fora program of industrial education.
Fort Do Woe, Iowa. In "The Boy and the School, a Partial-Surrey
of the Public Schools of Fort Dodge, Iowa," August 15, 1917 (19 pp.,
Bulletin 32, engineering extension department. Iowa State College of
Agriculture), Edward T. Snively undertakes to discover in this typi-
cal town, locatedgin an agricultural community
the chief reasons why so many boys leave the schools of our city before com-
pleting the course; in what grades the greatest number of boys drop out ; what
they do after leaving school; what their earning capacity is; and what readjust-
ments should he made in our present courses of study to make them meet, even
more fully than they are now doing, the needs of our boys and of the community.
The data studied include enrollment of boys in the sixth and sev-
enth grades, in the autumn of 1909 in order to see what had happened
to them educationally and vocationally by the time of the study,
which was made in February, 1916.
Commercial education surveys.That a survey should .",present a
program for development " is illustrated in the studies made.o(com-
mercial education in Missouri. (1916) and in I:ew Mexico (19114..
"They had their origin in the rush of the commercial teachers of
each State to inaugurate a constructive and comprehensive program
of State-wide standardization of commercial education " and were
authorized by the commercial departments of the -State teachers'
associations. A summary of the methods, scope, and findings of
the studies is contained in the " Signified Results of Missouri and
New Mexico Commercial Education'Surveys," by Paul S. Lomax,
School Review, February, 1918 (IT. 73-84), who served as the chair-
man of the committee for each State.
Questionnaire data were col-
lected and summarizeds'under these topics: Qualifications of com-
mercial teachers; equipment of -commercial departments; -business,
curriculum; courses of study; educational measurements.
HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
North Dalrota.On August 4, 1915, the newly created North ;,ot-
kota board of regents invited the Commissioher of Education to assist
the board in making a survey of the State educational ,institutions as
.required by a recently enact law. The survey commission, selected
jointly by the commissioner
enact
the board, included William T. Baw-
.
den, Edwin B. Craighead, and Lotus D. Coffman. The field work was
begun November 1, 1915. Approximately 100 days were spent in the
field studying the State institutions, including the university, the
-
agricultural college, and the State normal school at Valley City. The
final preparation of the-repoft in June, 1916, undertook to handle the
480
31ENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
findings and recommendations so as to realize the desire of the board
for " a comprehepsive; constructive retort, lodking toward the future
development of a sound, progressive State policy for higher educa-
tion rather than a mere critical analysis of any defects that might
be found to exist."
" State Higher Educational Institutions of North Dakota, a Re-
port to the North Dakota State Board of Regents of a Survey made
under'the Direction of the .United States Commissioner of Educa-
tion," Bulletin, 1916, No. 27 (202 pp., 56 tables, 26 figures); presents
the report under the following topics: The State of North Dakota;
brief outline of educational needs, as indicated by character and re-
sources of the State; the University of North Dakota ; the North
Dakota Agricultural College ; function of the university and agricul-
tural
--
college; department of education at the university and the agri-
cultural college; the State normal schools; the State school of forestry
and the State school of science; the State library commitsion; sta-
tistical comparisons; comparison of courses and classes at the univer-
sity and the agricultural college, and summary of recommendations.
This survey is an addition to those which have more recently been em-
phasizing the need of proper correlation along functional lines. In
considering the arrangements for instruction, attention is called to
the contrary effects of the " vertical " and the " horizontitl " spread
in classes and courses. North Dakota being essentially a rural and
agricultural State, the determination of its educational needs are
most effectively stated (p. 26). The interpretation of these needs is
made clearer by the 12 presuppositions which precede (p. 170) the 40
recommendations which are made to the State board of regents.
University of Nevada.On February 17, 1917, the Commissioner
of Education presented the report sf the survey of the University.isf
Nevada conducted under his direction, as provided by the action of
the Educational Survey Commission created LT the legislature, of
1915 of that State. The work of the survey was done by Samuel P.
Capen and Edwin B. Stevens. The labors of this committee extended
during the last five months of 1916.
In studying the institution and
preparing the material which was published as the "Report of a
Survey of. the University of Nevada," Bulletin, 1917, No. 19 (164. pp.,
80 tables, 13 figures, 25 Maps, with numerous tables in the appendix),
the survey was attentive to the four basal criticisms indicating unrest
in the public mind as to the operations of the institution.
The in
stitution's relation to partisan politics.seemed to be "the root of all,
the evil." The detailed topical studies, which follow in many respects
the surveys of the University of Iowa and the University of Wash-
ington, offer contribbtions'to the field of university administration.
The specific topics considered include: The University of Nevada
and public sentiment; government and control of the University of
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
481
Nevada; higher education ih Nevada and the factors which condi-
tion it; the University of Nevada and the public service; standard's
and the distribution of the student body at the University of Nevada;
educational administration of the university ctraining and experience
Of the faculty ; work and remuneration -of the teaching staff ; costs;
organization and needs of separate divisions of the uinversity. The
committee finally conceives of an ideal for a university in such a
State which is thus described:
In view of a small population and insistent local needs, the institution would
devote itself solely to the education and service of pe citizens of its own State.'
It would consist of but few colleges and depurt24nts.
Exclusive of a college
of arts and sciences designed to give facilities 4or liberal culture and pure schol-
arship to those who can take advantage of them (and the number shdhld in-
crease as fast as possible), it would offer technal and professional courses only
in lines contributory to the major.vocations of the State.
It would recognize a
special obligation to provide enough trained teachers to insure to the State an
evenly served and effective public school system. With respect to the number of
students In residence, it would be a small institution.
It would, indeed, regard
its small size as a peculiar privilege, enabling It to give to those who frequent
It a more Intimate oversight, a more Intensive training than are commonly
afforded in very large institutions.
It would seek a national reputation for the
highest excellence in those few departments which the special needs of its con-
stituency have called into being.
It would press for means to secure men and
equipment to win such a reputation.
It would convince the State of the essen-
tial soundness of this program, of the bigness of the opportunity thuvresented.
It would reinforce Its appeal by making itself the State's center of inquiry and
distribution for all fortns of knowledge bearing on the health, the material in-
terests. the Intellectual and social welfare of the citizens.
'University of Kentucky. In January, 1917, the governor of Ken-
tucky, acting in accordance with the resolution of the board of 'trus-
tees of the University of. Kentucky adopted in the preceding month,
appointed an investigating committee of the board to report in the
following June upon the propriety of consolidating the two colleges
of engineering and the conditions involving the 4' discontent among
the alumni and student body toward the existing administration."
This committee called to its aid a survey commission comprising
Thomas F. Kane and Charles M. McConnovith Kendrick C. Bab-
cock as consulting member, two of whom spent 20 days at the univer-
sity and the third visiting it at four different times.
The " Report
of the Survey Commission," Bulletin of the University of Kentucky,
July, 1917 (pp. 7-76, with a later report for prolonged consideration
of future policy, pp. 77-92), includes also the report of the investigat-
ing committee.
The Work of the survey commission undertook to
formulate principles by w)lich practices found current in the institu-
tion could be judged accordingly. This study is necessarily local and
descriptive, .using so far as possible many contributiops of the sur-
veys of the University of Iowa and the University of Washington
1710296-21-13n1L 88-81
482
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
for comparative standards.
Because'of the peculiar situation in-
volved this study is, for surveys, unusually frank and personal. Of
the 69 recommendations reported to the board of trustees, all but one
were unanimously adopted.
Iowa State Teachers' College.The " Report of an Inside Sur-
vey" (Bulletin of the Iowa State Teachers' College, April, 1917, 113
pp., 12 tabres, 5 maps, and views, and Supplement of the Report, by
President H. H. Seerley) is the result of the "protective measure"
adopted by the faculty of the Iowa State Teachers' College after the
institution had "been surveyed and surveyed by legislative commit-
tees, State boards, by the National Bureau of Education, by repre-
sentatives of foundations and by self-appointed individuals notably
curious, honest investigation and otherwise." The "inside survey"
was made by a committee of seven members of the faculty, between
March 1 and June 1, 1917, with the understanding " that it must be
conducted from a different standpoint and with a different purpose"
than the previous attempts. A committee of three laymen was desig--
noted "to read the report in manuscript" and to satisfy themselves
that the facts therein stated were true. An effort was made to follow
the survey outlines projected by the committee on normal school
standards and surveys of the National Council of State Normal
School Presidents and Principals in 1917;1 but, it was soon found
that a report limited to the points therein designated would not
adequately represent " the motives, purposes, undertakings, evalua-
tions, expenditures, requirements, capabilities and accomplishments"
of the college.
The introductory sections (pp. 5-39) were prepared by H. H.
Seerley. The report presents the findings of the several subcommit-
tees on the following eleven topics: The orginization of the Liwa
State Teachers' College; the curriculums offered; length of time of
the several curriculums; entrance requirements; graduation require-
ments and numbers; special subjects; the training school; qualifica-
tions of members of the faculty; salaries, teaching hours, student
hours, cost per student hour; accounting and costs; normal school
costs.
Illinois colleges.In order to "discover such facts as would en-
lighten the church boards of education Blip the relation of the
church to the colleges and inform the colleges of their relation to
each other," the Council of Church Boards of Education, comprising
the boards of education of 18 denominations, authorized "A statisti-
cal survey of Illinois colleges," by Warren Brown, survey secretary,
March 15, 1917, Chicago, Ill. (78 pp.). The data used in the survey
Bee Addresses and Proveediniti of the National Education Ansociation, Portland, Ore&
1017. pD. 888 -837.
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
488
were collected between September. 1916, and February, 1917, through
the Chicago office of the council.
Statist ical and graphic representa-
tion is given of the density of Population of Illinois, geographio
source of students, educational source of students, religious source
of students, source' of students socially; the overlapping of college
territories; religious instruction ; attendance and retention of stu-
dents; professional distribution of graduates.
Something of the complexity of the situation involving higher
education in Illinois is seen from the fact that in this State there
37 institutions in addition to the junior colleges connected with
high schools competing forpatronage from the graduates of the four-
year high schools."
The questionnaire returns from 2,543 fresh-
/
men, about two-fifths of all the liberal arts freshmen in the State,
show the following interesting results as to the reasons why they
select particular institutions:
University of Pittsburyh.In order to secure a clearer vision of
the institutional functions which the university could serve in its
local community, the board of trustees of the University of Pitts-
burgh instituted a survey in 1915 which extended over a period of
nearly two years. The wide ramifications to which this study led
and the increasing complexity in which a university and its com-
munity stand mutually related led to the publication of "A New
Basis for Social Progress," by William C. White and Louis J. Heath,
December, 1917 (221 pp., Houghton Mifflin Co., New York). This
volume is an interesting attempt to formulai,e principles for educa-
tional reorganization which shall bring about a more efficient co-
ordination of the vocational needs of a modern community and the
educational agencies within the community endeavoring to satisfy
'those needs.
Present-day failures in education and in other human
interests are traced chiefly to a lack of accurate knowledge which
can come about only throughh" continued analysis of conditions.
, Each community is living opt a special chara'cteristic life that needs
t. to be studied in such a way as to show how a complete reconstruction
Of theentire educational system will be possible by abolishing the
arbitrary lined &awn between the present branches ofknowledge,
Per cent.
Educational standards of the institution
27. 0
Location of college near home_
23.0
Influence of other, students
11.0
Opportunities for self-support during course
7. 3
Influence of college alumni
6. 8
Church connection (same denomination)
5.6
Family or relatives ebnnected with college
5.5
Religious life of institution
5.5
Social and athletic life of the college
5. 1
Influence of field worker for college
2. 5
484
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1018-1018.
which are articulated into courses of study, and to allow for a " de-
partmentalization" of kaowledges with reference both to students'
capacity and community needs. To this end, the authors propose
" a municipal foundation for the study and advancement of com-
munity. education," with a bureau of
a bureau df statistics,
and a bureau of supply.
Th'is foundation would carry on a continu-
ous survey of community needs and community schooling, corre-
lating the latter on a unit plan for the community. Among the gen-
eral recommendations, it is proposed that such a foundation for the
Pittsburgh community be placed in residence at the University of
Pittsburgh.
NEGRO EDUCATION.
A monumental effort to encompass a survey involving the educa-
tional interests of about one-tenth of our population is permanently
recorded in " Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher
Schools for Colored People in the United States," prepared in co-
operation with the Phelps-Stokes fund under the direction of Thomas
Jesse Jones, specialist in the education of racial groups, Bureau of
Education, in two volumes, 1917
(Vol. I. Bulletin, '1016, No. 38,
pp.. 411, S tables,.3 maps, 40 plates of illustrations: Vol. II, Bulletin,
1916, No. 39, 704 pp.,. 31 maps, 1 diagram).. This important study
.,grew from a suggestion made in November, 1912, by the trustees of
the Phelps-Stokes fund, which provided most of its expense, and was
conducted under the immediate direction of the Commissioner of
Education. The regular staff of surveyors associated with the
directol. included Thomas J. Woofter, Walter B. Bill, and Ocea Tay-
lor.
Special assignments were completed by William Hill, Mrs.
T. -J. Jones, G. S. Dickerman, Mr. and Mrs. A. H. Albertson, Ogden
Purves, John H. Jinks, and Messrs. Bebbington and Higson, char-
tered accountants of New. York.
Cooperation was extended. by the
State superintendents of public instruction of the 15 Southern States
involved, by the officers of the schools surveyed, and by the various
supporting boards and agencies.
.
The purpose of the survey was formulated,:n terms of a long-felt
and widespread need for accurate information that would enable one
to deci4-". as to the merits and demerits of the many appeals for
money Sfid sympathy in behalf of all sorts and Conditions of institu-
tiona for the improvement of the Negro:" In realizing its original
aim of recording. an " evaluation of the private schools". for the edu-
cation of colored people, the study 'makes a most important contri-
bution towards stabilizing and protecting this necessary educational
philanthropy.
`The scope of the survey/ accordingly,_ included:, (1) All private
OCIloola\for colo
eople, whether elementary or hig
(2) all
herfi
EDUCATIONAL. SURVEYS.
485
'schools above the elementary grades, whether public or private.
Reports are made on 790 individual schools and institutions, of
which 625 are private schools, 28 State institutions, 64 public high
schools, 3. city normal schools, 27 county training schools, and 43
special institutions (arranged geographically in Volume II).
A
" background-" for the private and higher institutions was found in
the public school system for Negroes.
The information presented
concerning each school includes: Characterization of the school;
ownership and control; attendance-; teachers and workers; organi-
zation; financial; plant; and recommendations.
Three years were
required to complete the undertaking; two, the school years of 1913-
14 and 191-1--n. being spent in the field work obtaining facts
through personal visits to the institutions described; and one, 1915-
16. to revisits and other verification of the data and the preparation
of the report. A striking feature of the study is the attempt to
support the qualitative evaluatiOn by measurement. " For the pur-
pose of this study it was found That the best available measure of
public-school facilities was the relation between teachers' salaries, as
given by the State superintendents, and the population 6 to 14 years
of age. as reported by the United Stat4 census.
Salaries
*
are the most accurately reported of all the school facts." This ratio
as the per capita expenditure for white and colored children was
determined for each county in the States of Alabama, Arkansas, Del-
awpe, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missis-
sippi. North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas,
and Virginia.
The general discussion of the vast material colleted on Negro
education is presented in Volume I under these topics: General sur-
vey; public school facilities; secondary education; college and pro-
fessional education; preparation of teachers; industrial education;
rural education; ownership and control; educational funds and asso-
ciations; financial accounts and student records; buildings and grounds-
by Mr. and Mrs. A. H. Albertson; history of Negro education, by
George S. Dickerman;.and freedmen's aid societies, 1861-1871, by
Julius H. Borrelee. The appendix contains eight extensive tables
of statistics of Negro schools.
Having performed its difficult.task of discrimination, expressed in
the constructive policy of recommendations regarding individual
institutions, the study offers a large program of educational values
in reorganization, in its proposal of a committee representing the
various religiousdenominations to act wisely in the development of
properly distributed and graded higher institutions, which should
include two universities, three college; and junior colleges in 12
States for the Negro race.
486
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
FOREIGN SURVEYS.
Sas. A. at chetcan, Canada." A Survey of Education in the Province
of Saskatchewan, Canada : A Report to the Government of the
Province of Saskatchewan,'3 by Harold W. Foght, specialist in rural
school practice, Bureau of EducatiOn, Washington, D. C., Regina,
1918 (183 pp., 8 maps, 31 figs., 32 tables, and additional tables
and appendix), is a unique contribution to survey.literature.
Pre-
liminary discussion as to the need for a scientific study of the educa-
tional situation iii Saskatchewan to serve as a basis for needed
reorganization led to an order in council on June 7, 1917, for an edu-
cational survey:
" This is probably the first instance on record of
a Government extending an invitation to a citizen in the employ of
another country to direct the study of its school *stein." The active
field work was extended during three months from August to No-
vember, 1917.
The director of the survey was assisted on special
topics by W. Carson Ryan, jr., of the United States Bureau of Edu-
cation.
Cordial cooperation was extended by various provincial
officials, officers, and teachers, and the public education league.
The topics presented include: Saskatchewan, the land and_people;
fundamental educational needs as indicated by the character and
resources of the 'Province; the present educational system; school
organization and administration; school inspection and professional
supervision; school population, enrollment and attendance; organiza-
tion and adaptability of the rural schOols; consolidation of rural
schools; rural high schools and continuation schools for adults; city,
town, and village schools; high schools and collegiate institutes; the
teaching staff; the normal schools; vocational education; separate
schools; schools in non-English communities; the examination sys-
tem; school hygiene and health inspection; school support, what the
Province pays for education. The methods of inquiry included per-
sonal visits'and the use of official data and records and questionnaire
material.
The study is doubly interesting to the student of the
survey movement and educational progress because in making com-
parisons it utilizes the facts of education in the United States. Fifty-.
eight specific recommendations are made.
"Studies in Higher Education in Ireland and Wales with Sug-
gestions for Universities and Colleges in the UcLited States," Bulle-
tin, 1917, No. 15 (115 pp.), and "Studies in Higher Education in
England and Scotland with Suggestions for Universities and Col-
lege.s in the United States," Bulletin, 1917, No. 16 (276 pp., 14
tables), by George E. MacLean, are the reports of a special corn -
mission to the author by the Commissioner of Education in 1913.
These studies are of special interest, made as they were during the
years 1918-1915, and reoording the changing situation,in higher edu-
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
487
cation in England. Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.
The aim of the
author is "to point out facts and tendencies in higher education m
England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, by which American uni-
versities and colleges can profit."
The reports are based on visits
to 76 institutions, including universities, university colleges, colleges,
and technical and agricultural colleges and schools.
The topics presented in Bulietin No. 15 are: The Dublin Uni-
versity; Trinity College; the Catholic University; the predecessors
of the National University; the National University; the three con-
stituent colleges; the Queen's University of Belfast ; the department
of agriculture and technical instruction; movements preparatory for
the
Tniversity of Wales; the University of Wales; the royal corn-
and educational problems eonfronting it; summary of
s 'dies and suggestions.
The topics of Bulletin No. 16 are: First group of universities
Oxford, Cambridge, Durham; Scotch universities; University of
London; the new or provincial university; independent university
collegesExeter, Nottingham, Reading, Southampton; technical
colleges and schools; agricultural colleges and schools; women's col-
leges; organization and administration of universities; university
officers; provisions for the faculty; state aid and visitation; coordina-
tion of institutions; applied science and professional education; ad-
vanced study and research without graduate schools; examinations;
curricula; student life; and university extension teaching.
MISCELLANEOUS.
"The' Third Annual Conference on Educational Measurements,"
held at Indiana University, April 14, 15, 1916, Bulletin of the Ex-
tension Division, February, 1917, offers a constructive program
which contributes to setting up standards for survey purposes as in-
dicated by some of its special topics: Standard tests in the work of
school administration and measurements applied to school financing,
by E. P. Cubberley; survey of Gary schools and prevocational
schools in New York City, by B. R. Buckingham; cost of.instruction
in Indiana high schools; and per cent of failures in high school, by
H. G. Childs.
The "Fourth Annual Conference on Educational Measuremegts,"
held at Indiana University, April 20, 21, 1917, Bulletin of the raten-
sion Division, April,'1917, gave further indication of the interprista-
tion of, and benefits from, educational surveys in the addresses by
G. D. Strayer: Significance and present status of the survey move-
ment, and practical improiement in general school administration
resulting from the school survey.
488
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION,. 1918 -1918.
"Suggestive Studies of School Conditions, an Outline Study in
School Problerils- for Women's Clubs, Parent-Teacher Associations,
and Community organizations" (101 pp.), prepared by Janet R.
Rankin and issued by C. P. Cary, Madison, Wis., 1916, shows some
very interesting phases of school surveys at work.
In its sugges-
tions for the study of schools, it indicates by outline, bibliography,
tables, and graphs, the approach by which the organizations named
mtght consider the following topics: The school and the community ;
the school children; pupil health and hygiene; physical conditions;
school beautification; the school library; the school-teacher; kinder-
garten; the lower grades. one to four;, upper grades, fOur..to eight ;
discipline and moral instruction; industrial work; recreation; the
high schoti; higher educational organizations; school finances; the
school exhibit. The suggestions close with an appendix on method
of equipment and procedure.
Tir more elaborate organization of handbooks for conducting
educational surveys is demonstrated in the educational survey series,
Volume II, " Self-Surveys by 'Poacher- Training Schools,?: by W. H.
Allen and C. G. 1-%lirse, World Book Co., 1917 (202 pp.), and Vol-
ume III, " Self-Surveys by Cqlleges and Universities (with a Ref-
erendum to College and University Presidents)," by William H.
Allen. World Book Co., 1917 (384 pp.).
The former volume is an
outgrowth of the survey of Wisconsin's eight normal ehoois made
in 1914. "While this hook speaks of normal schools, it is addressed
to the w)ole family of teacher - trainers, including so-called normal
school's, so-cabled county training schools, so-called high- scliool train-
ing classes, smcalled college 6ourses* teachers, so-called colleges
of education, so-called graduate courses in educatioq, so-called sum-
- mer normal mimes, so-called teachers' institutes, and in addition
State departments of public instruction, State central boards of
education, National Bureau of Education, and volunteer associations
of educators, including foundations which deal with questions affect-
ing normal- school ideals and methods." The topics discussed are:
Reasons for self-Stirveys; pathfinding by Wisconsin's normal schools;
steps in making a self-survey; making self-surveys build as they go;
adminiaration, problems; course of study problems; supervision
problems; classroom instruction, academic department; training
department's training; extra-curricular activities of students; tech-
nique of reporting lows; general needs of teacher-training
schools;. and exhibits.
The latter Work also grew out of surveys, and while organized as
".ieltuidbook" it presents a searching discussion of Survey methods
that are capable of self-application by the different groups consti-
tuting a college or university. The analyses of all educational rela-
tionships are refined to the utmost and call for a yes-no type of
EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS.
489
response.
The nine main topics. the survey movement in higher
education, procedure for a cooperative college survey, relation of.
trustees to president and faculty, executive and business efficiency;
faculty government, extracurricular/activities of students, course
of study, instructional' efficiency. slid relation with college co-
munities are analytically treated in the 12.2 sections.
The faculty
and alumni questionnaires in the University of 'Wisconsin survey
are included in two exhibits of the appendix.
The diversification of the Titerature on educational survey is still
further indicated in " Methods and Standards for Local School
Surveyl," by Supt. Don C. Bliss, D. C. Heather & Co., 1918 (pp. 2G4,
19 illustration charts, 153 tables, and bibliography).
This manual
designed for the use of a superintendent in studying his local school
conditions, is the outgrowth of "constant use
*
*
*
of the re-
ports of surveys conducted by groups of experts in qifferent cities."
and of separate investigations of educational problems.
It serves
the purpose of bringing into handy form "a definite chart for thd
would-be local surveyor."
The functions of surveying in school ad-
ministration are presented in the introduction by 0. D. Strayer and
the introductory chapter by the author.
The guidance derived from
the day-to-day experience of the superintendent in meeting school
problems is apparent in the arrangement and treatment of the
several topics:
General conditions: organization and administra-
tion, the supervisory and teaching staff, salaries, pupils, efficiency
of instruction; course of study and time schedule; the school as a
social and community center.;
school
buildings; school hpgiene;
school finance; planning for future needs. Two chapters offer as-.
sistance in the statistical interpretation and the graphical representa-
tion of data.
The entire treatment cultrtinates in a "survey outline,"
following the order of the topics treateal. A special feature of the
work is to be found in the inclusion of many of the standards and
. forms which have been determined for city systems which have been
studied, thus facilitating the comparative use of data locally de-
"Teacher Benefits for School Surveys," educational Review of"--.
Reviews, No. 8 (24 pp.), was issued by the Institute of Public
Service, New York City, to present the answers derived from a digest,
prepared by Helen E. Purcell and Hiram H. Bice, of 30 survey
reports to dr following question: "What are classroom . teachirs
getting from school surveys?"
The thirty-first annual meeting_of the Association of Preparatory
Schools and Colleges of the Middle States and Maryland; 1917,
.
cluded the subject of edticational- surveys in its programo
dis-
cussions being prIseented by Clyde Furst and Samuel P. Capen (Prof
ceedings, pp. 42-59)..
490
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
"The Fruits of School Surveys," by Leonard B. Koos, School and
Society, January 13, 1917, summarizes the responses of 18 out of the
25 city superintendents as to the results of the surveys conducted in
their systeins.
Incomplete as these indications are, they " point to an
emphatic justification of the survey movement and furnish encourage-
ment for its extension"
411
"A Statistical Method for the Treatment of School-survey Data,"
by L. L. Thurstone, The School Review, May, 1917, offers technical
suggestions for the graphic treatment of measurable material col-
lected in an " auto " survey by a city school superintendent.
"College and University Surveys," by Francis A. Thoinson, School
and Society, June 23, 1917, discusses the surveys of single institutions
and of State systems of higher education.
J. A. Manahan has pre-
pared a select list, with comment; of State, city, and' county surveys,
as a bibliography appearing in the University of Virginia Record,
Extension Series, Novemter, 1916 (pp. 54-62).,
"A-Plea for the Educational Stavey," by Lawrence A. Averill,
School and Society, February 16, 1918, is based on its filer "more
ob 'aious values," and the claim "that the principle behind the educa-
tional survey is a sound one."
The bulletin of the University of South Carolina, No. 66, March,
1918, contains a discussion of school surveys by S. II. Edmunds.
The analytic account of the " Standard Tests used in School Sur-
veys," by Ernest P. Branson, School arid Society, December 14, 1918,
covering 24 " typical surveys of a general character," shows that the
tests were used in16, the average number of tests used increasing an-
nually at this rate: 1913, 1; 1914, 2; 1915, 4; 1916, 5; 1917, 8.
The
choices of tests used favored four in reading, two in handwriting,
two in spelling, three in arithmetic, and three in contposition.
UNPUBLISHED SURVEYS.
The following is a list of unpublished surveys:
Falls County, Tex., conducted by the Bureau of 'Education, the
report being made to the local officers.
Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, Ill., condical by the Bureau
of Education.
Mobile, Ala., School Survey, 1916,, conducted by the Bureau of
Municipal Research of New York City.
A
South River, N. Y., eonducted in the department of Aucational
administration, Teachers' College, Columbia -University.
Everett,
conducted by Fred C. Ayer, with the aid of 20'
teachers and principals, and deigned as a survey of " a typical north-
west city of 30,000 population," and conceived " from the socialrather
than the individual point of view."
CHAPTER. XIX.
REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION, 1917 AND 1018.
By WILLIAM R. II001).
Division of School Administration, Bureau of Beitication.
CoNrzsirs.- -The Federal Govrnment and education : Vocational education; Education
for the disabled soldier; Mobilizing educational institutions; Training soldiers in the
commonschool branches; Schools on Government induntrial reservations; Naval
education; Enlarged activities of the Department of Labor ; Other agencies; Expan-
sion of the Bureau of Education; Council of National DefenseState -legislation:
General State administration ; County adMInIstration and supervision; The school
district; Consolidation; Public-school support; Improvement of the teaching
per-
sonnel; Certification of teachers; The school term; Compulsory school attendance;
Health and sanitation; High schools ; Special classes (or atypical children ; Civic
and patriotic instruction; Elimination of illiteracy and the Americanization of
aliens; Community organization in
schoolhouses; Textbooks; Libraries ylligher
education.
Within tire two years comprehended in this review the Congress
of the United States has been in almost continuous session, and all the
States, except Alabama, have held meetings of their legislative
bodies.
Six StatesGeorgia,1 Massactru.setts, New Jersey, New
York,_Rhode Island, and South Carolinahold annual meetings of
their legislatures, and these, of course, had legislative sessions both
in 1917 and in 1918.
Within this period, special sessions were"
held in some States.
Alabama is not included in this review for the
zeason that its legislature meets quadrennially and will not meet
again until early in 1919.
The legislation of any year, particularly an odd-numbered year
when 42 or' 43 legislatures are in session, is invariably made up in
large measure with enactments relating to education, and this is none
the less true of the two years here- considered.
Distinctly new edu-
cardinal movements, however,' have not been especially conspicuous
in-laws.enacted.
Progress in school 'legislation has partaken rather
of the nature of improving older laws and moving along lines already
well defined. A Pew elements have operated in legislatures with thp
probable effect of distracting attention
rom educational matters.
The European war has been among the.
elements. The war and
its concomitants have been uppermost in he minds of the people
and in consequence have not gone without effect on State legislation.
But it can hardly be said that this effect has been essentially hurtful
491
II
492
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
,On the contrary, as will appear later in this chapter, some very
wholesome educational measures have received impetus from the
war spirit.
TRE,FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION.
The Government is more concerned with educAm
most
people suppose. Of the 10 executive departments at Wallington,
at least 8 include bureaus or other agencies which touch edu-
cation vttallyat some point. Among the more noteworthy. of these,
are the Bureau of Education and the Office of Indian Affairs of
the Department of the Interiefr,Ilie Public Health .Service of the.
Depaetment of the Treasury, the States Relations Service of the
Department of Agriculture. ale' Children's Btireau, find the Bureau
of Naturalization of tip Department of Labor, and the geat train-
ing branches of the War and Navy Departments.
In addition to
these, the Library of Congress, the ,Smithsonian' Institution, the
Council of National Defense, the Committee on Public Information,
and. some other, aoncies serve an educational purpose not only.
through their broader information-giving activities, but through
school channels as we'l.
The work of all of these agencies Challenges
our attention afreS1, now that the Government is extending its
educational .activities. along other lines.
VOCATION AL EDUCATION.
Prior to 1917 the Government had adopted and pursued several
'Well-defined policies with regard to education. These are gem in
the consistent granting, upon the admission of each State, of lands
from the public don-lin for the endowment of the, cotpnion schools;.
the provision of school facilities for dependent peoples such as'
Indians; the encouragement of higher agricultural and technical
education by the enactment of the first Morrill Act of 1862 and
supplementary acts; and the-inaintenance of extension work, partic-
uloarly in agriculThre, as provided in the "Smith-Lever Act"' of
May 8, 1914.
In 1917 another and no less important policy in edu-,
cation was inaugurated.
This took form in the so-called " Smith-
Hughes Act," gianting Feder.al aid for vocational education.
The Smith-Hughes Act was approved by the President on Feb-
ruary 23,.1911.
It appropriates ftmds for the purpose of cnoperat-
'
ing with the $tates in providing instruction in agricultural, trade,
home economics, and industrial subjects and in preparing teachers
of vocational branche.si-of study. For the salaries of teachers, super-
visors, and .direetga of agricultural subjects an initial appropria-
tion of $500,000 was made for the fiscal year ended June 80, 1918,
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION«
493
and an annual increment of $250,000 is added until
1924, after which $500,600 is added each year until
$3,000,000 is reached in the fiscal year ending June
sums are allotted to the Stags in the preportion
of their respective rural Inhabitants bears to the total
rural 'inhabitants of the United States.' For the salaries
he fiscal year
allowance of
926. These
the number
umber of
f teachers
0,
11C
of trade, home econcunics, and industrial subjects appropriations are
made in like manner and amounts. The sums appropriated for this
purpose are allotted to the States in the proportion which the num-
ber of their respective urban inhabitants bears to the total number of
urba'n inhabitInts of the United States. The third appropuiation
will reach $1,060.060 in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1925, and is
intended for preparing teachers, supervisors, and directors of agri-
cultural subjects and teadhers of trade, industrial;and home economics
subjects.
The allotment of this fund is made on the basis of total
population.
Tip act creates a Federal Board for Vocational Education, which
is composed of the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, lincl Labor,
the Commissioner of Education, and three citizens appointed by the
President. Of the appointed numbers one must be a representative
of manufacturing and commercial interests; one, of agriculture;
and one, of labor.
This board is charged with the administrhtion
of the act anal may appoint such assistants as deemed necessary. An
annual appropriation of $200,000 is made to defray the cost of ad-
ministration and of such investigations and spetial studies as the
board may undertake.
In order to receive the benefits of the act. -any state must accept
its provisions and create or.designate a board:tO477)perate with the
Federal board.
It is also required that the State or local authorities
therein, or both, expend an amount equal to that expended in the
State by the Federal Government, and that plans be adopted for
vocational education which are acceptable to the Federal famird. The
State treasurer must be designated by the legislature as the custo-
dian of funds allotted under this act, and the State board ipust
report annually to the Federal board in Washington.
The latter is
required annually haore. the 1st day of January to certify to the
Secretary of the Treasury the amount to which each State is entitled
and must report annbally to Congress.
As showilw something of the operation of this act, the following
brief table is given.. It indicates the amount allotted to each State
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1919.
494
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Federal funds allotted to the several States for vocational education.'
Alabama
$40, 785. (18
Nevada _d
$15, 000.00
Arizona_
15, 000. 00
New Hampshire
15, 000.00
Arkansas
37, 874. 42
New Jersey
62. 776. 07
California
58, 021. 64
New Mexlro
15, 00Q. 00
Colorado
19, 273. 43
New York
226, 343. 14
Connecticut
31, 245. 91
North Carolina
51, 191. 24
Delaware
15, 000. 00
North Dakota
17, 808.99
Florida
18, 857. 55
Ohio
115, 622. 17
Georgia____
60, 948. 84
Oklahoma
38, 655. 31
Idaho_
15, 000. 00
Oregon
16, 142. 18
Illinois
137, 581. 93
Pennsylvania
186, 7S6.00
Indiana_
64, 578.82
Rhode Island
19, 304.07
Iowa
52, 530. 24
South Carolina
36, 189.30
Kansas
39, 867. 34
South Dakota
17, 708. 61
Kentucky
53, 701 68
Tennessee
51, 011. 12
Louisiana
39, 085. 00
Texas
91, 361. 83
Maine
17, 920. 34
Utah
15, 000.00
Maryland_ _
31, 250.08
Vermont
15, 000.00
Massachusets
86, 138. 70
Virginia
48. 288. 17
Michigan
67, 539. 35
Washington
27, 614.44
Minnesota
49, 557.88
West Virginia
29, 417. 16
Mississippi
42, 888. 92.
Wisconsin
55, 843. 72
Missouri
78,755. 04
Wyoming
15, 000.00
Montana
15, 000. 00
Total
2, 307. 460. 44
Nebraska
28, 014. 13
EDUCATION FOR THE DISABLED SOLDIER.
Another duty imposed on the Federal Board for Vocational Edu-
cation is that of providing vocational rehabilitation for persons dis-
abled under circumstances entitling them, after discharge from the
military or naval forces of the United States, to compensation under
the war-risk insurance acrof October-8, 1917.
This duty is im-
posed by the so-called " Smith-Sears Act," approved June 27,.1918.
tinder this act the Federal borird is authorized to take the disabled
man when he,is discharged from the hospital, or when the Arniy
medicsl authorities permit, a
'ye him training as his needs re-
quire, taking into accoun
course, his personal preference and
previous training and aptitudes.
The training provided is designed
to restore the man as far as possible to full duty again as a soldier in
civilian ranks. His instruction may take the form either of further
education or adjustment for his prewar vocation or of reeducation
for a new vocation in life. During the period of rehabilitation he
is entitled under the law to receive $85 or more 'per month, accord-
ing to his circumstances. 'Allowances for dependents 'are also pro-
vided. On the part of the man the training is voluntary.
If, how-
ever, he fails or refuses to follow the prescribed course of rehabilita-
g Federal Board for Vocational Rdocation, Second Annual Report, 1918, p. 100.
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
495
tion which he has elected to follow, the Bureau of War-Risk Insur-
ance may, on the recominendation of the board withhold his.allow-
ance.
The expenses connected with his instruction, including the
cost of books and supplies, are defrayed by the Federal board.
The
board is given large discretion in formulating plans, prescribing
courses of study and the like. The act appropriates and makes avail-
able until expended the sum of $2,000,000 for the purpose of carry-
ing out its provisions.
Section 6 of the above-mentioned net also provides:
That all medical and surgical work or other treatment necessary to give
functional and mental restoration to disabled persons prior to their discharge
from the military or naval forces of the United States shall be under the con-
trol of the War Department and the Navy Department, respectively.
It is further provided in this section that, whenever training is
employed as a therapeutic measure by the War Department or Navy ,
Department, a plan of cooperation may be established between these
agencies and the Federal board acting in an advisory capacity, and
that the War and Navy Departments my cooperate in a like capacity
in the care (If the health of the soldier or sailor' after his discharge'
from the military or naval forces.
This section thus takes legisla-
tive cognizance of the work of rehabilitation established under the
IlirectiOn of the Surgeon General of .the Army. In the last months
of the year 1917 Surg. Gen. William C. Gorgas organized in. his
office a Division of Physical Reconstruction. This division seeks to
secure as far as possible the full functioning again of the disabled
man's physical and mental parts.
Its methods, therefore, are pri-
marily therapeutic and look to restoration to military duty, but the
man's return to civil life is not overlooked.
Such instruction tis is
provided is given prior to the man's discharge from service.
The
work is supported from appropriations for hospital and other health
work in the Army.
MOBILIZING EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
One of the first and most important needs of the Army. after
America's entry into the war, was for additional officers.
These
were provided in reserve officers' training camps. A group of officer-
candidates was assembled at each of these camps and ghlen inten-
sive training for a period of about three months, at the end of which
successful candidates were award'ed commissions.
The first series
of camps was begun in May, 1917, alrl&points in different parts of
the country.
Other series were held at intertals after that time.
By May, 1918, numerous educational institutions had been made
centers of officer training. Men of as much previou; training as
possible were desired, and naturally the eyes of-the War Depart-
Yx3
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
ment were turned for a large proportion of the officers needed to
college graduates and students. The maintenance of units of the
Reserie Officers' Training Corps at higher educational institutions
was authorized by the "National Defense Act" of June 3,,1916.
" With a view to mobilizing the educational institutions of the
country and their facilities for special training," the War Depart-
ment announced, on February 13, 1918, the appointment of a com-
mittee on education and special training.
This committee had been
created three days previously by General Order No. 15-.
It was com-
posed of Army officers, and an advisory committee of educational
experts was added.
The committee was charged with the supervision
of the Students' Army Training Corps, which comprised a collegiate
section slid a vocational section. Units of the Student? Army Train-
ing Corps were organized at over 500 educational institutions of the
country. The collegiate section consisted of regularly enrolled col-
lege students, who, on application and on meeting the physical re-
quirements, were given the status of enlisted men and left, subject to
call, in training at their respective institutions.
The courses were
arranged on the basis oi.a three-months' term and were designed,for
training both officer-candidates and technical experts.
The War
Department entered into contract with the institution for housing,
subsistence, and tuition of the men of both the collegiate and the
vocational section.
No promise was given that a man would be left
in college for any s
ted time, but so long as he was-not called, his
college education
as provided by the Government.
There was,
however, the u
erstanding that.the call of the younger men would
be deferred longer than that of men of maturer years.
The aim of the vocational section was to train men for service as
trade specialists in the Army. They pursued such subjects as .auto
driving, auto repairing, bench woodwork, sheet-metal work, eleect rical
work, and the like.
As the courses were organized, they were to be
given through a term of two months.
Registrants who had a gram-
'mar-school education or equivalent trade experience were eligible
for the vocational section.
Induction was either by call of the local
draft board, by application to the committee in Washington, or by
transfer from other units.
rn the last "draft law." approved August 31, '1918, legislative
-sanction in the following language was given to the work as planned
by the Committee on Education and'Special Training:
Sac. 7. That the Secretary of War is authorized to assign to educational in-
'
slant:lona for special and technical training, soldiers who enter the military
service under the provisions of this act In such numbers and under such regu-
lations as he may prescribe; and is authorized to contract with such educa-
tional institutions for the subsistence, quarters, and military and academic
instruction of such soldiers.
t'
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
497
It must not be supposed that.all war education was intrusted to
the Committee on Education and Special Training. On the con-
trary, the committee's activities were confined to educational insti-
tutions. Outside of these, important educational forces were "carry-
ing on,'; for the Office of the Surgeon General, the Ordnance De-
partment, the Quartermaster's Department, the Chemical Welfare
Service, the Division of Military Aeronautics, the Signal Corps, the
Motor Transport Corps, and the Engineer Corps, all had means of
training for their respective purposes.
TRAINING SOLDIERS IN THE COMMON-SCHOOL BRANCHES.
An important bi-anch of the Army educational system was that
Organized under General Order No, 45 and designated "Development
battalions."
These were designed for men who, because of reme-
diable shortcomings, were at first unfit -for full military duty. The
fault might be either physical or mental.
In the latter event, the
remedy was generally instructional in character, as where a man of
foreign birth or parentage was unable to speak and understand the
English language, or where a native American was illiterate.
These
battalions were organized at all cantonments, and many thousands
of foreigners and illiterates were given as far as practicable the ele-
ments of an English education.
SCHOOLS ON GOVERNMENT INDUSTRIAL RESERVATIONS.
In the spring of 1918 plans for
establishment and mainten-
ance of schools for The children of workers employed on Govern-
ment industrial reservations where munitions and accessories were
manufactured for the Army were formulated in the office of the
Chief of Ordnance and were later approved by the Third Assistant
Secretary of War. By order of August 13, 1918, the Chief of Ord-
nance directed that the Community Organization Branch of the
Industrial Service-Section, Production Division, be charged with
the organization and control of such schools.
This branch was ac-
cordingly organized in the Ordnance Departmenti and a director
and an assistant director were placed in charge.
School systems
have been organized or projected on .reservations at or near the fol-
lowing places:
Elmwood, N. J.; Mays Landing, N. J.; Delaware
City, Del.; Tullytown, Pa.; Perryville, Md.; Charleston, W. Va.;
Seven Pines, Va.; Penniman, Va.; Nashville, .Teen.; Muscle Shoals,
Ala.; Sheffield, Ala.;. Brunswick, Ga. The schools are supported By
allotment from Federal appropriations.
Superintendents) pr1ci-
Pals, and teachers are employed under the direction of the central
office tri Washington.
171020*-11--aull. 813--82
498
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1018.
NAVAL EDUCATION.
SI*
In a manner similar to that of the Army, the Navy's educational
system has undergone great expansion since the beginning of the
war.
In general. its system of training in war time parallels that
of the Army. That is to say, men are inducted into the service in
practically the same way and are given such preliminary and special
training as the needs of the Navy and their previous education and
aptitudes call for. By an agreement between the War and Navy
Departments. the Navy was allotted, under the ." draft law " of
August 31, 1918, about 15,000 men per month. These received train-
ing, as circumstances determined, either in the "naval section" of
the Students Army Training Corpsat over 90 educationallinsti-
tutionsor in the various naval-training stations and camps through-
out the country.
They, as well as the men of the Army, are entitled
under the law to vocational rehabilitation in case of mutilation in the
discharge of duty': Since the outbreak of the war, the number of
cadets at the Naval Academy at Annapolis has been greatly increased
by law.
ENLARGED ACTIVITIES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
When a state of war was declared between the United States and
the German Government, the DCpartnient of Labor already included
within, its activities several lines of educational endeavor, particu-
larly in connection with the work of the Bureau of Naturalization
and the Children's Bureau, and after the outbreak of hostilities it
was found necessary to enlarge the department's activities along
various lines, including educational.
Three notable agencies which
touch education and which have been organized Nvithin the last
biennium are the Employment Service, the Information and Educa-
tion Service, and the Training and Dilution Service.
Each of these
offices is organized as a bureau and has a director in charge.
The United States Employment Service is an outgrowth of the
general powers conferred upon the Department of Labor by Chapter
141, Acts of Congress of 1912-13, and of the more specific powers
conferred upon the division of information of the department by
section 30, chapter 29, Acts of 1916-17 (Immigration Act).
For the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1919, Congress apprOpriated (Sundry
Civil Act of July 1, 1918), $5,500,000
to enable the Secretary of Labor, during the present emergency to furnish such
information and to reader such assistance in the employment of wage earners.
throughout the United States as may be deemed necessary in the prosecution ef
the wee and to aid In the stafidardistktion of all wages paid by the Government
of the United States and Its agencies.
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
499
As a part of the work of this "service," the Boys' Working Reserve
and the collegiate section of the Women's Division were organized. In
the spring of 1918 the Boys' Working- Reserve was mobilized and
trained, as far as prAticable,-to spend their vacations in the country
at farm work.
Effort was also made to induce boys so employed
in va+ation time to return to school in the autumn.
In connection
with the reserve a collegiate section was maintained for the pur-
pose .of mobilizing college students in a similar manner. One of
the functions of the Women's Division involves the placement of
women, particularly college women, insuitable positionS.
The Information and Education Service is educational in that
it is an information-giving bureau. It was organized le a separate
agency after the passage of the Sundry Civil Act of July 1, 1918,
which appropriated $225,000 for " information and education serv-
ice." A Umilar appropriation in the same att was that of $150,000
for the "training and dilution of labor."
In. war time it was found
necessary to infiltrate unskilled labor into the industries to do a
part of the work, usually simple processes, formerly done by the
killed worker.
Prior to induction into such employment the pros-
pective employee needs a short period of training. This "training
and dilution of labor" is the work with which the office here men-.
tioned is concerned.
In connection with the two older offices of the department which
are in a measure concerned with education there are two notably
activities of recent development.
By act of June 29, 1906, the
Bureau of Naturalization was charged, under the direction of the
Secretary of Labor, with " all matters concerning the naturalization
of aliens."
Under this authorization and in pursuance of a plan
forMulated in April, 1914, this bureau has during the last three years
sought to obtain the cooperation of public school authorities through-
out the country in the Americanization of prospective citizens of for-
eign birth.
It furnishes these authorities the names and addresses
of declarants for citizenship and petitioners for naturalization for
the purpose of bringing these declarants and petitioners under the
Americanizing influence of the public school, and, by means of let-
ters and otherwise, seeks to induce them and their wives to take
advantage of the school opportunities afforded them.
It also pub-
lishes and furnishes a manual for teachers and a textbook for'the
use of prospective citizens. Authority for the provision of textbooks
is embodied in the Naturalization Act of .May 9, 1918.
In addition to its other duties the Children's Iiinteau was charged
with the enforcement of the act of September 1, 1916, entitled, "An
act to prevent interstate commerce in leprollucts of child labor,
and for other purposes," and proceeded with the work of carrying
tita act .into effect until it,was declared unconstitutional by de-
.
fi00
" BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
cision of the Supreme Court of the United States rendered June 3,
1918. This decision was conclusive, rendering the so-called "child
labor law " wholly invalid and inoperative.
OTHER AGENCIES.
It is not the purpose of this review to enumerate and describe all
of the Government's educational activities, nor to treat exhaustively
all those that have been undertaken within the past two years.
There are, however, some other activities that merit notice here, es-
pecially since they are the outgrowth of laws enacted within the per-
iod comprehendal by this chapter. Among these are the training of
shipyard workers and seamen under the Shipping Board, the dis-
semination of information and the promotion of a wholesome na-
tional spirit by the Committee on Public Information, and the con-
duct of propaganda for the conservation of food and fuel by the
Food Administration and the Fuel Administration, respectively.
From its organization the Shipping Board- has sought to provide
and to train as far as possible the workers necessary to- build the
ships provided for by fhe shipping law, and to man these ships after
their entry into the marine service.
In the planning of courses of
instruction and the organization of its training systeM, the board
has had the cooperation of the Federal Board for Vocational Ed-
ucation. The other ageneies mentioned, particularly the Committee
on Public Information and the Food Administration, -have used
school channels extensively for their respective purposes..
EXPANSION OF TILE BUREAU OF EDUCATION.
4'For some years Congress has from time to time increased the ap-
propriations Made for the Bureau of Education. During the past
two yetirs these increases have amounted to $36,760. exclusive of
allowances for work among the natives of Alaska.
For the fiscal
year gliding June 30, 1919, the total appropriation, exclusive of the
sum for Alaska, is $162,260.
Increments to appropriations already
provided in earlier laws include additions to the classified clerical
`force and more funds for the payment of traveling expenses.. For
the fiical. year 1918 the sum allowed for the investigation of rural
education and industrial education was increased from $85,000 to
$45,000, and a part of the latter. sum was made available for school
hygiene. This appropriation was raised to $50,000 for the current
year. During the same period the allowance for school and home
gardening was increased from 0,700 to $7,500. New,.lines of work
were authorized in 1918-19 by appropriations of $9,000 for the "in-
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
501
vestigation of elementary and secondary education, including evening
schools, and the wider use of the schoolhouse in cities and' towns."
and $4,300 for the " investigation of kindergarten education." Thus,
by increments to its annual allowances, and by new authorizations,
the Bureau of Education is continually expanding, but there remain
various lines of valid endeavor which it is not yet able to undertake.
COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE.
The act making appropriations for the support of the Army
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1917, apprpved Auguit 29, 1910,
provided for a Council of National Defense to consist of the Secre-
taries of War, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor,
and to have associated with it an advisory commission, to consist of
not more than seven members, appointed by the President. Among
other duties the council is charged underthe act with the "coordina-
tion of industries and resources for the national security and wel-
fare" and with the " crseion of relations which will render possi-
ble in time of need the immediate concentration and utilizationof
the resources of the Nation.". The coun;lias accordingly sought
in various ways to mobilize and coordinate America's resources, in-
cluding educational
facilities.
Among the important agencies
organized by the council are the Committee on Engineering and Edu-
cation, the Woman's Committee, the Committee on Labor, and the
State Councils Section, all of which have done appreciable' service
in collecting data and obtaining the cooperation of the educational
forces of the country.
The act making appropriations for sundry
civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1919, appropriates $400,000 .for the work of the council.
STATE LEGISLATION.
Since there have been 53 regular sessions of legislatures and a
number of special sessions within the last two years, the volume of
school legislation enacted in that time has been very large. It is
safe to estimate the number of bills enacted into laws affecting edu-
cation to have been more than 1,000.
Whatever the exact number
may be it is obviously too large to permit extensive treatment of
every act, or even of every important act, in a brief survey of thee
kind attempted here.
Moreover, brief digests and discussions of
these acts are presented elsewhere in publications of the Bureau
of Education.
In this chapter the effort is made'to consider the
more significant educational nitsvements and to show dick progress
through the enactment of law.
111111.MME111111111111111111111111111111111111111''
502
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1816-1918.
,
GENERAL STATE ADMINISTRATION.
The constant state of flux and change of statutory law is not so
apparent in legislation affecting general State administration as it is
in the details of the school system, or with the smaller units of school
control. There are, however,.some relent laws affecting State depart-
ments of education and general State school policies that merit es-
pecial notice. Among these are acts relating to the organization and
powers of State boards of education and the powers and duties of
superintendents of public instruction and provisions for State com-
missions for various purposes. An Illinois act of 1917 reorganizes
the civil administration of that State by creating nine administra-
tive departments. Among these is a "department of registration
and education." In addition to the director, there arc created in this
department the offices of assistant director and superintendent of
registration and educatkm and a board to have control of the normal
schools.
This board consists of nine officers,of the s.eral depart-
ments, the director of registration and education, and the superin-
tendent of public instruction.
All offices mated by this act are filled
by appointment by the Governor for terms of four years, unless
otherwise provi4td in the act.
The department of registration and
education succeeeds to the powers and duties of the State board of
education. Among other dillies it i"cliarged with the conduct of
examinations of .applicants for licenses to practice various profes-
sions and vocations, and with investigations and the dissemination of
information- respecting the resources, zoology, botany, entomology,
geology, and water supply of the State.
An act of the legislature of Kansas (Ch. 297, Acts of 1917) pro -
vides for the management of State institutions by a State board of
administration.
This board consists of three qualified electors ap-
pointed by the governor with the consent of the senate; the governor
is himself a member and chairman. The appointed slumbers are to
serve for terms of frail. years.
Their salaries are $3,600 each, an
their entire time must be devoted to the duties of the board. Und4
the provisions of this act, the board of directors of the several educa-
tional, benevolent, penal and correctional institutions of the State are
abolished, and the State board of administration succeeds to their
powers and duties.
For soma time there has been a distinct tendency in this country to
replace ex-officinboards, or boards made up wholly or in large
measure of incumbents of,otber offices, with members thosen directly
from the people, Utah made a change in, its State lxiard of educa-
tion.in accordance with this tendency in 1915, and in 1917 (Ch. 478)
Wisconsin did likewise: In the' latter the board formerly:consisted
of the governor, secretary of state, superintendent of 'public in-
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
508
struction, one person appointed by the board of regents of the State
-university, and one appointed by the regents-of the normal schools.
By the act of 1917 the board is constituted as follows: Governor,
superintendent of public instruction, one member appointed by the
regents of the university, one member appointed by the regents of'
the normaschools, and five persons appointed by the governor with
the consent of the senate. The terms of the five appointed by the
governor are five years and are overlapping, one member being ap-
pointed each year. The board is charged with the management of
of the fiscal and business affairs of the ethVAConal agencies of the
State.
The State board of education of Wyoming, as at present consti-
tuted, is a board in which the only ex-officio member is the superin-
tendent of public instruction.
This officer and six members ap-
pointed by the governor compose, under chapter 120, Acts of
1917,
the board of education of that State.
The powers and duties of the
board are outlined as follows: To have general control and super-
vision of the public schools, to fix standards for the course of study
in elementary and high schools, to make 'rules for the certification of.
teachers, to conduct educational investigations, to have general over
sight of vocational and other special schools receiving State aid, to
advise the trustees of the university with respect to the normal de-
partinent of that institution, to assume the powers and dirties of the
State board of examiners of applicants for teachers' certificates.
The board is also authorized to appoint a commissioner of educa-
tion who is made its executive officer.
By an act of 1917 Tennessee provided that at least three of the nine
members of its State board. of education must be chosen from the
minority political party.
Another line along which Jegislatures have. approached State ad-
ministrative problems ift--Tecant years is the creation of commissions
to make special studies and reports on educational conditions or par-
ticular phases of .education.
The greater number of these commis-
sions has been created .for the purpose of making recommendations
with regard to codifying the school laws and eliminating contradic.
tions and inconsistencies. That such a codification is needed' in
anany:States is apparent to anyone- who -examines carefully the
pamphlets of school laws published by State departments of educa-
tion.
Nor is this nedd unknown tiir State school administrative
. officers.
In the preface to the " Georgia School Laws and Decisions,"
published by that State's department of education, Superintemlint
M. L. Brittain sayd:
By reason of recent legislation many contradictions occur In the aCorgia
echeol laws.
For this reason It has been n-lhought wise to publish
-
504
,
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
[only] extracts of our more Important and Most necessary educational legis-
lation until the right is granted to arrange the laws changed, omit those prac-
tically repealed, and to print a complete and thomdan school code.
The legislature of 1918 provided for a commission to codify the-
school laws of Georgia.
The Virginia Legislature of 1918 took a similar step and provided
for a "commission to study educational conditions in Virginia and
elsewhere and to report to the next general assembly its findings,
together with recommendations for it revision of the school laws aud
amendments to Article IX of the constitution."
In 1917 the legislatures of Arizona, Delaware, and North Carolina
provided for commissions to codify their school laws.
The usual
provision in enactments of this character is for a commission to study
."-school conditions in the State and elsewhere and to make to the next'
'session of the legislature a report embodying recommendations as
to legislation.
There is, however, a difference in the amounts of
money wade available for the purposes of commissions.
This is im-
portant, for the study should be thorough, and sufficient time and
energy should be devoted to the report and the draft of the proposed
school code to make them thoroughgoink.
Another sort of commission created in 19,1 was that provided by
an act of the Michigan Legislature for the purpose of,makilig investi-
gations and submitting reports and recommendations with regard to
child welfare.
Except as already indicated in connection with State boards, the
chief State school officer, called "superintendent of public instruc
tion" in most States, has been the subject of only minor legislation
within the past two years. This legislation has concerned chiefly the
manner of choosing State superintendents and their compensation
and assistants.
In Iowa, prior to 1917, the superintendent was ap-
pointed by the govvnor, but the legislature of that year (el). 318) .
repealed this provision and provided instead for his election by the
qualified electors'- A law of Nebraska enacted in the same- legislative
year (ch. 37) provides for the nonpartisan nomination and election
of the superintendent of public instruction. county superintendents
of schools, and regents of the State university.
The State o Idaho
has had since 1913 both a superintendent of public instruction and
a State commissioner of education, the latter office having been
created by statute in that year. But 'since the office of superintendent
was provided for in the constitution, the effort to substitute a com-
missioner for a superintendent involved the amendment of the consti-
tution so as to abolish the latter position.
Accordingly the necessary
amendment was proposed by the legislature of 1917.' A new law of
s At the November election, 1918, this amendment tailed of ratideation,
.,
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
605
Maryland enacted in 1918 requires the State superintendent to be a
graduate of a standard college.
.
Acts of Connecticut and Michigan passed in 1917 provide for an
assistant secretary of the State board of education and a deputy su-
perintendent of public instruction, respectively. The act of Michigan
also added two assistant superintendents. Enactments of Arizona and
Delaware had the effect of increasing the compensation of the chief
school officer of those States.
South Dakota in the same year fixed by
law the allowance for expenses of the State superintendent. Among
other duties the office of director of State institutions, created in Ver-
meat by net of March 2, 1917, includes the supervision and control
of the Vermont. Industrial School and the Vermont State School for
Feeble-minded Children.
COUNTY ADMINISTRATION AND St/WWI:410N.
.
,
For several yetirs the county as a unit of school administration has
been much in the minds of educators, and the subject ha
.
een much
discussed both among' school men and in State legislate
In gen-
eral, it may be said that there are three schools of ,thought with
regard to local units of school administration: First,_there are those,
who favor the county as the unit, and in strong form; that
to say,
they would submerge the district as constituted in many States
and make the county as effectually a unit of school control and super-
vision. as the city generally
is.
. A second group would have the
"county unit." in modified form, leaving to each community a meas-
ure of local autonomy ; and they there is the third group, whith is
averse to abandoning the district *tem or township system, accord-
ing as one or the other of these two is preferred. Whatever may be
the final outcome there is without doubt a trend toward the " county-
unit " system at the present time.
In his book, "The Rural Teacher
and His Work," br. TI. W. Foght classifies 19 States' as having
adopted the county plan of organization and mentions a twentieth
State 2 which permits its less-populous counties to adopt this plan by
vote of the people. As leween the advocates of what has been called
the" pure county type " IN those who prefer a modified forth, results
so far attained are indecisive.
Dr. Foght classifies 10 States as be-
longing to the " mixedor setnicounty type," though he himself would
appear to favor the stronger organization.
Within the biennium treated here, the most notable cheap to
the county system was that I tide in New Mexico in 191.7.
By act-
of the legislature (ch. 105) tha
tate provided for a county board
'Alabama. Arizona, California, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Iluislano, Mary.
land, Mississippi, New Mexico. North Carolina, Ohio, goutti Carolina, Tennessee, Texas,
Utah, Virginia, and Washington.
*-
*Nebraska
t
506
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
of education of five members to consist of Or county superintend-
ent of sch
is and four qualified electors appointed by the district
judge. T
board is charged with the administration of schools
throughout the county, excepting those in. incorporated cities, towns,
and villages,
In general, this law of New Mexico may be regarded
as representing the modified form of county administration. In
the matter of finances the State and county funds are apportioned
to school districts on the ba,is of the school census, and additional
funds may be provided by district taxation.
The expenditure of
rural funds, however, is administered by the county hoold.
Teach-
ers are employed by the district board of directors with the ap-
proval of the county board. All equipment and supplies for ruriil
schools, whenever possible, must be purchased by the county board
in quantities and at wholesale prices.
Rural school property is
vested in the county board, and districts may be changed, consoli:
dated, or abolished by the same authority.
County superintendents
remain, as formerly, officers elected by popular vote.
Rural high
schools, as well as rural schools of elementary grade, are subject to
the control of the county board.
No other changes of great importance were made in county admin-
istration in 1917 or 1918. However, in North Carolina an act of
the former year provided that in counties where members of the
county boards of education were elected by the legislature candi-
dates for membership in boards should. be nominated at the party
primaries or conventions and that the legislature should elect mem-
bers from the nominations so made. In a Maryland act of 1918
district school boards are authorized to reject assignments of teachers
to their respective districts, but the county superintendent is not
required to make more than three nominations for the same posi-
tion.
In adopting this provision Maryland veered back slightly
toward the "semicounty type."
Laws affecting county sueerintendents of schools have within tile
past biennium generally taken the form of provisions. for increases
in salkies and for deputy or assistant superintendents. Among
the States which raised the salaries of their county superintendents
were Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and
South Dakota.
Kansas and Minnesota provided increases in the
larger counties.
The payment of the expenses of superintendents
Was provided for. in Montana, Nebraska, and -Neff Jersey.
The
law of the last mentioned, as amended in 1918. provides for fife
payment of the expenses of the superintendent, upon the presentation
of proper vouchers, but such expenses must not exceed $124 in any
quarter year.
Deputy or assistant county superintendents were pro-
vided for in 1917 in Arizona, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, and North
Dakota. A South Dakota act of the same year provided for the
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
507
nonpartisan election of superintendents.
Kentucky, at the last ses-
sion of its legislature (1918), repealed' an older law which required
an examivation for certification for eligibility to the office of county
superintendent.
In lieu of this provision it is now provided that
any person holding the degree of bachelor of arts in education,
bachelor of science in education, an advanced certificate issued by
the University of Kentucky, or an advanced certificate issued by the
State normal schools shall be eligi4le to hold the office.
THE SCHOOL DISTRICT.
Perhaps the most notable legislation under this head within the
last two years was that enacted ill New York in 1917.
By the 'en-
actment of chapters 328 and 786 that State revised and reorganized
its whole system of local school administration.
The former act
aected villages and rural communities, and the latter concerned
city boards of education. The act affecting the smaller communities
had the effect of abolishing all school districts as units of school
administration and substituting therefor a larger unit, the town.:
ship.
This act, however, was repealed by chapter 199, Laws of
1918, and the old district system was accordingly restored. Chapter
786 was entitled "An act to amend the education law, by providing
for a board of education in the several cities of the State."
Under
its provisions a city formerly having nine members or a small num-
ber on its board of education continues to have the same number, but
in all other cities, except New York and newly created municipali-
ties, the number of members is reduced to nine.' New York City,
which .formerly had a board of 46 members, now has only seven,
and boards
ewly created municipalities will have five members.
Where formerly elected, boards will be elected under this act, and
where formerly appointed they will be appointed still.
In gemeral,
this law leaves the/functions of city administrative agencies sub-
stantially as they were prior to its passage. Its effect, in the main,
is to repeal numerous special acts and to make more uniform the
State's system of city school administration.
In the legislature
of 1918 it escaped the fate of the " township act," having been
changed only by minor amendments.
CONSOLIDATION.
The movement for consolidated rural schools goes on without abate-
ment; in every legislative year it is *e subject of extensive legisla-
tion. Few now deny that, whenever practicable, the one-room rural
school. must give place toa larger, better-equipped, end,more thor-
oughly graded seat of instruction. In States having county adminis-
tration consolidation is easily effected through the powers of the
508
BIENNIAL SURVEY. OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
county board of education. In New England and a few States else-
where a method of consolidation subsists in the township system.
Where the district system prevails, laws specifically designed to
effect a union of two or more districts are 'necessary.
In view of this
fact one looks to States having the district system for new laws relat-
ing to consolidation, and it is there that most of them are found.
However, practically all States now have laws on the subject, and
current enactments are generally of the nature of amendments to
existing statutes.
Among the States which have within the last
two years changed their consolidation laws are Illinois, Iowa, Ken-
tucky, Michigan, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Indiana, Kansas, Mis-
sissippi, and 'Wisconsin.
In the first six of these the new enact-
ments relate chiefly to the manner of consolidating, which is usually
effected by vote of the people in the districts concerned.
In Indi-
ana,. the transportation of pupils was the subject of legislation.
There the township trustee is now required to provide transporta-
tion for all children who reside over 2 miles, and for children be-
tween 6 and 12 years of age who reside over 1 mile, from school. A
Kansas act authorizes contracts with parents or other custodians to
transport their own children.
Mississippi in 1918 authorized school
trustees of independent districts to provide transportation for
children residing over 2 miles from school. A Wisconsin act of 1917
prescribes conditions on which State aid for transporting pupils will
be granted.
BLIC-SC HOOL SUIP PORT.
. Two phases of school financing are prom en in present-day legit -
lation.
These are (1) the general tendency o increase tax rates for
school purposes and (2) the effort to shift the, burden of school sup-
port more from the local community to ,the larger units, State and
'county, or otherwise to equalize educational opportunities.
It/is mit
practicable nor desirable to outline here all recent provisions of funds
for public schools.
There is scarcely a State which has not amended
within the past few years its law providing school revenue, and in
nearly all cases increases in faxes have been allowed. Among the
States which have made provision for such increases within the last
biennium are Arkansas, California, Deftiware, Florida, Idaho,
Iowa, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Carolina,
Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia. It
is
worthy of note that among these States are some that provide for
county taxation for educational purposes.
The Legislature of Flor-
ida, for example, proposed in 1917 an amendMent to the State con-
stitution' which is designed to require each county to levy on all
taxable property therein a school tax of hot less than 3 mills nc.r
£ Ratlhed by the voters at the Revelator election, 1915.
1
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
509
more than 10 mills on the d.ollar. An Idaho statute enacted in the
same year requires the board of county commissioners to levy a tax
for general school purposes which shall be sufficient to raise a min-
imum of $15 per capita of children of school age. An Oklahoma
act provides'a county tax of 1 mill on the dollar.
There is a sense in which the " county-unit " propaganda. the
tendency toward increased State appropriations and taxation for ed-
ucation, and the advocacy of Federal-aid to thq State school systems
may all be regarded as parts of the same effort.
By this it is meant
that all have their roots in the recognition of the unaided local com-
munity's inability to provide proper -school facilities and of the
larger unit's duty in the matter. That a larger proportion of the
burden of school support will be taken from the school district and
assumed by the State and countyand perhaps by the Federal
Governmentnow seems certain ; the trend oflegislation is without
doubt in that directio.i. A State appropriation for rural schools
made in Texas in 1917 amounts to $1,000,000 per annum.
An
amendment to the constitution proposed by the same legislature
would provide a State tax of 35 cents on the hundred dollars.'
By
an act of the same year, Delaware provided an annual appropriation
of $250,000, out of the proceeds of the Stag's income tax, " for the
benefit of the public schools."
The Legislature of New Mexico pro-
vided for a State school tax of one-half mill on the dollar.
Legislatures of 1918 were no less generous with State provision
of school funds. The Louisiana General Assembly proposed five
amendments to the constitution,' all of which were designed to
make more stable the State's system of school support and, partic-
ularly, to shift the burden inore to the county and the State.
Vir-
ginia increased from 10 to 14 cents on the hundred of property vain-
ation the Stitle tax levy and added $100,000 to its annual appro-
priation for school purposes.
In the Georgia Legislature the annual
appropriation was increased $300,000, and had the bill beCome a
law asilllt passed the Tower house, the increase would have amounted
to $1,000,000.
Massadiusetts and Maryland also showed tendencies
to add to the State's share in school support. By an act of the legis-
lature of the former, State aid is kranted to high schools in towns
having feiver than 500 families and a comparativgly low average
of property valuation.
What is popularly known as " State aid" is a common form of
State participation in school maintenance. This, in general, serves
two purposes: (1) It is extended to the weak district to enable it to
proyide adequate, or more nearly adequate, common- school facilities;
and (2) it is granted in some States to any district to "encourage it
$ Rattled by the voters at the Novanber election, 1918.
510
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-191S.
to provide desirable types of special instruction, such as agriculture
and home economics. Among the States which have recently enacted
State-aid laws, or amended those already in force, are Connecticut,
Delaware, Missouri, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Utah, and Wis-
consin.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHING PERSONNEL.
Under this head are included the several elements which make for
the development of efficient instruction. Among these elements are
adequate training for the prospective teacher, higher salaries and
better opportunities in the teaching profesion, more contentment and
Security in employment, and better social conditions amid which the
teacher may d his work.
State laws looking to all these ends are
to be found in I
ent acts of legislatures. With regard to the train-
ing of teachers ome noteworthy acts have been passed within the
past yeai or tAr
- A Massachuset
enactment of 1918 authorizes the State board of
education to expend not exceeding $4,000 a year for the purpose of
aiding pupils in the State normal schools. In New York an act of
the same year standardizes the compensation of the faculties of the
State College for Teachers and the normal schools. Under the pro-
visions of this act a salary schedule is prescribed. The salaries of
the president and the dean of the college for teachers are fixed at
$6,000 and $4,500, respectively, and the principal .of each normal
school is to receive the same pay as that of thrdean of the college.
The compensation of the professors, assistant professors, instructors,
and assistant instructors in the college for teachers and of 'the heads
of departments, assistants in departments; and critic and model
teachers in the normal schools begins- at a prescribed minimum for
each class and proceeds by annual increments to a maximum which
is likewise prescribed.
According to this schedule the maximum for
professors in the college is $4,000, and for the head of a department
in a normal school, $3,000. An act passed in Nebriska in 1917 pro-
vides in the normals of that State an " elementary course " and an
" advanced course " for teachers of rural schools. The Legislature
of Arkansas in the same year authorized the State normal school to
issue special certificates to teachers of rural schools and to persons
completing the two-year course in home economics. A Washington
act established extension departments in the normal schools of that
State. Increases in funds for the maintenance of institutions for the
training of teachers were provided in many States.
Another type of teacher traininga type designed chiefly to pre-
. pare persona to teach in rural communitesis that found in high
schools and now beconie widespread in the country.
Twenty-five
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
511
States have laws providing for such training. Among these are two,
Montana and Wyoming, whose legislatures made the provision in
1917.
The usual law on this subject authorizes approved four-year
high schools to offer training courses and to grant diplomhs upon
which teachers' certificates of elementary grade may be issued with-
out further examination.
These laws also generally provide State
aid for the payment of instructors in the normal branches.
Teachers' salaries, a constant subject of legislation, occupied the
attention of legislative arse
lies in 1917 and 1918, as well as those
of previous years. In f
, the outbreak of the war and consequent
rise in wages elsewhere male more acute the problem of retaining
teachers in their positions at prevailing rates of pay. and this condi-
tion could hardly escape the.attention of legislatures. The two usual
forms of salary legislation,*Visions for increased funds for tuition
purposes and minimum-salary laws, were in evidence. Of the first
of these, note has ,already been made under the heading " public-
school support."
Among the States which prescribed minimum
amounts that may he paid to teachers or which amended existing
statutes on the subject were Massachusetts, Delaware, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, Kentucky, and Wisconsin. The usual law of this char-
acter prescribes a minimum monthly stipend for each grade of
teachers. particularly teachers of the elementary grades. Thus Penn-
sylvania in 1917 (No. 425) provided that the holder.of a provisional
certificate shall receive not less than $45 per month; the holder of a
professionalor a normal school certificate, not less than $55; and
the holder of a permanent certificate or final normal school diploma,
not less than $60. The object of the minimum salary law is twofold:
It protects the teacher, especially the beginner, from the penuriousness
of local school boards, and it prevents the bargain-driving board
from going into the market and buying the cheapest poSsible teach-
ing service. In both aspects it has a tendency to improve the char-
acter of instruction in the public chools.
Two kinds of laws tend to give the teacher a reeling of assurance
and contentment, a desirable state of mind in a public servant so
podrly paid.
These are popularly known as "tenure laws" and
"pension laws." Of the former there are as yet few on the statute
books of the country, that of Massachusetts being among the more
notable, but teachers' associations and like agencies are continually
furthering the propaganda, and legislatures are brought more and
more to consideration of the matter. -It should not be the purpose
of a tenure law to make secure in his or her position the inefficient
teacher, but leis desirable that the efficient teacher be relieved, after*
a reasonable period of probation, of the burden of having to stand
annually for reelection, and that on the school board should be placed
.1
512
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
the burden of showing cause why any teacher's employment, after
the period of probation, should be discontinued.
Many laws providing for the retirement of superannuated teachers
are now in force. Thirty-seven States have such laws applying to the
whole or some part of their areas.
The most recent development in
this field of legislation is the effort to put retirement systems on a
sound actuarial basis. The acts of Connecticut and Pennsylvania
passed in 1917 are representative of this effort.
Among the laws designed to improve the social environmenfl
the teacher are those which provide for " cottages" or other homes
for teachers, particularly in rural sections of the country. A few
States'now make provision for such cottages. Among these are Illit
nois, Tennessee, Louisiana, Texas, Nebraska, and Washington.
The
most recent addition to this group was Mississippi, which in an act
of 1918 authorized independent school districts to levy a tax for the
purpose of erecting teachers' homes.
The prp ision of teachers'
homes in connection with schoolhouses would/seW to forecast the
coming of a rural-school plant which shall consist not merely of a
building for sheltering the pupils during the hours of instruction,
but also of several acres of land, a dwelling, a barn, and other equip-
ment suited to rural life and rural community purposes.
There is in
the country a well-defined movement which is working to this end.
TILE CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS.
Aside from the general tendency to raise the requirements of qual-
ification to teach, there are two or three other aspects of teacher-
certification which are worthy of note. Perhaps the most significant
feature of recent legislation relating to this subject is the large Mini-
. ber of provisions for special certificates.. These are of various kinds,
as for manual training, agriculture, industrial subjects, household
economy, physical training, kindergartens, and classes for special
types of children: Many legislative acts of recent years have pro-
vided for the certification of instructors in special branches.
Cali-
fornia, for example, amended its law in 1917 (ch. 699) so as to
authorize county boards of education to issue special certificates to
teachers of deaf and atypical children and of classes in citizenship,
oral expression, library craft, commercial Spanish, and vocational'
guidance.
Household economy ,is a subject which is prominent in
laws providing for certification in special branches or classes.
The
. tendency would seem to be to require of full-time teachers in this
department graduation from a standard high school and the comple-
,...iio,n4of a two-year course in home economics in addition thereto.
Thus Michigan, by act of 1917, requires the completion of a two-year
course in the subject, such course to be completed in the Univeisity
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
518
of Michigan, any State normal school, any college incorporated under
the laws of the State, or any institution approved by he superin-
tendent of public instruction.
The certification of kindergarten teachers is another si.i)ject of
considerable legislation.
Some States, in providing for the es' ablish'
ment and maintenance of kindergartens, include in the law require-
ments of teachers.
Specialists in this branch of education hold that
a kindergarten teacher should have completed a four-year course in
high school and at least a two-year course in attiaining school, and
the tendency in legislation appears to be working to this end.
Maine, in 1917, provided that a kindergarten teacher must have com-
pleted at least a two-year course in kindergarten training and
received a certificate or diploma from a training school approved by
the State superintendent of public schools.
Another significant feature of recent certification laws is the pro-
vision for accrediting approved college affil university diplomas and
teachers' credentials issued in other States.
Most States now have
legal provisions of this character.
Among the more recent laws on
the subject are those of North Carolina and Florida, enacted in
1917, and that of Mississippi, enacted in 1918.
TILE SCHOOL TERM.
In Bulletin, 1916, No. 42, "Minimum School-term Regulations,"
published by the Bureau of Education, it was shown that 44 States
had at that time established by law a "minimum term of from 60
to 180 days' schoolingJor each.organized school district." The four
States named as having no such legal provision were Alabama,
Georgia, Louisiana, and Rhode Island.
Since, in the first three of
these, the county-unit system of sehool administration prevails and
county boards of educatimi are authorized to distribute State and
county funds, from which school support is largely derived, to local
districts according to their respective needs, the requirement as to
a minimum term there is not so essential as in some other States.
In Rhode Island, where the public schools are already generously
supported, the average school term big longer than that of any
other State, minimum-term regulation would appear to be un-
necessary.
In view of these facts, minimum-term legislation enacted within
the last two years must 'of necessity have partaken largely of the
nature of amendments to older laws. There have been, however,
some noteworthy enactments of this nature.
Nebraska, by act of
1917, increased from seven to eight vnths the length of term re-
quired of any district having between 10 and 75 persons of school
age and fixed at not less than that leng
the' term for any other
17102P-21-Bull. 88-48
N.
614
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
district when its school can be maintained on-a tax of 15 mills added
to funds received from the State. North Carolina in the same year pro-
vided for an annual county tax to aid districts in maintaining school
for not less than six months. Reference has previously been made to an
increase of $100,000 in the State appropriation for school purposes
in Virginia.
In order to secure the best possible results from the
increases provided in State funds, the legislature attached certain
conditions to the distribution of the money accruing under the
appropriation act.
One of these conditions is that, in order to
receive the benefits of this distribution, the district must maintain
its schools for an average of seven mo*ths in the year.
coltrutsonir SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.
The most significant attendance law enacted in this country witliin
the last decade was that passed by -the Legisititure of Mississippi in
1918. Its significance lies in the fact that every one of the 48 States
now has a statute requiring attendance at school, for Mississippi's
enactment was the last of the series.
All of the States are now com-
mitted to the policy of requiring children to attend school for some
pe-riod of their lives and tpr all or some part of the school term.
The problem is no longer one of securing initial legislation in States
not having attendance laws, but rather concerns the extension of the
application of existing laws and otherwise making them more
effective.
Reaching the last of a series conduces to retrospection. The period
through which compulsory attendance was extending over- the Coun-
try" from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Great Lakes to
the Gulf " wag of 66 years' duration.
The brie! table presented
below shows the years in which the several States enacted their ini-
tial laws on the subject:
Date of enactment of compulsory attendance laws,
Massachusetts
New York
District of Columbia
Vermont
New Hampshire
Michigan _
Washington_Y..
Connecticut
New Mexico
Nevada
Kansas _
California
Maine
1852
1853
1864
1867
1871
."
1871
1811
1872
1872
1873
1874
_ 1874
1875
.-
Wyoming
......
Ohio
-....-
Wisconsin
....--
Rhode Itiand
Illinois
Dakota
Montana
Minnesota
Nebraska
Idaho __--___-_
,Colorado
Oregon
Utah
Pennsylvania_
..
__________
;
1876
1877
1879
1883
1883
1883
188.4
1885
1887
_ 18;37
1889
1889
1890
1895
_
New Jersey
_ --______
1875
stl. B. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, N9 2, p. 10, as revised to date.
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
515
Date of enactment of compulsory attendance fates -Continued.
Kentucky
Indiana
West Virginia
Arizona
Iowa
Maryland
Missouri
Tennessee
Delaware
North Carolina
1896
1897
1897
1899
1902
1902
1905
1905
1907
1907
Ok Whom
Virginia
Arkansas
Louisiana
South Carolina
Texas
Florida
Alabama
Georgia_
Mississippi
1
1907
1908
1909
1910
1915
1015
1915
1915
1910
1018
This table shows only one phase oNcoinpulsory attendancethe
time of its introduction into each of the several States.
Another
and perhaps more important phase is its growth in public favor after
embodiment in law.
This can not be shown so graphically. The
°
usual course of the compulsory attendance moven)ent in a Stitte is
through its embodiment in law and on into a period of extension of
application and the adoption of more effective means of enforcement.
Thus North Carolina enacted its first attendance law in 1907, made
State wide its application in 1913, and extended the age liruits in 1917.
The new law of Mississippi becomes applicable in a county or in-
dependent district only by an approving vote of the qualified elec-
tors residing therein.
It fixes the age limits at 7 and 14 and requires
attendance for at least 60 days in each year. Other noteworthy atten-
dance laws of 1918 were a Massachusetts act further regulating the
maintenance of county truant schools, a Kentucky act extending to
magistrates' and police courts' ,jurisdi. 'on in cases arising under the
attendance lav,'Itnd a Vi'rginia act makink its requirements State wide
in application.
Important laws were enacted in 1917 by the legis-
latures of Arkanses, Connecticut, Michigan, New York, North Caro-
lina, North Dakota, Rhode Island, and South Dakota.
In Arkansas
the requirement is extended to the entire State; in Connecticut, a
State " prosecutiitg agept " is provided to enforce the law; in Michi-
gan, private and paro&aial schools are required to make reports; in
New York, the number of days of required attendance each year is
increased from 160 to 180; in the other States mentioned' the age
limits are extended in one way or another.
HEALTH AND SANITATION.
Reference is made elsewhere in this chapter to some wholesome
effects of the war upon educational legislation.
Without doubt the
outbreak of hostilities in Europe and the accelerated propaganda
for "preparedness" in this country gave strong impetus to physical,
training in the public school&
This is evidenced by the passage of
the laws of New York and Louisiana in 1916, and by the adoption
early in 1917 of provisions for physical training in all schools or
516
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
for military training in high schools, or for both, in Arizona, In-
diana, Nevada, NeW Jersey, Oklahoma, and Oregon.
Since the
entry of the United States into the war, California, Delaware, Michi-
gan, Rhode Island, and Maryland have enacted similar laws. The
law of Maryland was passed in 1918 (ch.. 269).
According to its
provisions, physical training must be provided in all public schools
and Fchopls receiving State aid.
The State board of education is
authorized and directed to regulate such training and to appoint a
State supervisor of physical training and such assistants as may be
deemed necessary.
With respect to recent laws providing for mili-
tary science and tactics in secondary schools, it may be noted that
in only two States, New York and Arizona, are the provisions made
mandatory in relation to both school authorities and high-school
students. In New Jersey, the State board of education is authorized
to make the requirement that military training be given in the high
schools. Without regard to military-training in high schools, the
following States now provide by law for physical training in the
common schools: California, Delaware, Illinois, Maryland, Nevada,
New Jersey, Nevi York, and Rhode Island.
All of these, except Il-
linois, which enacted its law in 1915, have ma:2eiiike provision within
the last two years.
The physical examination of school children,
had
ning in San Antonio in 1890 and attained its earliest high degree of
development in Boston in 1894, is now provided in some form in
all States, though thereare still a few which have no specific law on
the subject.
Recent laws are concerned with the extension of the
'practice and with the provision of kindred activities.
Ari act of
the New Hampshire Legislature of 1917 requires the school board of
every city, union, special or town school district to ,submit to the
qualified electors the question of providing medkal inspection of
schools. A Nevada act of the same year requires teachers to make
examination of school children to ascertain if they are defective as
to sight or hearing, have diseased teeth: or are addicted to mouth
breathing.
North Carolina and North Dakota provide for medical
inspection by county authorities.
In Wisconsin teachers are now
required by law to send insanitary pupils home.
Pennsylvania and
Rhode Island, under acts of 1917, provide for the professional treat-
ment of certain pupilsthe former Pill...those having defective, eyes
or teeth and the latter 'Mr those'having defective teeth. fn 1918 New
Jersey authorized the maintenance of dental clinics for indigent
children, and Virginia authorized county boards of supervisors to
appropriate county funds for the purpose of providing medical in-
spection of school children and for the employment of nurses to visit
schools and homes.
The regulation of schoolhouse construction and the prevention
of the common use of drinking cups and the like were likewise sub-
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATIOII.
517
jects of legislation in 1917 and 1918.
Vermont and Washington in
the forther year enacted laws designed to protect school children
from accidents caused by automobiles. Vermont now requires within
200 feet of it schoolhouse the sign, "Two hundred feet to a school-,
house."
In Washington the sign, " School, slow down," must be'.
placed within 100 yards of each school. A few States regulated the
construction of fire escapes, and California and Arizona prohibitedi
4
the common use of drinking caps.
HMI SCHOOLS.
High-school
F enacted within the last two years concern chiefly
the extension of secondary edtication.
As seen in legislation this
extension presents three noteworthy aspects: (1) The general ten-
dency toward universal high-school education; (2) legislative recog-
nition of the " junior high school "; and (3).provision for the " junior
college." The first of these is evidenced by the recent enactments of
a number of States.
In 1917 New Hampshire, Michigan, Kansas,
and Montana provided for the payeneof the tuition fees of pupils
of secondary grade whose homesdistricts.We're not providing adequate
facilities for pupils of their attainments.
In the first two of these
the tuition fees are 'VI by the district, in the latter two the cot
y
bears the burden of payment.' In several other laws author'
for
the establishment and maintenance of high schools is con
red. A
Tennessee act of the same year (chapter 96) reorgani
generally
the secondary schools of that State.
Under the pr
sions of this
act elementary schools consist of the first eight
rades, and high
"schools may b9 either. two-year, threo-year,
four-year schools.
The courses of study are prescribed by the St to board of education.
Without affecting four-year schools already established, the coubty
high-school boards may establish a sufficient number of two-year and
three-year courses to meet the needs of rural communities. A county
tax of one-half mill is authorized for the promotion of secondary
education. The county court elects the high-school board. An
act of 1917 requires all that part of a county not,in a school
corporation maintaining a four-year high school to-be.organized as a
" nonhigh-school district" for the purpose of levying a tax and pay-
inglhe tuition fees of high- school pupils residing therein.
The junior high school, which is npw widespread in the *country,
has received specific legislative recognition in Vermont, California,
and Michigan., In many States specific legal provision. for such
schools is unnecessary, since they may be provided under authority
of existing law. The "junior college" is a later development in sec-,
ondary education.
It consists usually of an extension, of the four-
year course to include two additional years, which 'correspond in
gerniral to the freshman and sophomore years in tollege.
Thred
518
BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
States, California, Kansas, and Michigan, made provision for junior
colleges in 1917.
The Kansas act (en. 283) provides for a two-
year course in-idva/kre of the regular course approved by the State
board of education and applies to cities of the first and second cla'sses1
and to county high schools. This extension, however, must lurve., the
approval of the qualified electors voting at an election. A tax of 2
mills hi a city or one tenth mill in a county may be levied to carry
out the purpose of this act.
In 1918 three States enacted important high-school laws: Massa-
chusetts granted State aid for secondary education in the Caller
towns; Maryland added to its system a third class of high schools:
and Virginia authorized schools of two, three, or four rooms to
give instruction in secondary subjects, if approved by the State board
of education.
SPECIAL CLASSES FOR ATYPICAL CHILDREN.
More than three-fourths of the States now have institutions to
Which feeble-minded youth may be committed and given training
suitable to their capacities, and other States are, from time to time,
being added to this group. Thus Texas provided for a State "farm
colony" for the feeble-minded in 1915, and South Carolina made,
simila
provision in 1918.
It would seem, therefore, that atypical
chileen of the type commonly called " institutional cases "'are soon
to be provided for by law, but the higher grades of subnormality,
such as pupils retarded from one to three years in their studies,
have received less legislative attention.
There are, however, some
signs that provision for these higher grades may be made in the near
future. Already special classes for "backward children" are widely
maintained, but this proyision needs encouragement and direction,
A few States, as New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin, and Minnesota,
make special legal-provision for subnormal children.
The New York law was enacted% 1917 (ch. 533). It directs the
bOard of education of each city, union free school district, or com-
mon-school district to ascertain the number of children in attendance
upon the public schools therein who are three years or more retarded
in mental developtoent and requires the board of each city or union
free school district in which there are 10 or more such children to
establish special classes for them. Any School corporation having
fewer than 10 such children may contract for their instruction in
another city or district maintaining classes as provided by this act:
An amendment of 1918 authorizes boards to contract with approved
institutions in lieu of organizing special classes. A Wisconsin act
of
authorizes city and village districts, with the approval of:
the State superintendent, to establish and maintain classes for "ex
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
519
ceptional persons of school age." 'A State supervisor of such classes
is provided for, and State aid is granted annaally to the extent of
one-third of the salary of each teachet so employed, but not exceed-
ing $300 of State funds may be paid to any one teacher.
CIVIC AND PATRIOTIC INSTRUCTION.
The enactment of laws designed to provide instruction in patriot-,
ism affords another example of the impulse given to some kinds of
school legislation by the European war. Laws tnaoted for this pur-
pose have generally taken the form of a requirement that patriotic
instruction and exercises be incorporated_ in the school curriculum
and, in the, absence of an earlier law on the subjectrprovision for the
display of the United States flag on or near each schoolhouse. Mas-
sachusetts and Minnesota, by acts of 1917, provided for training in
the duties of citizenship; and in the following year New York and
Texas made provision for patriotic instruction.
In New York an
earlier law- left to the option of the local school board the inclusion
of patriotic lessons in the curriculum. The new law requires instruc-
tion in patriotism in all schools, both public and private. The Texas
law, enacted at a special session of the legislature in 1918, requires
every public.school-teacher to devote at least 10 minutes each school
day to instruction designed to inculcate "intelligent patriotism."
About three-fourths of the ,States now require the display of the
United States flag on or near every public school building. By act
of April 21, 1917, Florida required the display of the flag on school-
houses, and in 1918 Maryland and Texas enacted similar laws.
There remain,10 States of the South which have no law on the sub-.
ject. but the recent enactments mentioned here would seem to indi-
cate that all States may soon have legal provision for. the display
of the flag:
THE ELIMINATION OF ILLITERAU AND THE AMERICANIZATION OF ALIENS.
In some aspects the immigrant and the illiterate native present to
the American people the same problem: Both are civically unad-
josted, both are in need of education more or less elementary in
character, and in both cases it is injarge measure the adult who
makes the problem. Still another likeness appears .in the fact that!
the same kind .of school, the evening school, will either serve the
purpose ,,,pf Americanizing the alien or afford instruction for the
illiterate native.
-
'Within the period comprehended by this review several States
have enacted laws looking to the Americanization of the alien and
the elimination of illiteracy. The custom in, some of the Sot4hern
. States of conducting "moonlight aohools" and like activities for
520
BIENNIA. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
the instruction of illiterate persons is growing. In a few States these
activities are conducted under the direction of State " illiteracy com-
missions." In addition to those already established, commissions of
this nature were created in Mississippi in 1916 and in Arkansas in
1917. rNo State appropriation, however, was made in either case.
This was in accord with past practice. for initial acts creating these
commissions have generally carried no appropriation, the commis-
sion being left to look to private benefaction for support. A second
step in the procedure, however, has been reached.
In 1917 North
Carolina and in 1918 Kentucky, each appropriated
5,000 annually
---:for the work of reducing illiteracy within their respe
ve borders.
Thus The States rare beginning to take more vigorous h
of the
problem.
The legislature of New York in 1918 passed three acts designed
to cure the malady of illiterate citizenship in that State.
An act
known as the "Lockwood law" authorizes the establishment of in-
stitutes in the normal schools and in cities for the purpose of train-
ing teachers to give instruction to adult illiterates. A second act.
the " Rotinson law," requires attendance at either day or evening
school of all persons between 16 and 21 years of age who do not pos-
sess such ability to speak and write the English language as is re-
quired for completing the work of th,fifth grade of the elementary
school. A third act requires the maintenance of evening schools in
cities of the first, second, and third classes, and in union free school
districts under certain prescribed conditions.
The legislature of
ArizOna, at a special session in 1918, provided for "night schools"
in districts "where there are 15 or more persons over 16 years of
age who either do not read and write the English language, or who
do not speak the English language."
State aid is granted. for the
support of the schools provided for in the Arizona act. A MiSsis-
sippi act of the same year authorizes any school district to levy a
local tax for the purpose of maintaining evening or part-time schools
for "persons in need of such instruction.'
Reverting to the legislation of 1917, one finds that' in that year
at least a.dozen States enacted laws affecting evening schools.
Colo-
tad° authorized the establishment of public day and continuation
schools, part-time schools, and evening classes for instruction in the
arts and practices of trades and vocations, and empowered the State
board of education to expend State fund's therefor. Under the pro-
visions. of an Iowa act any school district may establish evening
schools for persons over 16 years of age, and is required to establish
such a school whenever 10 or. more persons entitled to attend desire
instruction therein in the common btanches. Laws of California,
Minnesota, and Tennessee provided, respectively, for both day and
evening classes for persons over 14 years'of age, for evening schools
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
521
for persons over 16, and for "night schools" for persons over 15.
Nevada and North Dakota provided generally for evening schools.
An act of New Mexico authorizes the directors of any school district
in which there are 10 or more illiterate or semi-illiterate persons to
employ the day-school teacher to give such,pemons instruction in
the evenings.
New Jersey now.provides for the proportionate pay-
ment of State funds for evening schools for foreign-born residents
when the Aggregate to which such schools are entitled exceeds the
State appropriation.
The new law of South Carolina permits per-
sons over 21 sears of age to attend "public night schools."
West.
Virginia authorizes the establishment of evening schools for per-
sons over the compulsory-attendance age.
Wisconsin increased to
three-fourths mill the tax that may be levied in cities, for industrial
and continuation schools.
From these laws at least one significant
fact emerges: The older evening school conducted generally as an
opportunity school " for youth is now more extended in scope and
function so as to include instruction for adults who are in need of
further education and civic adjustment.
COM NUN ITY ORGANIZATION IN SCHOOLIIOUSF28.
The propaganda for the "wider use of the school plant" is now
more than a decade old, the social and recreation centers of Rochester,
N. Y., having attracted wide attenttm as early as 1907, but the con -
ception of this " wider use " has now grown broader. "The ultimate
unit in every State, Territory, and possession of the United States
is the school district.
Every school district should therefore be a
little democracy, and the schoolhouse should be the community
capitol," says Dr. P. P. Claxton.'
From this statement one gets the
idea that every community is entitled to constitute itself a lisle
democracy, centering in meetings at the schoolhouse, and conducting
such legitimate neighborhood activities as it may deem proper, and
without doubt this is the trend of prgent-day thought do the sub-
ject.
In 1917:not fewer than 14 §tates made provision in one th»
oe another for the use of the schoolhouse as a center of community
activities other than the ordinary instruction given to pupils in the
day schools.
,
Laws permitting local school authorities to open schoolhduses for
recreational-and other community purposes were enacted in 1917 in
Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Utah. In these
laws the use of the schoolhouse for such purposes is left to the
discretion of the school board; that is to say, the board is the final
authority in determining whether the school plant shall be so used.
Many of the-Mends of the' community - center movement would have
.laws drawn in stronger form. They would have them require the
U. B. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1018, No. 11, p. 5.
522
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF TIMIJCATION, 1916-1918.
school board to open the schoolhouse for community activities when
requested so to do by a sufficient number of citizens. 'several laws,
enacted in .1917 were framed in accordance with this view. -Thus,'
the Legislature of New Jersey changed from permissive to manda-
tory the law of that State.
The district or city board of educa-
tion there is now required, "subject to reasonable regulations to
be adopted by said board or upon notification by the commissioner
of edUcation," to permit the use of the schoolhouse for community
purposes.
In New York, on petition of 25 citizens of any school
district or city, the district board of trustees or city board of edu-
cation is now required to organize and condirct community centers
and civic forums and to provide funds for their support.
Ohio
likewise requires school boards to permit such use of school property.
An important feature of a. well-organized community center lA
the provision for-a "community secretary," or executive offi er of
the community organization.
This office, which has already ap-
peared in practice, is now appearing in laWs oti the subject.
An
example is found in chapter 86 of the New Hampshire Acts of 1911.
This law authorizes cities and .towns to equip-and operate play-
grounds and recreation centers and to employ "such play leaders,
playground instructors, supervisors, recreation secretary, or superin-
tendent and other officials as it deems best."
The school hoard. may
be given charge of such activities, in which case schoolhouses may be
used to carry out the purposes of the act.
The act of Congress riiaking appropriations for the expenses of
the government of the District of Columbia for the fiscal year ended
June 80, 1918, provided "for the payment of necessary expenses
connected with the organization and conducting of community
forums and civic centers in- school buildings, including
payment of janitor service, secretaries, touchers, and organizers,
$5,000."
This provision was continued in the appropria-
tion act for the current year.
A North Carolina enactment of 1917 makes it the duty of the
State superintendent of public instruction to provide a series of en-
tertainments, varying in character and cost and consisting of motion
pictures, to be given in rural 'schoolhouses.
One-third of the cost of
these entertainments is to be borne by the State, and the other two-
thirds must be provided by the county board of education or the
rural school community. An annual State appropriation of $25,000
is made by this act. An act of the South Dakota Legislature author-
izes school districts to levy taxes for community-center purposes, and
a Texas act permits the.use of school buildings for holding elections.
In 1918 Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Maryland made further
provision for the comunity use of the school plant. The first two of
these authorized the use of schoolhouses as p- jling places. Maryland
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
52.8
provided for community meetings and authorized the State superin-
tendent to arrange for pictorial instruction in the schools.
N.
TExreooffs.
Textbook laws passed within the past two years present no espe-
cially distinctive features.
Free textbooks and State uniformity have
been subjects of legislation for a number of years, and the enactments
of 1917 and 1918 followed the older lines.
Montana, which prior to
1917 had a law permitting school districts to furnish books free of cost
to public-school pupils, amended its law in that year so as to require
that books be so furnished. Florida authorized the provision of free
textbooks in two of its more important counties. With regard to uni-
formity of textbooks, one important law was enactedArkansas.,
(act 112) changed its system from county uniformity to State uni-
formity.
A phase of textbook regulation which has received considerable
attention in recent years is the requirement that any person, firm, or
corporation offering books for sale or exchange in the Ste
ust file
in the office of the State superintendent samples of sue
ks and
lists of prices at which they shall be sold. Thirteen StatesGeorgia,
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, MinDesota, Mississippi, Missouri,
Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, Wisconsih, and Wyomingnow make
such requirement, Illinois and Wisconsin having enacted laws to that
end iti 1917. In Georgia, Indiana, and Mississippi the requirement
applies to books not subject to the uniform-textbook laws. States which
do not belong eitherto this group of so-called "filing States" or in
the list of those providing for State or county uniformity are Colo-
rado. Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jer-
sey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rliode Island, and Vermont.
LIBRARIES.
Some months ago a study of State laws relating to libraries was
made in the Bureau of Education, and h summary Of those in force
January 1, 1918, was prepared. This summary disclosed the follow-
ing facts respecting State provision of library facilities:
Number having State libraries
48
.Number having State commissions for the promotion of libraries
84
Number having State traveling libraries
83
Number having State legislative reference bureaus
80
Number having State historical commissions (official)
22
State aid to State historical societies
Number providing by law for county libraries
°)t
Number providing for county traveling libraries__
18
Number providing for local public libraries_
48
Number prodding for public school libraries
.48
State aid to public
.
11
State aid to school libreries-
-4
524
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Of the items enumerated in this table perhaps the most prominent
in the library legislation of recent years are the provisions for legis-
lative reterence bureaus, county libraries, and school libraries. It
will be observed that, 30 States now make provision for legislative
reference bureaus, whose essential function is to make comparative
studies N legislation. This is a wholesome sign, for it shows a trend
Away from the older haphazard manner of enacting laws and toward
the practice of framing new legislation in the light of the experience
of other States.
In 1917 seven StatesIndiana, Michigan. North Carolina, Penn-
. sylvania. South Dakota, Texas, and West Virginiaauthorized the
establishment and maintenance of county public libraries.
Whether
this forecasts an extension of the county-library system to all parts'
of the country not already supplied with local community libraries
can not now be determined, but it unquestionably shows a very strong
present -tendency to provide library facilities in this way. The
county system would seem a thoroughly feasible system for rural.
sections of the country. A county library located at the county seat,
haviiig branches at other centers of populaticii, and sending out .
traveling collections to every schoolhouse as a distributing station.
can be made to serve every community in the county.
School li-
braries, for which -4S States have made legal provision, have been
widely extended in recent years, and rightly so. but, the county library
can be made to correlate and largely increase the reading facilities of
the people.
II IOU ER EDUCATION.
Perhaps the most important recent legislation affecting institu-
tions of higher learning is that which regulates the finances or sys-
tems of support of State colleges and universities. In the matter of
general maintenance and current expenses, there is a tendency both
to increase the amounts allowed and to stabilize support by provid-
ing for tax levies to replace the older practice of making statutory
appropriations.
Increases in appropriations and tax levies as well
were allowed within the last two years in several States. Colorado in
1917 provided for the State university a levy of eight one hundredths
of a mill in addition to the tax already authorized for that institution,
and increased to the extent of three-tenths of a mill the tax for the
construction and equipment of buildings for all of its Institutions of
higher learning. The Kansas Legislature of the same year proposed
an amendment to the State constitution designed ttS authorize the
legislature to fix 's tax rate for the support of the State educational
institutions. The Legislature of Washington fixed the levy for the
univagsity of that State at seventy-four one-hundredth); of a mill. For
EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.
525
the biennium ending June 30, 1919, Illinois appropriates $4,800,000
to its university, and the fund for the maintenance of the University
of California is allowed to increase until the fiscal. year 1920 at a
rate sufficient to make for each year a sum equal to 107 per cent of the
sum for the preceding year.
Provision of funds for buildings and kindred outlays for higher
. institutions was likewise prominent in the legislation of 1917.
In
some rases, these funds were provided by bond issues, and in others
.
by tax levies.
North Carolina and Tennessee chose the former means.
In North Carolina an issue not to exceed $3,000,000 in amount was
authorized for the permanent enlargement and improvement of the
State's educational and charitable institutions, and in Tennessee an
issue of $1,000,000 was allowed for the university.
Wyoming pro-
vided,- for the purpose of permanent buildings and improvements at
its university, a State-tax of one-eighth of a mill in addition to other
taxes and appropriations.
The tendency to extend to a wider clientqle the benefits of State
institutions of higher learning is present in the legislative enactments
considered here, as it has been in those of some former years.
This
extension usually takes the form either of scholarships or of provi-
sion of free tuition for the residents of the State. A New Hampshire
act of 1917 appropriates $15,000 annually to Dartmouth College. and
directs that out of this amount 10 scholarships be provided for resi-
dents of the State. A Virigina act of 1918 provides 119 scholar-
shipsone from each of the school divisions of the Stateat the
University of Virginia. These entitle their holders "to tuition in
the college, room rent, light, heat, and attendance free of charge:
Where there is more than one applicant in a school division, the
beneficiary is to be selected by competitive examination.
If the
holder of a scholarship remains at the university two years or more,
he must after leaving devote two school years to service asan admin-
istrative officer or leacher in the school system. A new Wisconsin
law (1917) 'provides free tuition at the university for students whose
parents have resided in the State one year or more: and a Montana
act authorizes refunds of traveling expenses, less $5, of students in
the institutions of the university who are residents of the State.
The administration or control of State higher institutions was
the subject of legislation in a few States in 1917 and 1918. Arizona
created a commission of three members to devote their entire time
to the general control of the State charitable, penal, and reformatory
institutions and to the supervisiOn of the finances of the university,
normal schools, Pioneer Historical Society, State library, and legis-
lative reference library.
Nevada amended its law so as to recon-
stitute the board of regents of the university; this board now con-
sists of five members, elected by vote of the peOple. North Carolina
526
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
increased from 81 to 101 the number of trustees of the university of
that State.
In 1915 Massachusetts providedfor a department of university
extension under the control of the State board of education.
The
State appropriation for this purpose for the fiscal year 1918 was
$90,000. An act of the Legislature of Wisconsin illossed in 1917 au-
thorized the regents of the State, university to establish and main-
tain a training school for public service.
The State of Washington in 1917 (ch. 10) sought to correlate as
far as practicable the courses of instruction offered in its higher
institutions and to eliminate unnecessary duplication of work. This
act prescribes the " exclusive major lines " which the courses at the
university shall embrace, and like provision is made with regard to
the State agricultural college.
Courses permitted in either or both
institutions are likewise outlined in the act.
Courses in the State
normal schools are to be prescribed by the State board of education,
but within the limits indicated in the law. A " joint board of higher
curric
" composed of nine members.is charged with the duty of
n
ing matters of efficiency and economy in the administration
of the
regoing institutions."
CHAPTER XX.
LIBRARY ACTIVITIES, 1916-1918.
By JOHN D. WOLCOTT,
S
Oh 4of of Library Division, Bureau of Education.
CONTENTS The libraries and the war.War service of the American Library Atisocla-
Lion American Library Association conference, 1918.The libraries and ri construction.
Rural library extension: State work. Rural library extension : County and township
plans.Library surreys. liigb- scbooi librarlea.
THE LIBRARIES AND THE WAR.
Upon the outbreak of the war between the United States and Ger-
many in Aprii, 1917, the librarians of the country, whether of pub-
lic, society, or school libraries, straightway proceeded to consider
how they might best serve the Nation in the crisis which was at
hand and placed their resources unreservedly at the disposal of the
Government. The outcome was the cooperation.of practically every
American library to a greater or less extent in a program of war
service which may be outlined under the following heads: As agen-
cies of war publicity for the Government; work in behalf of food
conservation; cooperation
in liberty-loan and war-saving cam-
paigns; aid to the Red Cross, Young Men's Christian Association,
and other agencies of war relief; Americanization of aliens; and
providing library facilities for soldiers, The last-named service was
rendered directly by libraries situated adjacent to camps, hospitals,
and stations, and in general by the cooperation of practically all
librarians in the corporate war work of their professional organiza-
tion, the American Library Association. It was also recognized that
an important function of the library in war time is to uphold the
spirits of the people by supplying literature clearly presenting
American ideals, and also expressing the great universal principles
which serve for encouragement in sacrifice and consolation in be-
reavement.
In addition, the general educational facilities of the
public library serve in both war and peace to raise the standard of
efficiency of the people to meet their practical responsibilities.
The war affected the budget`of the libraries in two wayski
diminishing their income, because of decreased appropriations, etc.,
and by reducing the -purchasing power of the incomes actually re-
ceived. The inroads made on library staffs by war conditions also
527
628.
BIBMNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
rendered the problem of service pressing, and the mounting cost of
living makes increased salaries for library workers more and more
imperative.
The libraries, 'in common with other institutions, con-
sequently labor under serious economic difficulties, which have obliged
many libraries to curtail their usual activities.
Some communities
even proposed to close their public libraries during the war, but
against this course reasons similar to those advising the continuance
of school and college sessions in war time usually prevailed.
WAR SERVICE OF THE AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION.
At the Louisville conference of the American Library Association,
in June, 1917, a war-service committee was constituted, in accord-
ance with a recommendation presented in the report of a preliminary
war-work committee appointed soon after the entrance of the United
States into the contest. The war-service committee was empowere
to devise methods by which the association might aid in providii
reading matter for the soldiers and to solicit funds for the erection
and equipment of camp libraries.
A few weeks thereafter the commission on training-camp activities
of the War Department requested the American Library Association
to assume responsibility for providing adequate library facilities in
the cantonments and National Quard training camps soon to be
opened.
The acceptance of the invitation from the commission
placed the war-service committee in direct official relations to the
Government through the War Department. The committee began
work at once collecting books and making plans and arrangements,
basing its operOione at first on volunteer service and.. on a small
fund contributed' by members of the American Library Association.
While awaiting the erection of camp library buildings the books
available were distributed through the Young Men's Christian Asso-
ciation and similar agencies..
During the last week of September, 1917, a national 5.` million-
dollar drive" for funds was held, which succeeded in raising ap-
proximately $1,750,000.
In the campaign for this fund the war-
service committee was assisted by a library war committee composed
of nationally known citizens appointed by the Secretary of War.
Further provision for the work was made by a grant of $320,000
from the Carnegie Corporation, to be used for erection of camp
library buildings, at a maximum cost of $10,000 for each building.
The.raising of the funds made it possible by October 1, 1917, to
unify the work in a single office, under a skilled, executive with a°
paid office staff, and to proceed with an extensive program of activi-
ties. Headquarters for the war-service committee were established
in the Library of Congress; at Washington, and Herbert Putnam,
.
LIBRARY ACTIVITIES.
629
Librarian of Congress. was made general director. This centraliza-
tion has resulted in a great impetus for the work. For the shipment
of books for overseas service, dispatch offices were established at the
principal ports of embarkation, each office being provided with a
suitable stock of books and facilities for sorting, casing, and delivery. (
Librarians were appointed for the camps, generally from youninen
of experience in library work.
By the spring of 1918 a larger sulrply
of gift books became necessary, and accordingly in April an intensive
campaign was undertaken to secure them. This campaign resulted
in the immediate collection of more than 8,000,000 volumes, most of
them suitable for use.
At the end of 1918 there were in the United States separate library
buildings in 47 large camps. each housing 30,000 or more volumes,
and gich serving as a centrIll depot fo; distribution of books to sta-
tions of various sorts throughout the camps. These agencies served,
when the camps were full, more than 1,500,000 men. In addition to
these, 270 smaller camps and posts, 151 naval, and 40 Marine Corps
stations. 54 aviatioxi fiefs, and 60 Students Army Training Corps
units were supplied widi books.
Numer.,us branches and stations were established in the huts, can-
teens, clubrooms, and hostess houses of the other six organizations
cooperating in war-welfare work, and in other Army and Navy quar-
ters; besides many hospitals and Red Cross convalescent houses were
supplied with books, and in most cases also 'with personal service.
More than 300 vessels were furnished with libraries, cm(' a deck
library was provided for every transport passing between America
and Europe.
gifWDecember 34_1918, 3,854,729 volumes had been collected as
from the American people and placed in circulation, and
1,722,000 additional books, mainly technical, historical, sociological,
and military, had been purchased.
It has been necessary to buy
very little fiction, the supply donated being sufficient.
More than
5,000,000 magazines donated by the public through the Post Office
Department under the 1-cent mailing privilege were distributed both
in this country and abroad.
The association sent overseas 1,337,259
books, a number llinited only by the War Department's restriction of
transportation to 50 tons of books per month. The American Li-
brary Association maintains a central book collection and a public
reading room in Paris. A staff of nearly 300 persons was employed
in the 47 camp libraries in the United States, at the headquarters of
the Library War Service in Washington, and in France, while more
than 400 American librarians cooperated to some extent in the work
during the 15 months beginning with October, 1917.
171029°-21Bu11. 88---84
58Q.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The total expenditures of the Library Wer Service up to Decem-
ber 81, 1918, for buildings and equipment, books, service and subsist-
ence, supplies and general eqpipment, travel, freight, and miscel-
laneous were $1,768,143,22..
In addition to the $1,750,000 proceeds to the American- Library
Association from publio subscription in September, 1917, the War
Department approied its budget in the sum of $3,500,000 as part of
the total sum raised in the United War Work Campaign of Novem-
ber, 1918. This fund is to be used for continuance of the work at
home, but more particularly for work in Europe during demobiliza-
tion, including an extensive book service in connection with the War
Department's educational program for the American soldiers re-
maining in France.
The American Library Association has prepared a number of brief
and attractive reading lists on various subjects for circulation among
the soldiers. Some of these reading lists have been prepared by the
association in cooperation with the Bureau of Education.
AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION CONFERENCE, 1918.
The fortieth annual meeting of the American Library Association
at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 1-6, 1918, with about 600 in attend-
ance, largely leaders in the profession, was especially a war gather-
ing. A conspicuous feature of-the meeting was a numerous group of
librarians in service uniform from camp, hospital, and dispatch
service. Four round tables for camp librarians were held, at which
their problem's were tttoroughly discussed. The exhibits displayed
also related to war activities, such as camp libraries and the library's
pirt in :Stimulating food conservation.
The following titles of a
numbet`"Of important' general papers by prominent librarians will
idea of the character of the program : What each of the fol.
loWing ig doing to help 'Win ,the warThe city library ; the library
cOniinikriou; the county 'and rural library; the State library ; the
wifieriity library.
atc,i
THE LIBRARIES AND RECONSTRUCTION.
e n
libraries;
A merica recognize th eir particular duty as
e rational institutions to assist in the work of reconstruction follow-
LI"' it) Wirt and are already setting themselves energetically to this
ill war tinote, so also during peace the library into continue
geney tqF cOnveyinglItafprnrAtion frOni the 444vernment to
;mop e, thus helping to,koriltiS two in touch with each other,
'Ti. *inferno of Aeslimericial.thirsey Association st Milan Pock. N. .1%., to Julie.
1619. lave (special atteatlon to the problems of thatltmal rsconstrtetlya as related to the
lade*.
LIBRARY ACTIVITIES.
581
On various occasions the Government will have messages on matters
affecting the oommon welfare, which the public library will share
in circulating:
During the period of reconstruction the public library will continue
to provide literature clearly and truly presenting American ideals
for the guidance and inspiration of the citizens. The library must
further supply from every possible source accurate information on
the important questions of public policy now pressing for solution,
so that the people may have the material on which to base intelli-
gent decisions regarding them.
These questions relate, for exanple,
to the problems of railroad administration, of labor conditions, and
of the high cost of living. Now that America hat become a world
power, there are also subjects connected with international relations
to be considered, such as the league of nations, the Monroe doc-
trine, etc.
.The public libraries may be relied on to continue,their cooperation
in the movements to inculcate habits of thrift in the young and for
child conservation in connection with the Children's Bureau and siini-
lur agencies.
It is likely also that the work for food conservation
will require continuance for some time after the conclusion of
peace.
The American soldiers have become accustomed to excellent library
facilitiesboth in the camps in the United States and while on over-
seas duty, and it is believed that in most cases the men-have -perma-
nently acquired the library habit. On their return to civil life
they should find service from the public library equal in quality to-
that which they received from their camp libraries. The librarians
of public libraries are already, taking measures to have something
worth while to offer to the returning soldiers. 'In many cases, they
are mailing personal notices to the boys as they return home, cor-
dially inviting ,them to the public library and stating its ad-
vantages.
The American Library Association is issuing reading ,lists for ex-
soldiers on varioul sub/bets, vocational and other,
Some of these
are reading courses prepared in collaboration. -with the Home Edu-
cation Division of the Bureau of Education, and for their successful
completion a certificate signed by the Commissioner of F4ucation
is awarded. The former soldiers are advised to obtain the books for
these courses from their public libraries, and the libraries will doubt-
less take care to have Like requiredhooke availible,for readers. In
some places a special room in the public library building can be
1---
provil.ed as a meeting plade for returned soldiers.,
'Thetbraiies also in mit4'c
x-tuultrio' 'ass' ist in the
rehathitatien of ai4W421i611Aleig`
Ail
iyif
tare; by guidinee,
'
"'
v
on o
,1
tit
!flee.
it 4s, it
582
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
. The influence of the war has given, an impetus to Americanization
work, designed to weld together. the diverse elements of our popula-
tion into a single unified nationality. The public libraries aid State
ek
library commissions had rendered effective assistance in t l s work
for a long time previous to the war, and should devote ev
greater
attentioil to it during the reconstruction period. The proper (prepara-
tion of new citizens is a very important service to the country from
any agency. There must be no relaxation of effart in any quarter,
until all the citizens have a knowledge of American institutions a01
are able to read, write, and speak the English language.
RURAL LIBRARY EXTENSIONSTATE WORK.
In library extension the State has.a part to perform which can not
as yet be left to the smaller units of library administrationcounty,
township, and city. In sparsely settled districts which are unable to
maintain their own public libraries or to obtain service from neigh-
boring libraries the State must supply books by Means of traveling,
. libraries sent out from State headquarters. The State must also NI.-
nish the stimulus and leadership which will push to successful com-
pletion campaigns to establish public libraries in new territory, and
the State's field workers are then ready Jo assist in organizing and
starting the newly-established libraries.
The State central age
y
with its prestige and authority, must back up the library moveifilit
everywhere, and see that nb part of the State is left without adequate
book service of some kind. When a coniplete system of local libraries
has been established the State library -should stand ready to supply
unusual Or expensive books to any local library desiring them for its
patrons.
It is the State library's duty to supplement in this way the
resources of each local library, as is done in California, for example.
The laws of 38 States now authorize the formation and use of State
traveling libraries.
Espeoiskly effective work with traveling fibre.;
ries was done during the past two years by the following States:.
Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Ne-
braska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North and South;
Dakota, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. \
The number ot§tates now havi7 'State library commisions or
their,equivalent is 86.
RURAL LIBRARY EXTENSION -- COUNTY AND TOWNSHIP PLANS.
During the two years covered by this survey, the extension of
lib
facilities to dwellers in rural communities on, the basis of
County as a unit continued to make progreas in the varim,States
iri;inch had already adopted this system. In addition laws Oing
LIBRARY ACTIVITIES.
533
.
State-wide recognition to the couhty library were for the first time
enacted in 1917 by the legislaftres of Indiana, Mithigan, North Caro-
lina, Pennsylvania, and South Dakota.
The following 22 States now have general laws providing for
county libraries:
California, Indiana, Iowa (by contract), Ken-
tucky (by contract), Louisiana ( for paris
libraries), Maryland,
Michigan, Minnesota (by contract), Missou
(by contract), Mon-
tana, Nebraska, New York (by contract), North Carolina (by con-
tract), Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania. South Carolina, South Dakota,
Texas, West Virginia, WisConsin, Wyoming.
,
The township as well as the county is actively employed as a
unit of library extension in-the States of the Middle West and in
Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska. The township unit along with coun-
ties and municipal corporations is also recognized by South Caro-
lina in its public library act of 1915, and is included-in the Pennsyl-
vania library act of 1917, together with counties, cities, boroughs,
and 'towns.
Unfavorable conditions due to the war everjrvihere ietarded the
rate of library progictiss during 101t-18; nevertheless in general a
substantial advance was made.
With the conclusion of peace li-
brary extension is certain to be greatly accelerated.
.
The county library system of California continues to hold the
lead in develoi.inent for the entire country.
On July 1, 1918,42 coun-
ties out of a total of 58 in California had taken the necessary legal
steps for establishing county libraries, and 88 of these libraries were
in successful operation.
The annual maintenance fund of the 38
libraries amounted to $539,458:64. They contained a total of 946,856
,volumes, had 2,890 branches, and served 1,549 school districts.
, A county library biJ1 which was introduced in the Illinois Legisla-
ture in 1917 failed of passage.
Plans were immediately made to
continue the campaign for county libraries. by presenting a similar
measure to the following session uf the legislature in 1919.1
During 1915-16 five new township libraries fwereestablished in
Illinois, making a total of 38 in the State.
Before September 1 of that year four
--Swi
land, Union,
lia
Indiana's new county library law
effect
y
went into e
1, 191'.
counties
Scott, and Jennings---had taken steps to organize libraries under the
law. A year later the libraries of Switzerland and Union Counties .
were reported as making fine progress. Scott end Jeanings Countiei
were delayed by, small appropriations, but were expected to ,open
their libraries soon. During 1918 Cass County was the only one to
organize under the county library act. Other counties seem' to have
.
A (*fluty libtar, law for 1111nOla was enacted 07 the 1919 IngLiatare and went late
erect.July 1, 1919.
4,
,-31X11391,AL SL, MY OP !=l7CATtON, 1916-1914.
.
.
beindatiernid-franilitrrarylirganisatiOn by theiiriai*t'brin*reitsed
tanttitia4fihiCirisse ;especially burdensome thiring''the 4Witt:1 7",
.The township basis of library' organisation is' extensively eniiileysti
i''ha State. now :has 166,townshtmlktiiiiitigiibrirr tiers-
*tinder thaact of 1911isid 40 more servedinaler thabhuitty library
ACE .0. 017. !sii4us ittidditional terrashipi voted Suppcirt; tai iitp'
Ifintrinivirosturkfori Hiner'''. service:, '.tenlY 'a ifew:whiel) had &A
prerioniliinirred) diem:Waite& theirtirrangeinenta for' this' Serrite
during*year.;::IiL;u;')
,
Since 1913 Iowa has a isi,proiidinedthat'i
Sehoot
eorpoeationi orgcottatk way .ccsittiset with aviblic library near atihind
hir the ire /use
sanity hes yet eontracted' for library
sarlicanadfkr this law, hatleibrerfes now StIliply their hhohs to theli
yesplibtiv townaliipa in !stuns: for: grants frout lie public funds of
thssetaiati:
;
.;
;
a' report 'to the 'fittylitid Public Libre* 'Commis'nob' for the
period March 1 to November 1, 1917, the field secretary of the.Ctini-
,,
mission; states that in-14 countieir vititod 'clutinethess Sightionths
she found "eight *Say libratiii:ind raiding Tennis which nerve their
rii3pective countia4 three 'Of theii have separitechatildings end' two
receiire assistance from tssa".!.. This is uxclasi+Arof the WaShington
Canneyiltst library at liartibtilini.and'ilie Fredatirk County free
library at FredeiibkOshich atebathin scdve operation:
1' c
It `was reported
9911, thateiit ota total df 1$52
*he State of. Michigan-14 "e* rsiiiitainirit libraries; 1: deCriase of
?$ frelin Itia)praceding year
l'hatrholenitrobtr'eflultnnes
theae
librarlataiwits 156,00 added duiltYier; ttilt vol atiles t' total 'tunnel(
incomes0hAvissliipO'brarieis,f2949111.
noughthii
Odloty)v4ettilii aYlnual librriiry tiii00100b:
d
.1
4 ) !Tile, new tMielOgan i County libiirrhwirip,*pitriyttid
She
d
claim in April, 1917i;
I".
1-1rov
'
..1
Thera, siti hitiw :hint l tAtittli lilitaiiee in blifineintatiperating ph the
.101iin? whe?eby the'eotiiity cottuntailidlistenitikili tan''annual
a
topriation to the library sin Atwell for 11444e.:'71iiii
104fi1 itY,. Hennephis Itmes.,) Meeks y' O
i Ihtinast 1504e4
antilhallsington, The apptuPtiationinial rtideitt&
ens
Adiattirltasos, antillietlaOottatieS,'eia*ilesailiitrtAiiiti
sysea 4erithig'froni Mitatelipaii ha* biailistoieroa.
181114aticiiiii
The ability
011.015141'6m
idhiiidd;btd(
wine? fltultbitt "of paiViiitrofit1441kitititiiid0416ottitttlyiklit
books 'frau the form*, tnuntyltiiii*ts Tio Rau*:
Cciiityt has teen' added
list Atkin* librit4114PtittCe the hat'
resort: Here OS .7 We Pear ,library 8*** pm4,poirt4 of the
Col*y.
I
,
,g131-4!11 , ainniwroaart7nrs. Ott
While in Ifinnebots only blinw libraries hairociteetleriOstonskof
county' aerVice many others have extended their Aim, toiriunaitor.
rowers..; For maniple; the Orionville !publiwlibrary circulates 'books
among the inhabitants tof 'Big Stone County,' and even, ItillaetU the
State line in the neighboring section of South Dakot&
c';
.p!
committee of thelifinnesoti,Libenry Ainociation -was .appointed
in 1918 to endeavor ie obteizt .froin: the 1919flegisiaturviench revision
Of the couritylibisry.la*: as *mid make county hi:warier more sctivi
and-perinanent
deviziopment of strong county organizations for
war 'work 411 oontederediatinid -basis for this ;Movement' ;
,
Two Minnesota libraries have contracts' for service With adjoirtinile
townaltips.': Grateviile !public librirry receives annually 4100 from
-
the township and has 218 borrowers outside the village. Ribbing
public library is under tontract* service to the tOePtlehiP.Of Btuntz.
number. of places in' Minnesota whoa xtridliPablio libraries
hive 'been tombined: by authority' ef thel3tetchigiostioaVbolird.
&hoot librarieivare ;60040 the public; in' eight itiastiltiett
--(
' ;The Montanwilounty library( law Waiinattied:
aid/aided
at the legislative isention; of 1917. The amended. act prOvidei . that
the petitionYfOr the establishment of a county free library 'than be
signed by not less than 20 per cent of the resident tarpayit ofi
coidtti 11ted of'90" per -cent of the qualified voter,' as prOvitinaly-
alloWed.
'prolirisions of the revled law intrease Abe ,ptarite
Of the 'cotitity librarian' for the otglinisatibn .and'sdrninisttlitIWO'f'
the 'library: '
'
;
iftleveril 'cOnntite bfl4Oittine have slrea(1Y aVeheit' therristaVet 'Of
the provisions Of at net With very beneficial' .resillte bottiltthe
eoniznintitits mid -their' *Molt. The cdtinty telhhlieekefettf f
f011ii*itig"-tinutitibe Irientitly ;established
libriitistuir Big Born; Milne, (lhotitesti -(18- bra14hei); Mileietdie'(111
brinehes),' Phillip"- (9 branches)
"
.
;
t
The Nebreniti WW atithiniselitthntotty'cowlifilltif lir, tatlilielibard
of initiate Of any ineerperstid 'Mgt, 'thet'toottiity *fata
&WO; and the eleettiii of any township' tO totiiblish a frptibl
Mirery; or s. contrite fiejthe' use of one, and to let), a tar
jrvidC
the neceitsery fundsi'l tint of
total Of 108 tax-supported libraries
hi the" Stitt' hu:1018; .1li4ere tOwnship ' librariee, 4 of Which were
titablished .definei;1011t4fl. Tlitirinirtre no county
Vie
&it& .
:
In North Cirolina there 'are new sii libraries which sertheir
rove counties and receive in return funds froth'.
GOOd Will Ir LibMit Ledger, Mitchell Count*; 'public
library of Salisbury, ROAlititiOenty";- Ohne 'library f ltiehingtoti,
kfeaufort County; public library and colored public library of Ditr
0),
ham, Dutaa, County; public library of Greensboro, 'Guilford
5Bff
BIENNIAL SMUT; Oi
laN, 1916-1918.
County.. 1111917 the legislature 'enacted a law authoriling the
of ectinty, commissioners and the oat:ay:board of education of.:eoy
ettunty.toixtoPerate with the trudges of a pub*, library in airy oity
or-town-in extending the service of such library W rural oommunities.
In Ohio there are eight
ht county libraries organized under general
inactuieett, located.. in Erie Greene, Paulding; 'Portage; Richland,
:f
Ross,. Valk. Wert4; and Wood Counties.
In 'addition,, there are the
Hamilton :County library, at ,Cincinnati, established under a special
latvoust,thef Birchard.library, an endowed institution at Fremont,
which is freato the. inhabitants of Sandusky County. Ohio also has
API Aftwitabitt ilibraries.
".
itiatcounty library,law passed by the Ohio Legislature in 1917 was
vetoed by the governor.
.
.
:.Sootb:Carolina bast ant act of 1915 which authorizes any. coUnty,
toWnship,.Ormusicipal corporation in the State to acquire, own, or
Operateie)hbrirl:or. libraries,_ and to levy a: tax ,of not exceeding
2 mills on theldelloi 400 the support ,or acqUisitiou of the Sante. At
its- 1915 aeseklit.the:South Carolini:Logislature also passed -tut Act.
establishing, puhlio library at ;Beaufort for the people of tie tQWW
ineorporating the. Instate of: the, Beaufort: Township
Dublin; LibreT
A.
.
.
county, freelibrary hill passed the Legislature .,of South Dakota
by a unanimous vote at its 1917 session. Thiiaction shows gratify-
Off.. ~$5.
the,gKoWth of the library ideas/A the ,,Mate, coming
only four years after the establishment of the South Daltota:Frse
Library Ceinmissien,; With .the close of. the war a.merked develop-
ment of county libraries- in,SolithDaltota is expected..
The TeXas- county library slaw,lenacted in 1915, was amended, by
the Legislature of .1917 in a way to facilitate tha,formation' of
county,. libraries. The amended act. provideatitetritai.its own initiate
five or when petitioned by 100 or more voters of:that part of the
county, affected, a county commissioners' court 64 sow* to the,
voters the question of establishing such library; a raajority vote
to decide. The 'original 84 required a petition by 25 per cent or
more of the qualified Voters, tuid approval by a two-thirds vote for
establishment of a county. library.
, The 1915 law, prescribes an alt..;
nnal tax not to exceed 6.. mills on the $100 valuation of ;property.
iai .the territory affected,tfor the establishment, and
a county library. The amended act allows a county tax of not .tsx-
reeding 5 cenis:on the k100 valuation for,0,1!PPort gt
the
law of 1917, also create* a State board of library etatninere,,to.cour -
to
of. the 'State librarian, libraran;#
oftivorsity. and ::this
oth
members; said board to pass on q a
tions of county li6re,
LIBRARY ACTIVITIES.
The Wisconsin law provides that any public library may, under
such rules and regulations as it deems necessary, open its services to
nonresidents of the city, town, or village in which the library is
situated. Any lihrary board may contract with the board of super:
visors of a county, or with the governing body of a town,:sehool
district, village, or city to loan books singly or in traveling libra-
ries to the inhabitants of the governmental unit with which the
contract is made, and the unit served may in jeturn make an
annual appropriation to the public library rendering the service.
At present, Wisconsin has only three county libraries, described
as follows:
The Antigo PublicLibrary and Lang lo.de County have been in
contract relations since 1909.
The county pays $850 annually to
the general library fund. In 1918 there were in the county iltrlibrary
stations in operation and 382 books were sent to individuals by parcel
post, in addition to the use of the city library by country people.
County borrowers numbered 761.'
Wisconsin also'has one endowed county library, the Mabel Tainter
Memorial Library at Menomonie. The wish of the donors was that
-the benefit's of the library shouldibe as, great to the patrons living
outside the city as to those living' within, and accordingly -the
library circulates its books without _charge throughout the county
. of Dunn, employing automobile service and parcel
post.
The
library now .has 1,179 rural borrowers. County .schools are divided
Into two zones, the more distant teachers being allowed 25 books
on an eight-week charge.
The' extension work of the Milwaukee Public Library in Mil-
waukee County is carried on by contract with the county board
under a law of 1913 which applies only to counties of 150,000 popu-
lation or more. An amendment of 1917 provides for charging back
to each town, village, or city 'in the county its share of the expense.
The contract was based upon an estimated cost of 10 cents for each
book circulated. The circulation in each town, village, and city is
reported quartet* by the library to the county clerk, and the total
amount of money due is paid by him into the library fUnd. Once
year the .county board charges back to each town, village, and
city its protoit'share of this total according to the circulation. By
this plan each district in the county pays for the exact service re-.
ceived by it ftoin the central library.
There' ire' 53 county stations,
many of them in schoolhouses. A special appropriation is made
for automobile service, which is facilitated by a system of good
concrete roads. Frequent visits from the director of extension and
his large -personal ittinaintanee- through the county are strong
factors
the'suocesi of ilie"stiition work. The county people also
use the central library ft*ly.
588
BIENNIAL. B.OBVST OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
It is reported that a' very large and increasing proportion of Wis-
consin public libraries in general are already free to country people,
who are using them to a considerable extent without being taxed for
their maintenance.
Library boards, seem to be coming to realize
that even for a purely material advantageto secure the farmers'
trade for the city merchantsit is worth while to encourage rural
people to visit the city library. The Wisconsin Library Cominis-
sion urges local library boards in general to open the resources of
their libraries to all rural people without charge, and offers them
support in this action.by means of loans of books, traveling libraries,
special groups, etc.
Under existing laws in Wisconsin, two taxing units for rural
public library purposes are possiblethe township and the county.
In the more closely settled .parts of the State, where there are several
cities of about the same size in a. county, with some rivalry between
them, the town seems to be the natural unit.
At least 12 libraries
are now receiving such aid, in amounts varying from $15 to $200
from any one township.
Tlxis aid has been voted for a number of
years in several places, showing that the libraries have rendered
satisfactory, service. Where the interest of a whole county focuses
in one center, a county library iepreferable to other plans.
The Wisconsin County traveling library law provides in brief
thet a county board of supervisors may establish a library board
°Cave members, who shall appoint a supervising librarian at a
salary limited to $50 per year. An appropriation for traveling
library work may be made from the county general fund, not to
exceed $500, for the first year, and not to exceed $200 for any year
thereafter, . The county. may also receive bequests or gifts to be
used for its traveling library' system..
Fourteen %county traveling library systems are now in operation
under separately organized county traveling library boards.
In 11
of these counties the librarian empl4ed to take charge of this work
is the, public librarian at the county seat; in one county, the county
superintendent of schools,;. in the other two, private individuals with
of
in the court house.
The, funds by law allowed,are found in-
adequate Ito do justice to the .wwitt. since the librzoan's. salary is
limited to po, and. the annual expentlitnre for maintehenne, of library
may not exceed $200 after the first year.
At the 1918 meeting of the Wisconsin Library Association a coin
mittee on, county libraries made its reort: and. presented a draft for
a new, county library law. A discussion followed touching the wilt*
subject of, rural extensiogi.
A. committee was, then:authorized by, the
'eeeoeistion to. etuily the subjeCt .further. ;This new conunittee is to
report it the 1919 meeting of, the,Wiscousia Library ASSOCiatiOn
LI BURY' AcriviTtEs.
589
The various itilministrative units Jor library extension were dis-
cussed at the Louisville conference of the American !library Asso-
ciation in 1917 in the following papers: The State as a unit for
library extension, by Minnie W. Leatherman Blanton; The county
as a unit, by Ilarriet C. Long; The libtdry district as a unit, by John
A. Lowe ; The tIwnship as a unit, by Mayme C. Snipes..
These,
papers may be found in the Proceedings of the. American Library
Association for 1917, pages 230-237. The subject was also discussed
by M. S. Dudgeon at the Pasadena conference of the American
Library Association in 1911, in a paper entitled ,Administrative units
in library extensionState, county, township, city, published in the
American Library Association Proceedings, 1911, pages 130-188.
LIBRARY SURVEYS.
During the past few years in the surveys made of the educational
systems of a number of States and cities, a tendency has been mathfest
to give increasing recognition to the library, both school and
public, as an educational factor of importance.
Besides inclusion
of the library as a feature of the general educational surveys, a
survey devoted entirely to the State-supported library activities in.
Washington .has been made by the State library advisory board to
request of the Washingto# State library
and
its report issued as a public document of 134 pages at Olympia in
1917.
This report is a valuable piece of work and is worth careful study
for its treatment of library problems which are typical of other
States besides Washington.
The State library advisory board of Washington was appointed
in 1915 for the purpose of advising the State library 00111M10011
regarding the control of the miscellaneous department of the State
library, the traveling libraries, and the State historical library ;
also to give advice and counsel to all free libraries in the State and
to communities proposing tc establish them. In addition, the ad-.
visory board was required by law to cooperate with advice and
assistance in the performance of certain duties of the library com;
mission and the State librarian, and to report on the desirability of
certain proposed improvements, such as a library organiser, special
publications, archives work, development of interlibrary. loans, eto.
Before offering advice and recommendations on these matters the
advisory board felt it necessary to obtain the fullest possible informa-
tion on which to base its proposals, and censequently undertook a
State-wide survey of existing conditions as regards libraries.
The membership of the advisory board consisted of the State
superintendent of public instruction, of two persons appointed by the
=73
540
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
governor upon. his own initiative, and of two other persons to be
appointed, by the governor, one representing the Washington State
historical society and one representing this State federation of
women's clubs.
John B. Kaiser, librarian of the 'Tacoma public
library, was made president of the board. The State librarian is
ex officio secretary.
For the actual work of the survey the board sought to associate
with itself from within the State specialists on various phases of
library work and educational problems generally.
In addition,
wherever possible, the superintendent or equivalent officer of each
institution to be surveyed was invited to join in the work as a
committee member.
The survey was organized into eight divisions, each in charge of
a special committee, as follows : (1) The State library, (2) library
extension, (3) 'county and rural school work, (4) State educational
institutions, (5). library training, (6) libraries in State charitable,
penal, and reformatory institutions, (7) library work with foreign-
ers, and (8) library legislation.
As a result of its survey, the advisory board found that primarily
the State-supported library activities in Washington need greater
financial support, a greater measure of responsiveness to visible Leeds
and opportunities on the part of the library commission, and an
infusion into the service of workers whose professional ability, per-
sonality, and capacity for leadership will create the desired respon-
siveness in the commission and inspire in the legislature that con-
fidence which deems it a privilege to cooperate.
For greater efficiency in library extension, the advisory board
recommended the employment of a State library organizer and field
worker, and the allowance of money grants to small public or school
libraries distributed in a manner analogous to the New York State
plan. Insistence on at least one year's attendance in a training school
for librarians Was advised as a minimum requirement for all addi-
tions to the technical staff.
Suggestion.was made for a conference of representatives from the
State university, State college, State historical society, State library,
traveling library., and library commission, to devise a cooperative
program of library service, and to consider various problems, in-
chiding tins following: In view of the distance from the traveling
department to eastern Washington, should the State college through
its extension division or library attempt similar service, and should
thi State have a "second State library organizer and field vigils*
stationed at the State college,
7!)
The State is also urged in the report to participate morneffectiyely
through its library. service in the increasingly important work of
Americanization..
LIBRARY ACT/VMES.
541
The board recommended the immediate passage of a county library
law making possible the establishment of county libraries in Wash-
ington.
The board considers ,obviously desirable the consolidation of the
library commission with the advisory board, or the elimination of
both and the transfer of their combined duties to the State board
of education.
The report of a survey of State Higher Educational InStitutions of
North Dakota, made under the direction of the United States Com-
missioner of Education, which was published as Bulletin, 1916, No.
27, of the Bureau of Education, devotes Chapter IX, of 9 pages,
to the State library commission and the activities \within its field.
This chapter outlines the work now being carried on with sugges-
tions for extension and improvement. The survey finds that evi-
dently there is need for considerable increase in the appropriations
for all this library commission work if it is to accomplish for the
State what was originally intended and meet fully the ever-larger
demands made upon it.
After discussing the organization of the State library commission
reference and field work, the survey passes on to the subject of insti-
tution libraries, meaning those of the university, the agricultural
college, and the normal schools. These libraries may, to some extent,
loan their books beyond their walls, but should avoid all effort to
cover the general field of the library commission.
Outside service
should be only secondary, and to a large extent only supplementary
to the work of the library commission, and in this service each insti-
tutional library should have its own definite field. In North Dakota,
under present conditions, extensive courses in library work at more
than one institution are not justified, but there is need for instruction
in the simplest and most elementary principles and practice of library
work for those who have the care of the smaller libraries, and espe-
cially for teachers in the public schools who are responsible for the
selection and care of books in the school libraries. Such instruction
should be provideA at the 'iMiversity and normal schools, and espe-
cially in the sunnig sessions of these schools. In order to secure uni-
formity, these courses should be planned and the work inspected by
the secretary and director of the library commission.
_
The report expresses approval of the very liberal laws in North
Dakota facilitating the establishment and maintenance of city, vil
lage, township, and school libraries.
However, less than 10 per cent
of the people of the State now have easy access to any 'adequate col-
lection of books. To meet fully the needs of the people will require
librarieii larger than can be maintained by the small units of school
.E42"
BIENNIAL SURVEY .O
EDUCATION, 1D16-1918.
distriek village, and township.
It will require the cooperation of,
county and State.
The survey commission recommends that the legislative assembly
of the State be requested to make legal provision whereby count
may establish and maintain libraries, supported by taxes levied on
all the taxable property of the county, managed by trained libra-
rianp, having branches in all the more important towns and villages
of each county, and using the schools as distributing centers.
It
should not be difficult for any of those counties having each a popu-
lation exceeding 10,000, which constitute more than half the total
number of counties in thnState, to provide the funds for a building.
books, and their proper care and ..dministration for- a library of
30,000 volumes. A library of this number of carefully selected books
would be amply sufficient for any county in the State, espeCially if
all the county libraries were supplemented by the State educational
reference library enlarged for this. purpose.
The survey concludes that such a systesr of county libraries *ould
increase in large measure the value and effectiveness of the State's
system of public education. It would be especially helpful to those.
the great majorityof the people of the State, who live in the open
country and in villages and small towns, and most helpful of all to
those living in remote, isolated farm homes. On Sundays, on rainy
and snowy days when little or no work can be dqrie outdoors, and on
long winter eveningsvery long in this northenn latitudemulh
time for reading can be found by children and older people alike in
the rural districts.
The Lost of upk-eeep of the libraries when once
established, will not be large.
The total cost for all the counties
would probably not exceed 6 or 7 per cent of the total annual ex-
penditures for public schools.
Various recent surveys of city schools give attention_ to school
libraries and to the educational work of the public library. Among
these islay,lsts, first mentioned the Public School System of San Fran-
CiSee,
;.a Report to. the San Francisco Board of. Education of a
urvey,niade under the Direction of the United States Commissioner
of Education, ifttblished aajitilletin, 1917, No. 46, of the Bureau of
Education.
,
This survey report states that an examination of the library equip-
Aunt o #,12 represantative grammar schools and elementary schools
of an Francs:too showed, noise of these-schools to be properly sup-
pljed with supplementary readers and other library facilities. Teach-
ers and Ophoois qs,n, got do effective work ur4er these conditions.
A.,
-aPiscsnoe, of posy. for supplying Atieded reference books'
IWALIP;Wie'!. OITP41914 0441 entire eYetemo9f #nh?nie.,ie strongly,
urged by the survey committee (pp. 217-218).
L1BRAR'Ir ACTIVIT711184
1,_ 1
-WI 4
543
The survey committpe also recommended the establishment of a
fuller, more effective cooperation between the schools and the San
Francisco public libraries.
According to the report, the library offi-
cials manifested eagerness to cooperate with the schools.
In the chapter on high schools, the San Francisco report says
.(p. 279) :
In addition to well-equipped laboratories, gymnasium, auditorium, and lunch
room in each high-school building, there should be also a well-equipped library,
in charge of which should be a well-trained librarldn.
Not one of the high
schools at present has either a well-equipped library or a librarian. It Is quite
as necessary that both the library and the librarian be proVIded for In all these
schools as it is that laboratories, gymnasiums, lunch rooms, and auditoriums
and well-equipped teachers shall be provided.
.
The importance of securing the cooperation of the public library
with the schools in the provision of materials relating tdqemmunity
life is brought out in the report ,in the chapter on Civic Educafion
(pp. 863 -364). This should include the publication of bUlletins, or
leaflets, or a journal of some kindrcovering in the course of, time every
phase of the life and growth of the city and State in a form and
language suited to the use of public-school pupils.
All published
materials relating to the city and State should be made available
the library; and more important still, there ahould be special attend-
ants familiar not only with these materials but alio with the course
of study in the schools}, who should have ready at hand the materials
needed by classes as the work developi tlirowhout the term, and who
should directly assist pupils and teachers in the use of this material.
A room in the library building should be set apart for te use pia
pupils in their study of this material relating to the community, a
room where exhibits of pictures and Other illustrative materials should
.
be ondisplay. Tt might be known as ".the San PraticisCo rooin."- 'The
library marillio be the 01.4er ageney fbi the Collection of glides and
Sims MO:Agit of community conditions and activities, -which shOtild
be lent to schools, troCial Centers, paiunts' assoCiations, 'or' local lin-
provement association's' needed. The possibilities in this line are
almost unlimited.
'
The survey report also observes in this chapter en Civic Edueation
that in San Francisco the working relations betWeen the public: libiiry
and the 'echoolchave been dtvelopea' otalir to Otsiy* Slight extent.
T h e l i b r a r y d o e s l it le seem 'to' be in a n y r e a l s e n s e a part' Of the work-
ing equipment'of t h e ' schools, and with few ere.
isnot recog-
niud as such by teaChera. MO& branCh librariet
; ed but more
especially theti)
'neodkt
and
teachers, in ,iogoottl.
tobjettir taught fat
achbols
=civilities relating tothopetobjbotis Mailable hi thirlitial. More
M4
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
definite and systematic provision should also be made for working
collections of books to be lent to schools for short periods of time is
needed.
Individuals and private agencies have opportunity to cooperate
with the schools and the library in the collection of local materials
for community study.
There are many individuals and various
organizations in San Francisco who by coordinated effort could give
impetus to such extension of the usefulness of the public library.
Efforts in this direction should be made in full knowledge of the aims
and methods of the schools, and the schools should have a supervisor
or other representative through whom such cooperation could be
made effective.
In connection with the subject of education of the immigrant, the
report says (p. 564) that a force possessing many latent possibilities
as a factor in Americanization is the public library. At the time of
the survey a magnificent new. building for the public library was
well underway in the civic center, and since then has been completed
and opened. Definite plans for cooperation between the library and
the school were already in operation.
For example, each of the
seven branch librarians had to visit all schools in her library dis-
trict. Twb story-telling hours per week, in charge of branch libra-
rians, were conducted in each branch, one for older and pne for
younger children.
In the survey of the St. Louis public schools, of wl
report
was published in 1917, the section on high schools 1. 'as written by
A. B. Meredith, deputy commissioner of education of New Jersey.
He reports, finding in each school a library under the special super-
vision of a teacher assigned by the principal.
The rooms were
admirably lighted, conveniently located, and fairly well stocked with
books, especially for work in English and history. During the day
different teachers are assigned to library duty, so that at least seven
different teachers a day are administering this department. Natu-
rally,,these teachers are not all experts in library administration,
while the expense of this arrangement is an item of considerable
magnitude. The important consideration is the educational value
which may come to the pupils from expert library service, while
leaving regul4 teachers free to supervise study periods:" A further
question is the value of. it teacher's time in comparison with that of
a librarian.
Without criticizing the service now rendered by the
teachers in charge, it is fair to say that to put trained librarians
in charge of the school libraries 'would add immensely to the effect-
iveness of, this department. A plan of cooperation with the public
library of the city is advised. With one person in charge throughout
Survey of the St. Louis Public Schools, sol. 3. litih'st.hoola. pp. Z3-29.
LIBRARY ACTIVITIES.
545
the day. the library could remain open after school hours and be of
increased usefulness to the pupils.
In most school libraries an absence was noted of books of reference
in the sciences, practical'arts, and mathematics, and also of depart-
mental and general magazines. It would appear that the library as
considered merely as an adjunct to the English and history depart-
ments, and not :as constituting a general' laboratory of research and
study and related to all departments of instruction, which is its true
function.
The report of the school survey of Grand Rapids, Mich. (1916),
brings out the fact that that city enjoys to a highly unusual degree
the- educational cooperative work of the city public library. The
library is governed by a board that is sufficiently independent of
those who control the school affairs proper, and yet is sufficiently
linked to the educational organization to secure thoroughgoing co-
operation.
Of the six members of the board of library commis-
sioners, five are elected by the citizens at large, including women.
on a nonpartisan ',allot, and the sixth member is the superintendent
of the public schools, ex officio. The title to all property of the
library rests with the board of education. For more than 20 years
the city library has been placing deposit and branch libraries in all
of the school buildings of the cit., .
The legally connected and
closely cooperating boards of education and of library are thus by
means of a single service systematically caring for the reading op-
portunities of all the city's people, both juvenile and adult.
A good-sized reading room is now supplied for the branch libraries
by the board of education in about one-third of the regular school
buildings of the city; and such a..room is to be provided in, each of
the new buildings. The school board supplies heat, light, and janitor
service, while the library hoard supplies the books, periodicals, card
catalogueq, and the library staff.
The library board also conducts
a weekly story hour during the season, a course of free lectures for
children and adults through the year, and the systematic instruc-
tion of the children in the uses of the library. The branch library
rooms serve as reading rooms for the children dating the school
day, and during day and evening throughout the year are open to
the use of the Ault community. The bra* libraries are equipped
' with from 1,500 to 3,500 volumes, of which about half are for chil-
dren and the rest for adults. Each is.supplOd with 25 to 30 current
periodicals in the English language, and/if required, math special
periodical literature in foreign languages, adapt to the popula-
tion of the district. The use of the books in these branch libraries
is carefully observed, so as to keep only " litre" books upon the
shelves, and to return any unused book to the central library.
1710241 ° -21-Bri11. 88-85
546
BIENNIAL SURVEY. OF EDUCATION, 191C-1918.
In most of the schools in which branch libraries have not been
opened, there are located what are termed deposit libraries, largely
determined in size by the demands of the pupils., Books currently
used are retained, and unused books are returned, thus regulating
the size of the library automatically.
In addition to the nelatively
permanent library sets already mentioned the public library pro-
ides traveling library sets on special topics in American history
and other subjects. These traveling libraries contain from 25 to 200
volumes, and may be kept at the school building by a teacher from
Tour to'six weeks for dollateral reading by the pupils.
The library employs a number of ways of encouraging the chil-
dren to use the books supplied. A weekly story-hour is held from
October to March at the central library, and at each of the branch
libraries.
Monthly bulletins are issued calling attention to an new
each year for ad ts and Children at each of the variotiS school
books of varieusinds.
Eight or ten public lectures are provided
branches,
Books for collateral reading are recommended on the
subjects of these lectures:
A further method of stimulating reading is the organization of
reading clubs in the schools. A yearly average of 19 books per child
was read by the pupils in one school building, the Children of all
grades; including the kindergarten, being counted in taking this.
average.
Many children read a book- a week, the habit formed
during the school year tending to persist during holidays and vaca-
tion seasons.' There are some children who read two books a week
through the year.
Since children should be early trained for rapid
silent reading, this cotistitotee one of the most effective possible
methods for providing the training.
The books for the schools are carefully selected by trained aSsist-
Mita and:reports- regarding their use are received from principals
-MA teachers, who ire also requested to send suggestions regarding
material desired to'the library.
This cooperative method of choosing
new books drawl; non the beet information and experience of both
librarian and teacher.
The library also informs itself regarding
the children's reading from its annual conference on children's
reading, in Which both teachers end parents are represented.
The report coneludes t
After Scheel days are over, the most Important continuing educational Influ-
ence is the readintC' habit.
Precinent eases In grand IOW& show that full
sad .effeetive °duration through library reeding is a type of education that
does not lapse When school days are over.
It Is therefore recommended that
library Work through the schools shall eouthiue and expand.
The Report of a Survey of the School Systein of St. Paul, Minn,
by ,the Survey, Co' mmission, St, Paul, 49171, contains a section on
the cooperation of the public library with the schools (pp. 47-51).
ACTIVITIES.
;1041
The subject is covered under the following headings: General, diati=
tml library service, school libraries, class-room libraries, supple,
mentary reading, instruction in use of libraries, and library publica-
tions.
The last named include publications giving infounation
regarding the library for teachers and pupils, reading lists, and a
projected library manual for high-school pupils.
The Report of the Educational Survey of Elyria, Ohio, made
under the direction of the\ United States Commissioner of Educa-
tion (Bulletin, 1918, No. 15), contains sections on the high-school
library (pp. 106-107), and on the public library (pp. 204405). A
good general presentation of the necessity and utility of an ade-
quate school library and of 'the value to the pupils of training in
library methods is given on pages 119-122 of The Public Schools
of Columbia, S. C.; a Report of a Survey maile tinder the Direction
of the Commissioner of Education (Bulletin 1918, Not, 28).
Ac-
cording to this report, " Learning how to use a librarythat is,
learning how to 'use) the tools of study - should be begun well dawn
in the grades and continued throughotrt the entire school coarse." -
Besides the surveys already mentioned,- the reports of the fol-
lowing contain material relating to. the library as an educational
factor: Report of the Denver School Survey, 1916; Educational
Survey of the Public Schools of Brookline, Mass., 1917; Educational
Survey of Janesville, Wis., by the State department of public in-
struction of Wisconsin, 1918, the last with considerable fullness.
HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES.
Standardization of requirements for high-school librarians by
State action made substantial progress during the biennium.
The following law, which became effective in July, 1917, was
passed by the California fiegislature:'
No librarian shall be emplOyeid.for more thin two hears A day in any
high school unless .such librarian holds a high-school certificate, or a special
teacher's certificate In library, craft, technique, and uMe, of secondary grade
work, granted in accordance ,with the provision of this Cede. Such librarlaind
shall rank as teachers and shall be subjeet to the burdenli and entitled to the
benefits of the public-schoolateachers' retirement, hind, on the same basis as
other teachers.
In Oregon the Stale educational daParttnent recommended twits
superintendents that in any high school employing as many as 10
teachers, 9 of these should be used on the regular teaching force and
the tenth teacher should be a trained librarian whO may give her full
time to supervising the work of the high-school library. ,Several
cities in Oregon have adopted this plan.
The school librarian is
chosen by the city or county librarian' after consultation with this
city superintendent' of schools. She is under the iinthediate Super-,
vision of the city librarian; who' directs` the library work both in the
BrittiNtaL SII111113%0FtED170.1.TION, 1916-1918.
a
bigh aebool amain the' grades. ,Nise it superintendent cooperate:3
roquiringliis teachers to follow the librarian in matters affecting
the reading-of thepupiha. .This work haenci impressed many school
boards that in the -smaller high schools oncteacher-librarian is em-
ployed, who gives half her time to. teaching and .the other-half to'
%miry supervision.
,
The State departmentof public instruction of Wisconsin sent' the
followingnotification to the high-school principals of the State:
Beginning with the school year 1919-207 it is expected that every high school
In the State will employ-a teacher-librarian who has had the library training
represented ,by the course,for teacher-Libra/1mm In the University of Wisconsin,
or its equiralent. princlials of high schools should plan to meet this require-
mentby that date or sooner if feasible.
,
.
Larger high schools, in Wisconsin are expected to have high-school
librarians who have taken, the full course in a standard library
School.
The State education department of New YorkState, through its
Ciivision of school libraries, sant. out under
_date of May 1,1918, the
following rulings concerning the. Mate -certification, of high-school
librarians;
, basignmehAis a district quota can not be allowed for the service of a school
librarian witless raid IthrarLan,is a holder of a certificate, it has been decided
to issue
tee as.folloye;S
(n)
cerditcatel will be issued, to those whO are college graduates,
end ula0 graduates of library schools approved b7 the regents of the University
of the State of New York;
,
.1
(b) Five-year certificates will be leaned lo graduates of approved library
shisoolid,,and a4te.r five years' satisfactory service a, perMadient certificate will
be issued to such persons.,
(e) Three-year certificates will be Issued to graduates of an approTed shot
library cOuree of not less than Mx weeks, -provided that such graduates have
had at least two yeark of library experience.
(d) One-year certificates "WI be issued to graduates of a short library course
of not less than six weeks provided they have had one year'a library experience,
and to graduates of Approved colleges and normal schools who have had no
library experience provided they have bad .one or more sessions of the State
slimmer library. institute conducted by the State library and are certified as
'having done satisfactory work.
(e) Certificates may be renewed for a like period provided there is antis-%
factory evidence that necepteble work has been done during the period for
which the original outdiate was granted.
For service, in cities of theArst and,stoosid- class, only permanent
q,r4ficates will,_ .6) aCcePted.in
XPrk State-
:An 1917, the University of Missouri iseued a bulletin containing ob-
*mations on high-school library conditions and suggestion for im-
provement, based on information contained:in replies to. a quettion-
naire sent trt_qll.Aliohighincboola.accreclited by the university..
This
bulletin suggnatikkakauctiO*t)ncluqupytehbrary facilities for the lie-,
pp^77:7---T
LIBRARY ACTIVITIES.
549
credited high schonts;following the'norres set up in The report sf Mr.
Certain's committee to the North Central Asgociation of Colleges
and Secondary Schools, which is outlined in the following pages.
In a number/of States, State supervisors of school libraries, State
-
:inspectors of high schools, and State high school visitors from the
universities continued effectivity-to devote their efforts to the im-
provement of high-school library conditions.
An important event was the adoption by the North antral As-
sociation of Colleges and Secondary Schools, .a
its meeting in
Chicago, March 21-24, 1918, of a report on Standard Library Organ-
ization and Equipment for Accredited' Secondary Schools of Dif-
ferent Sizes, prepared by the library committee of the Commission
on unit courses and curricula of the North Central Association, un-
der the chairmanship of C. C. Certaini of the Cass .Technical High
School, Detroit, Mich' The report was also adopted by the depart.
ment of secondary education and the library department of the Na:
tional .Education Association an joint session at Pittsburgh, Pa.,
July 3, 1918, as s statement of 'national. standards -in high-school
library, development. The period assigned for attaining .the stand-
ard prescribed in the 18 States of the Middle West represented in
the North Central Association is five years from March, 1918, and
the movement tolhis end is commencing at once.
,
This report suggests a practical wofking standard for the follow-
ing types of high schools: (a) Junior high schools, (b) high schools
with enrollment below 200, (o) high schools with enrollment from
200 to 500, (d) four-year high schools or senior high schools with
enrollment between 500 and 1,000, (e) four-year high schools or
senior high schools with enrollment between 1,00Q and 3,000.
It
defines ithe requisites of a standard-Jibrary organization as (1) ap-
. propriate housing and equipment of the high-school library; 12)
professionally trained, libraridns; (8) scientific selection and care of
books and other printed matter, and the Proper,:classillqaCion and
cataloguing of this material; (4) instruction in thadst of booksand;
libraries as a unit course in high-school curricula; (6) adequate an-
nual ippropOittions for salaries an' for maintenance, for the pur..
chase of books and other printed matter, for binding, supplies, etc.;
(s)'.a trained librarian as State supervisor of school libraries either,
through the State department of education or theStete library con34
mission.
.
The report proceeds to emphasize 'the importance of haviig the
'library room centrally located in'the school building,iicientiliC.ally
planned; and well'equipped
The room should be of Adequate site,
I This report ta published to North Central AssoctitiOle
egos and Secondary
Schools Proceedlnica 1918. pp. 86-77: National adueattaii
a, Addrossis And
proolias. 19111., pp. Oita .48 is shoo 12'00 as a wand* pamphlet.
.
,
BIBNNIAI. EMMY Ot
1918-19IP;
itttfitetiele
ito appoiutoisatspitudtpn$414d:seith the oppatottua
vertieal:filik hulletiwkitardkillustratkle natterial,, and other niodsro
accessories loi eh* Acioney of i is: library. Zino*. the &esti=
; a
- high-school .library: is 'to inspiiss a permanent love of reading,, the
library bookshelves should be open, and: the, pupils encouraged to read
fur raereatiorcand pleasure, net merely ,eo:;tolorit books for refer,
; ence and for supplementary and- collateral tautly.
1U
TboropOrtliets ;forth the desirability of having .a fall-rtimetrained
libratianda the larger high schools as a regular policy, and alio in
the,..11.1.34r;1164Q910.wheeseoso
.1110 librarian in thi -high
sthOolushould northing ridni-geeed; ,qualiginunt both 44 librarianand
tke= Umber enedl,f11441 itbitiveteional oharaoteriatiee of oi4husiasiii,
poweito inspire, a d
A librarian who is a graduate
. front cases and-hrtamtittiogritned. AihrarY sehool.having at least a
one,yearecnirele is ovulation all aohools of 500 pupils and over, and
&Stall of two orthicon, lihreryi school .graduatei3 is recommended for
the! larger hi& who*, .The i 3t
school librarian is entitled to
tank witk theiteablistiot the oohed as a regular officer of instruction.
Thiliighealluolshating)lieteebtot detiartnients the librarian should be
hilideblieut *die lIbrie*y;ireperitment,, with states equal to that of
headalcif lother 'departments, an has been done in tha Eichenley High
BehOol, Pittsburgh. The salary of a high,selsoollibrazian ski:add be
adedinies,50 obtains, persoaserith the proper qualifications, not-loWer
it
thealkat of the Biel& teacher, but higher ifilicessary.
The educational,work of the. Mich-school library.may be summer- '
free
r ,,,,,,,
,
.'ilfiVfiereieneet Reining :hi/Alert' and etUdents to
;'Ito& stlitible ibateitid oio
ithclailVics; notify* titicaerelir hew books and: Articles along 'protessitaial
4
; ; ' .
l a w , 'looting up*, Om!" , tot; oneittoto Amide. hate sum tit daemon' ' or
laboratory, prvatiag iiggel4ilvaNnlagea1Pgotelnait,41cipg the neiV1,41 OM c,r1K
r
. cf.
r
tc ;Ioieferiteri-ii.,-4441 til,....
", .,.,th- 1/01,;.,
.
,
, , ,,
4-
olt memento in the qiiii:Lreference,
ilk litiritiVtliciViiiasisTaloictii:,liatexes, ate., *
of lee-
,..)
ilnflAnIngeigtilfgAtkiele '461:418.11s to be given to this lartruction to
the reistioaship tst tbe,liintineltaci Is a4 the PublinatinarY, sad the relit-
. to of li'MbiliTY.V4014104144**41144104 ' ! +. i;i ri 101 l-al,
44?; E449,4,4,RITIrettO,11444,74,81peltvoji tpko kororatimit4 work
Iii
Bening cal . kterepts pf
Andean tod;in Cuntvittig a. taste for good
.rimaint. ideiliodeiO'irdi 'init: are leietuii fitereating material on biilletin
buitda, tesopliation of reatilielArec lorgniiiiatilen ' foal ' dtraetton of reading,
clabs, and personal guidance of the reeding of individual students.
The
404rtiuk ililfiulil .elee. terpefeil vrIth eess4,041, OciulaRlere Jo 44Aes etuflects
*O9114flitAltdoiktrittg .P1411-1 Shotilttie 94101001E 44 aiYineins4Nction
inihnttentat books and librarian,:
.::,:t.:.
.33);144,4i ir.114144111). '01 threniiiintlageklittoda per year in etch
English .counkittrgraded instruction in the use of books ant fibril
,
LIBRARY Amy/1Tbm
551
.
ries. 'This instruction should be
van by 'the librarimi and:credited
as 'adietinct requirement :for graduation. The credit
reCortled
a 'grade in i
ry instruction.
; '1
,
:21' Establish
Instrartion in: the use at, hooks and libraries" ala
halt eOurseigfring a nrinimmkof 12 lesson" a 'Sart° thin, Work' !In
riew'of the-faei that efficiency of 'instruction izrany dispartiniant..de-
Pen& ullion an intelligent use of the: Weary, the folieWing whedule
for the 1 lessons seems Orectiosblet
English, three lessoes-a year inhistory, three lessionsacyear;
in Lestizi, one lesson; in Spanish. oriFrench, one lessazz; and in--the
sciences and manual 'training together, four lessons..:'
1
*Training In library use shozild include the following: :The' nee
of bOoks for *educational guidance, as tools, and as a reeanauf ree-
reation, amusement,' and' inspiration; esprit de. eetpuiti, handling
books as public property; 'and:also the subject of the relation of high,
school? and gathlie libraries: To relate the work in the bighschool
library to that of the public library, and to make clear the uses tin
students, after school days are over, of an institution which should be
a factor in their future mental development, classes should be taken
to the public library, where its book resources, rules, methods, de-
partments, catalogue, and support can be briefly explained by one of
the staff. This should be done in the small towns as well as in the
large cities.
The maintenance of the school library skoulii not depend upon in-
cidental sources, such as school entertainments and " socials," al-
"though ftnids raised in this manner may well be used to purchase
accessories to the regular library equipment. The library deserves
an annual appropriation of sufficient amount in addition to salaries
to provide means for the necessary correlation with all other depart-
ments: For books alone a minimum oT 50 cents a student is needed
annually. Not less than $40 a year for magazines and newspapers is
needed, even in small high schools.
Emphasis is also laid in the report upon the employment by the
State department of education, either by itself or in cooperation
with the State library commission, of a trained librarian to at as
supervisor of all public-school libraries in the Statenormal, high,
elementary, and rural.
Expert supervision of this sort will raise the
standaed of library efficiency in schools of all grades and sizes.
In
States having no supervisors of libraries, high-school inspectors
should make note of library conditions in schools visited and embody
the information in their reports.
.
The evolution of a proper type of library for junior high schools
has lately received careful consideration from scholl librarians at
their conferences and elsewhere.
The report of the hbrary commit-
tee of the North Central Association and the National Education
=
552
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-I918.
Association also accords, this problem a conspicuous place.
It says
that the junior highschool library should be organized in such a
manner as to meet the needs of boys and girls in grades seven, eight,
and nine, and contain, materials suitable for this purpose.
This
library should be sharply differentiated from the library in the
senior high school, not only as to the character of books selected, but
also as to the kind of service expected front the librarian. It should
contribute to more varied and extensive interests, for, unlike the
library of thesenior high school, the library of the junior high school
does not require the kind of material and the chareeter of service
necessary to close specialization in particular subjects.
The librarian of the junior high school should be a. student of chil-
dren an
adolescent psychology, and should have sufficient culture
and professional training to select books discriminatingly from the
standpoint of the appropriateness and educational value of their
subject matter, also to supervise intelligently the pupils' reading.
..p.
1.
l
et..
Ilia .;
a
.11:
;;;;.: ,
,
O
CHAPTER XXI.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF. THE CHURCHES.
Corm/rm.Education under religious auspices, by B. Warren BrownChristian day
schools of the Lutheran Church, by W. C. KohnEducation in the Methodist Episcopal
Church. by Henry H. Meyer Southern Baptists and education, by J. W. Cammack
Educational work of the Protestant 'Episcopal Church, by William E. Gardner
Latter-Day Bents' schools, by Horace H. Cumming.-- Boman Catholic schools, by
Patrick J. McCormick.
EDUCATION UNDER RELIGIOUS AUSPICES.
By B. Wrissart BRowig,
Survey Secretory, Comae! of Church Board* of Education.
In previous reports to the Bureau of Education it has been im-
possible to give any comprehensive view of Christian education in
the United States because, while the religious forces expended have
been very great, there has been no unity or system worthy of the
name.
Only independent and scattered statements from a few re-
ligious organizations have been available. It is not claimed that the
material included here summarizes the work of a perfected system
of religious education, but there are many evidences of a growing
group consciousness among the educational activities of various
churches. The Council of Church Boards of Education is a con-
spicuous examxle.
The lack of Proportion in our present aggregate of church insti-
tutions points significantly to the fact that their development was
genetic rather than logical.
Christian colleges existed before State
institutions were founded; indeed, some State universities were
origi
lly under denominational control. We have inherited, there-
fore,
curious alternation of church and State control in higher
educe on.
Religious schools were strongly intrenched before ally
system of common or secondary education had been devised, so that
.,the church system is, very highly developed at the top, but depends
chiefly on the State for primary and secondary training.
Again,
various denominations, each acting independently, founded and en-
dowed schools, taking into account mainly their local and denomina:
tional situations, but without considering the relation of school,tO
school or of one church organization to another. The result has Teen
- an over supply of church institutions in, some parts.of the country and
inadequate facilities elsewhere. Out of these conditions is growing
553
pr.
564
MOM= SURVIT 07 EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
bit
at 'the present time's new consciousness of the relationship of one
religioufidy to another in the educational field, of the higher to
the lower grades of religious instruction, and of the combided church
activities to the public-a/1061 iyiterg.
This awakening is a most
encouraging, sign of progress. It llf 119t 11., disparagement of the past.
The traditioht of Christiith'editiatien 'ill this "country are the object
orintinse gratitude and pride. This new consciousness is a part
of, the growing
" in which we are seeing things in larger
unite and closer relationships.
,or Irt,71tZSANT anti.
Out of the total population of 103,000,000 people, there are in the
United Slates 40,515,126 communicants or members of some religious
faith. As only '143;000 are members of Jewish bodies, practically
all of these are in. Christian organizationssome 15,000,000 Catholic
and the. remainder Protestant.
Church population is usually esti-
mated at more than twice the membership, so that this may be
regarded as mientially a Christian country,'in which the religious
tines ere 'powerful:
.
Inatiftirteni.The educational system contr011ed
these forces is
estimated as fellows: 195;276 Sunday schools, with 19,951;675 pupils;
atmt 7,500 Parechiel 'schools, with 1,626,123 /3uPits 00 per cent
Catholic)
1,586 high schools or academies, with ,103,829 students
(55 per cent Catholic); 41 junior colleges, 395 four-Year colleges and
iiiiveridAes,' with a "total attendance
19i6,-1/' of approximately
120,000 stndents; and 164 schooli of theology. In addition,to these
definite grades of instruction there are many miscellaneous insti-
Odious conducted in part by boards of education and n part by
difstilon bee* The activities of 1Q' denominations alone out of the
kroteittti4 groUp include 18 training scbools; 11 millineries (un-
graded), for *Oita ;, 16T -orphanage% with grade:schOol instruction;
228 schigilii fok Ifegto*,
for Indiana.; and a score. of other mind-
laneons
should it.ti added, alSo; the "Mountain
;WU)" iiChtple'COnailied:b the. churches and the iti4t schools for
immigrantitinder thiire
Men's' Christian Assoeiatien.
HO* Viiii;elinrcIV,IntiiSstit to educatibn are by no means `as 'epher=;
as Mt 4. tPe' inferred 'from-the above staiements. There
betwien 'the higher and row&
lir tch e'Of this
to the present 'time the Sundey achOol
biti,
only a sliOt relation' a' the churCh preParittory school,
cd
r,Sem-
The Luther* for example, have Many week-
Onej
iOr children, but relatively small
fill id higher edUcation./ Many Protestant denoini-
iiiittenktuie larg
in the field of higher education, butprac-
-77:747re.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
565
deafly no week-day schools of secondary and primary grade. It is
apparent, therefore, that our religious education is dependent on the
public-school system for any connected or logical sequence of
instruction.
. - Cooperation with public achoole.As church institutions by no
means cover the educational field, there has been a growing disposi-
tion to provide religions instruction for the youth of the church who
Attend State institutions. It is an acknowledged fact that more stu-
dents of leading denonlinations go to the State universities than to
their own chorch colleges.
It has been further demonstrated this
year that between 70 and 75 per cent of the students now in State
universities are members of some church.
Obviously, the churches
having shut out religious instruction from these institutions by law
axe under obligation to supply this teaching independently. The
situation is being provided for along three definite lines:
(1) Paid secretaries are maintaining the Christian associations in
State institutions.
The membership thus secured averages about.40
per cent of the student body.
(2) Religious workers are placed in State institutions by the dif-
ferent denominations. In this way $57,000 was spent last year by
four denominations.
(3) Bible chairs or schools of religion are maintained. By means
of these credit is allowed for religious instruction properly super-
vised and nonsectarian.
The Catholics maintain chapels, the Episcopalians church clubs,'
the Disciples and Methodists Bible chairs, and the Presbyterians
religious worker's.
Movements are under way, also, to tooperitte with the public- schoo'
system in the field of secondary education. The development of a
graded system with teacher training in the Sabbath schools and par-
ticularly the framing by agreement among the denominations of
satisfactory courses in the materials of religion have made possible
the crediting of this work hi the high-school curriculum. This plan
in various forefs has been tried with considerable success, especially
in North Dakota, Colorado, and the State of New York.
A further attempt to correlate 'church and State education is .the
promotion of week-day refigious.instruction. The most interesting
efforts of this sort to make church instruction somewhat more eye-
tematic than is possible in the Sabbath schools, adjusting the hours
and program to the schedule of the public schools, are found in
Malden, Mask, ittirGitry, Ind. A movement similar ii effect is the
daily vacation Bible school project, which has developed extensively
during the past two years. The usual course is a daily session 'cover-
ing five weeks. During' 1917, there were 600 schools in 97 centers,
With in attendance of 64.000 pupi s, iin addition to separate schoobi
L,i
558
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
conducted by the Presbyterian denomination alone.
This organita-
tion has been somewhat, stronger in 1918 and in some localities the
Presbyterian and international associations have joined forces.
Coordinating ageneies.For the most part, church interests in
education have grown spontaneously rather than through outside
control and supervision. During the past few years, however, there
has been a steady trend toward centralization. Twenty of the lead-
ing denominations now have definite boards of education and others
are considering closer organization. Many of theseboards are highly
systematized and exert a powerful influence for education in
their constituency.
Their combined budgets for 1918 amounted to
'
$1,500,000.
Recognizing the fundamental unity of their interests, these boards
in 1911 united in a Council of Church Boards of Education.
fn
1914 the council organized the Association of American Colleges,
which now numbers 230 standard institutions.
-Several denomina-
tions also have separate associations of their own colleges.
The
Council of Church. Boards of Education, working in conjunction
with the Association of American Colleges,' the Christian Associa-
tions, the organization of Church Workers in State Institutions, the
Religious Education Association, the International Sunday School
Association, and the Commission on Christian Education of the
Federal Council of Churches, is now in a position to coordinate more
fully the large educational interests of Protestant bodies.
It .is,
of course, recognized that the Catholic interests have long since been
highly organized.
HIGHER EDUCATION.
Professional training.Although some universities under denomi-
national control have many professional departments, the church
makes no claim to the field of technical professional education other
than for the ministry and missions.
In this field it has a virtual
monopoly. Replacing the present ministry and providing for reason-
able growth calls for the addition of at least 4,500 ministers each
4- 'year. To train this number of recruits there were, in 1915, 164 theo-
logical schools. The Protestant schools offer, as a rule, three-year
courses, and the Catholic schools six-year courses.
Some ,86 Prot-
estant seminaries maintain a reasonable standard of professional
education, the remaining Protestant schools offering work of some-
what lower grade for foreign-speaking candidates.
Sixty-seven
seminaries of, eight leading denominations have total assets, includ-
ing plant 'and endowment,- of $31,295,000, or about, one-half of the
total assets of all the seminaries in the field.
Correspondence
schools and summer institutes, especially in the South, provide a
4,)partial substitute for seminary training.
There has also been
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
557
marked increase in the loan funds at the disposal of seminaries and
boards of education to assist needy students. However, the number
of students graduated by all theological schools approximates only
2,500 per year, or about one-half the annual demand. The remainder
must be supplied from students who fail to complete the seminary
course or enter the ministry directly from college. The problem of
securing professional religious workers is consequently a problem
of increasing attendance at the seminaries. The war greatly com-
plicated the situation by cutting down seminary attendance 12 per
cent during the past year, and in particular reduced the number
in the entering classes.
Losses during the coming year will be even
heavier.
With-all due allowance for consolidation of churches and
a larger average congregation per minister, the reduction of the
number of trained leaders at a time when the supply is only 50 per
cent adequate constitutes a serious menace to the future strength of
the ministry.
The question of the proper content of theological instruction
was greatly complicated by the war.
During the past few years
there was a uniform demand among all churches for a highly trained
ministry and the standards of ordination in the various communions
was steadily raised.
There is no disposition tit present to lower
standards, but the desire is widespread to make theological training
respond more directly to the essential needs of the time.
Two im-
portant conferences on thh subject were held during the year, the
former including representatives of all Baptist seminaries and the
latter a more general conference called in August, 1918, by Harvard
University.
Liberal arts colleges. At the present time the field of liberal arts
is evenly divided between church and private institutions on the one
hand and State institutions onthe other.
The former have a larger
attendance and a greater number of schools, While the latter are
-growing more rapidly. At present there are affiliated with the
various church boards of education 833 colleges-and universities, 41
recognized junior colleges, and 28 other colleges for Negroes. The
total assets of these schools, together with Catholic institutions, are
in excess of half a billion dollars and their combined income more
than $25,000,000 per year. During the lost four years their gifts
for plant and endowment averaged almost $30,000,000 per year. By
far the largest educational interests are controlled by the Presby-
terian Church in the United States of America with 64 colleges,
the Methodist EpiscoparChurch with 44 colleges, the Baptists with
22 in the North and #13 in the South, and the Congregational
Churches with .41 colleges and universities; including those his-
torically related to the denomination. The total attendance of these,-
together with 62 Catholic colleges, was 126,000 students in, 1916,
BIENNIAL SURVEY or EDVOATION, lit6 -1919.
is compared with 88,000 liberal arts students in 98 State-institutions
for the corresponding year. The effect of the *tar, however, was to
reduce college attendance on the average 18, to 0.0 pi3r eent below the
total for 1918-17,
This reduction affected State and private in-
stitutions equally.
The loss in the beginning ielasses, however, was
somewhat heavier in church than in State institutions.
Thus far it
has not been neeessary to close the doors of any church colleges on
account of the war, although some 10 er 12 preparatory schools have
been discontinued. By the utmost 'economy, coupled with unusual
exertions in the raising of emergency funds, colleges have been able
to live practically within their incomes and to close the year 1917-18
with *relatively email deficits.
This, however, is an achievement
which could hardly be duplicated after another year of the war.
RECENT PROGRESS.
Standardization.The tendency in recent years to define sherply
the different grade* of education and to standardize institutions has
been shared by the various* thureh anthorition, At the present time
ythe three main branches of the Presbyterian Cherch, the tem Metho-
dist bodies, the waited Brethren, and some' of the smeller denomi
natioas hae definite requirements for priding their achools.
In
particular; the Methodist Church, South, has greatly elated the
situation in its territory by sharply defining and elassityiug junior
college The Association of Arnerican Colleges has taken the lend
in formulating the specifititions of an efficient college and is now
defining college efficiency on the Anemia' side,
The Religious Edu-
cation Association, with the cooperation of the Council of Church'
Beards of Eduction, classified,the Biblit,depertntent in all ot the
higher institutions with ai Vt." to ireptoving the standards and the
council has further proked' ocuferences for standardizing the
Biblical ixistruttion *Rhin, Mee departments.
Piiiateial,ocannaigss..--It because evident some years ago that to
realize the standards defined; larger 'eudowitente and incomes were
indlipensable. The pest three yeark have therefore ,seen a remark-
able group of tompoitnes among different denominations 'to proniote
their educational resources. The denorninatiois of these boards -
affiliated with the council. have been in the -field for a aggregate of
$100,000,000.
Of this amount the Disciples and t aptisis, North,
have now raised nineteen and a half
d
rs.
The most
notable campaign has been handled by the M hodist Episcopal
'
Church, completing on July 4, 1918, a jubilee
nd of $27,000,000.
Even greater efforts are now projected for
i e immediate future.
The Aouthem Baptist denomination has Sloc d out a earnpeign for)
$15,000,000 dewing the next fie yearA;
e Southern.- Methorlisti
Church is committed to an educational.ka
'sign 4(218,000,000 for
EDUCATIONAL WORK OE THE CHURCHES,
559
colleges and $10,000,000 additional for its two universities.
The
Presbyterian Church in the United States of America is
plans for campaigns totaling almost $75,000,000, in which education
will have a large share. A similar movement is under way in the
Presbyterian Church in the United States (Southern). It is, theio-
fore, evident that church standards of education, so far as they can
be attained through financial strength, are in a fair -way to be realized,
and we are passing out of the period in which a denominational
school because it is small is to be reproached with inadequate facili-
ties for a well-rounded educatioi.
War aervice.Duribg the past year the colleges with all they
possessed were absolutely at the disposal of the Government.
Stu-
dents were encouraged and even Urged to enlist.
Some 45,000 col-
-lege students left school almost immediately ad more than 1,000
faculty men, including a score of college president, entered war
service of some sort.
College incomes were reduced more than
$2,000,000 through the loss in tuition and institutional costs increased
an equal amount through rim in prices.
In so far AS they could secure
military instructora, the Christian colleges introduced military train-
ing.
The larger institutions were active in Scientific research con-
nected with the war, and all rendered valuable service in campaigns
for the Red Cross, Young Men's Christian Association, liberty loans,
recruiting, and to an even greater extent in interpreting the spiritual
meaning of the struggle.
On the other hand, ell educational leaders
recognized fully that the channels of trained leadership for the future
should not be completely blocked and efforts were redoubled to
maintain the essential lines of education.
Cooperation.The most significant tendency of the year, greatly
stimulated by the war, was the increasing cooperation of all the in-
terests in the field of religious education.
Within particular de-
nominations there was a definite tightening of the bonds uniting
educational
institutions.
During the year the Episcopal board
strengthened its college department; the presbyterian Church in the
United States of America consolidated its various educational inter-
ests under a single board ; the Methodist Church, South, expanded
the work of its board of education and organised its colleges in an
association ; and the Reformed Church ih America projected a survey
of its educational interests.
The extent of interdenominational cooperation may be' estimated
from the activities in which the various churches have joined forces.
At the present time colleges of most of the Protestant denomina-
tions, together with many Catholic schools, are combining much' of
their advertising under 'the leadership of the 'Council of Church'
'Boards of EdUcation Various State amociations of colleges, and
State Councils of Defense, and the National Council on Education,
54°
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19113-1918.
which conducted an emergency campaign from Washington during
the summer of 1918. The various church boards bf education have
combined their .educational survey work and investigation in a
single department.
A new publication, the American College Bulle-
tin, now serves as a medium of contact between interests in this field.
A considerable venture..is-Cooperative purChasing has also been de-
veloped by tiroltiiiikiefation of American Colleges.
The same organi-
zation has secured acholarships for some 220 French girls distributed
among American !colleges.
The American College Bureau, a co-
operative agency for securing teachers, is in operation.
In short,
all the agencies of this field are working together in a way never
befoe it.cmed possible.
These. ap...3 other cooperative activities have been furthered 1:3/ a
number of important educational Conferences during the year. The
Council of Church Boards of Education, the Christian Associations,
and the Church Workers in State Universities held a joint meeting
. at the beginning of the year to consider religious work in State in-
stitutibns and united in the organization of a Nation-wide cam-
.
paign to accomplish the Northfield program for Bible study. There
have been speCial gatlierings of those interested in college Bible de-
. partments, standards of Sunday school work, cooperative purchas-
ing, preparation for the ministry, and the relatitin of the colleges to
the war. Indeed, it is safe to Bei that there has been more impetus
toward close- educational cooperation among different religious
bodies during.tlit.Pait two yearathan in the entire previous genera-
tiOn:
THE FUNCTION OF CHURCH EDUCATION.
The drawing together of the educational programs of religious
bodies formerly independent naturally raises the question of the
extent to which they hold a' similar conception of their educational
responsibilities. The educational activities of the churches seem to
agree fundamentally on the following principles:
1. Religious instruction is necessary to a complete education.
As
such teaching is legally excluded from public schools, Christian in-
stitutions of learning and facilities for religious training at State
institutions are necessary to supplement the public system.
2:The education necessary to the achievement of the Christian
program must provide (a) trained church leaders; (b) denomia-
tional centers of influence ; .(c) educational facilities where the pub-
lic schools do not reach; and (d). conservative influence on secular
education.
- It is not probable thati any religious denomination would take ex-
ception to the general substance of these principles. Indeed, there
is a very strong tendency on the part of the leaders in secular edu-
EDUCATIONAL WORE OF THE CHURCHES.
661
cation to indorse them without qualification.
It is generally ree-
ognized that ohurch schools have contributed to our total system
of education a moral tone which would have been impossible under
purely secular control.
There, is loss disposition than ever before to
bring about a mere duplication of educational facilities as between
church and State and, on the other hand. a far stronger tendency to
secure from each type its highest contribution to the Nation.
Un-
doubtedly, means must be found by which greater continuity of re-
ligious mid moral instruction frp.in the lower to the higher stages
of the educational system may be secured.
Ilowtver, the cordial
relations among church bodies and between church and public edu-
cation provide a much easier approach to that problem than has been
possible for many years.
CHRISTIAN DAY, SCHOOLS OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH.
By W. C. KmiN,
.4
President. Concordia Teachers College, River Forest, Ili.
The Christian day school constitutes-the foundation of the Luth?..
eran educational system in the United States. The basis of this Os
tem is the principle that religion is the most important. object cf
human interest and concern. The children of today are the nen of
the church and the state in the future.
The future of the chu 41 and
of the state will depend upon the training and the education of the .
children in the present.
The Christian day school is a d'olontary enterprise of a Lutheran
congregation whose membersz..engstrained by nothing but, their own
personal convictions based on scriptilral truth, vote to establish and
maintain a school in their parish. With, the adoption of such resolu-
tion, they mutually agree to send their children to that school. They
select and call the teachers, build and equip .the schoolhouses, and
assess themselves for the support of the teachers and the main,
tenance of the schools,
The congregation is
e owner of the schools, and has full control
over them.
This is a ve
important point. It asserts for the con-
gregation the right of su ervision. The pastor is the supervisor of
the school, of both teacher and pupils.
Iiii supervision extends over
religious instruction and over secular branches in so far as they are
'means of training.
As branches of learning and knowledge, secular
studies are under the supervision of the congregation, and tins
supervision is generally exercised 1.3, a school board:
Ip, a few instances a!io-called "schoolisociety " is organized by
the members of the congregation, who alone contribute to the erec-
tion'and maintenance of the school, leaving the institutions however,
Under full control of the congregatiOn.
.
171029°--21-43un."----8e
...
562
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916r19tS.
t
Since the Lutheran doctrine concerning the means of grace, that
the Word of God is the incorruptible seed through whiCh the soul
------ is born again, and the firm conviction that education does not mean
only the acquiring df knowledge of fundamental subjects, but is
mainly the building up of an honest Christian character, which can
not be done except under the continual influence of the scriptural
.
.
.-
Christ ideal, this makes it imperative for the members of the .congre-
gation to insist upon an early and thorough instruction of the young.
T
parents are expected to send their children to the Christian
ii
day
'tool
tool in preference to any other, although such attendance is
. not made compulsory, Moral and religious persuasion being the only
methods employed in dealing with indifferent parents.
The basis on which the Chiistian day school is organized is the
same as that of the public scghool in all its details, except that it
devotes the first hour of each day 'to religious instruction and that
all secular branches are taught in the spirit of the Holy Writ. The
material used in the religious instruction is: Bible reading, Bible
stories, Luther's small catechism with proof texti,and explanations,
Church prayers, and the most important Lutheran hyluns. The text-
books-on secular subjects are either those used by the public school
or such as are published by the educators of the church, written in
harmony with the doctrinal truths of the church. The medium of
instruction ig mostly English. The religious instruction is graded
similar" to that of secular topics. .in the first three grades the
children are taught simple Bible stories, the texl'of the chief parts
of Luther's small catechism, and several morning and evening
prayers.
In the fourth and -fifth grades an additional number of
.3/41i0e stories with application to experiences in the child's life, a
_supplement of proof tats, and Lutheran hymns are taught. The
sixth, seventh, and eighth grades comprise a thorough repetition of
the entire catechism, Bible stories With a brief survey of the first
.three centuries of church history, and an intense study of the
Ilef2ridatioit
T, greatest number of the Christian day schools in the larger
cities are accredited by the educational authorities.
The spirit prevailing in the tchoo. ls of the synodical conference
is patriotic in the true sense of the word.
The education of the
teachers vouchsafes a spirit true to its government.
THE ThACI1ER OF AR <ERDMAN DAY SCHOOL.
. i
It has been c stomacy in the synodical confeAsnce and other
Ltitheran bodi
since, the past 70 years-to.draw the teachers from
their own..
and file. The teachers of the Christian day Beim*
as-well as the pastor, who-is ex- officio superintendent of the school in
. .
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHNICHEB.
563
his parish, are continually on the lookout for bright boys in their.
schools.
Havint found a strong, healthy, and studious lad they try
to convince him and his parents of the necessity of .good educators.
On the decision of both the parents and he boy he is sent to one of
the normal schools of the church.
Th'e synodical conference has
three such schools, one at Seward, Nebr., for the West, another at
River Forest, Ill., which is large, modern, and exceedingly well
equipped, and the third at New Ulm, Minn. At these institutions
tuition is entirely free; all expenses for salaries, equipment, and re-
pairs are defrayed by the synod body. Ways and means are found
to support even indigent students.
The institution at Seward has an enrollment of 14 and Concordia
Teachers' College, at River Forest, 2T15 studerst; New Ulm has 98._
These colleges offer a high-school course of four years, and a nor-
mal divinity course of two years.
Entrance requirements for the
normal courses are 20 credits of high-school work.
The courses are
as follows: Isagogics, sacred history, church history, expositions in
dogmatics, pedagogy, psychology, teat her's course in music, English,
German, practical teaching in training school, mathematics, general
science, general biology, nature sway- (including field work), chem-
istry, geography, physiography, physiology,'and music (harmony,
organ, and piano).
The object of such education is not only. to offer
the student an opportunity to obtain a general education but also to
train him in t e practical, technical, and vocational work which the
profession of
religious teacher requires: For the achievement of
this aim a trai ng schwl is connected with the colleges, where the
members of the senior class are given'ample opportunity to observe,
and to practice the art of teaching religion and the secular branches
under the immediate supervision of two competent critic teachers.
`This training offers the students speciaNdvantages, because -there
they are confronted with actual school conditions. and are led and
directed to meet these conditions according to the most approved
Methods, thus making a practical study of school Conditions, school
administration, school methods, and school children. , At the same
time they continue with their regular studies.
This correlation boa
tween practice teaching and class;room study :of, peat subjects
strengthens and broadens each part of a prdfessional course and helps
' the' ormal teacher to keep his classwork in close touch with the every-
day work of the schools and adapt it more fully to the practical needs
bf the student.
Before the student enters the last year he is given an opportunit%
to serve as supply or substitute teacher in different schools. He is
required to do consecutive work in some specific grade of a large
school, Orrpractice work to all grades in. a country school. If his
'Work as substitute is efficient he enters the class of candidates, and
564
BIENNIAL SURVEY Or EDUCATION, 1918 -1918.
'
if his work continues to be satisfactory he is recommended as a per-,
manent teacher at the end of the school year.
The institution. at River Forest, Ill., has a fine museum, with
an abundance of :museum material, located centrally in order to be in
.
close connection with the classrooms. The material is not used for
the sake of satisfying the visitors' curiosity, but for educative pur-
poses.
\.
In order to acquaint the students with the best talent In art, weekly
lectures and recitals (song, organ,and..piano) are given them by well-
known artists.
This tends to sp.ur the students onward, and gives
them a wider range and an idea of idle achievements which can be
reached.
For the teaching of science a complete chemical laboratory is
equipped, ready for use at all times.
For the instruction in music and for practicing, 8 pipe organs and
20 pianos are at the disposal of the students at regular periods.
COURSES OF STUDY.
v
.
The college offers a high- school course of four years and a normal
divinity course of two years.
Entrance requirements for the normal
course are 20 credits of high-school work.
In the high-school department the following courses are given:
English:
Units.
General literature
1
American literature
.
1
English literature
1
Composition and rhetoric
1
German:
3: Modern prose and poetry.
Elementary composition and grammar.... 1
4 : Advanced prose end poetry.
Advanced grammar
1
5: Study of German classics.
Essay course
1
6: Outline of German literature, from earliest times to Heine, Theory
of composition
1
7: Study of Schiller, Goethe, liecder,g.essing, etc., The modern essay_ 1
Mathematics:
V
'
Advanced arithmetic
1
Algebra (to quadratics)
1
Algebra (through quadratics)
Plane geometry
1
iMM*F7:
Ancient..
Medieval and mbdern
1
---
United States (advanced course)
1
Biblical-
General sclence.........----'
1 'General biology
me
1,
V
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
.
665
Units.
Nature study
1
Chemistry
/
Geography
- 1
Ph3 slography
_
1
Elementary dogmatics
Music (harmony, organ, and piano)_
13
One unit credit is the equivalent of 150 class periods of 60 'minutes.
The Normal Divinity Department offers the following courses:
Pedagogy :
Courses in literature and rhetoric:
History of education.
American.
Principles of education.
English.
Psychology.
German.
Methods.
Isagogics.
Teachers' courses:
Sacred history.
Reading.
Church history.
Grammar.
Eipositions In dogmatics.
German.
Teachers' course in music.
Arithmetic.
Practice teaching in the training school.
History.
Penmanship.
Drawing.
Catechetics.'
IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS.
Since the last four years agencies for the improvement of teachers
both during the period of preparation and while in office have been
increasing in efficiency and in number. One of the most potent is the
"Teachers Conference."
The synods have divided their territories
into districts, and the teachers within each district form a conference,
the attendance of this conference being obligatory.
These confer-
ences convene from two to four times annually. In their meetings
they follow the plan of intensely discussing one or two topics, assign-
ing one speaker to present an outline of the problem or topic.
When
this paper has been read, the discussion is opened to those voicing
'different opinions. It is evident that this will concentrate the at-
tentionof all to the topic under discussion and enable every one to
render an intelligent decision when at.the close of the discussion the
proposal for adoption or rejection of the essayist's views is passed
upon by vote. Each tear these district conferences send one or more
representatives to a general conference-which convenes annually in
one of the larger cities, and in which topics concerning the national
welfare ofthe Christian day schools are ventilated.
The Missouri
Synod has appoinad a committee or an editorial staff which pub-
lishes a pedagogical magazine, " Schulblatt," monthly in the interest
of the school and the teacher.
566
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Lutheran normal colleges reported at the beginning of the year
1918 are as follows:
Wartburg Teachers' Seminary, Waverly, Iowa (Iowa Synod), 11 teachers,
158 students.
Lutheran Normal School, Madison, Minn. (United Norwegian Church), 9
teachers, 157 students.
Lutheran Normal School, Sioux Falls, 'S. bak. (Norwegian Synod), 11
teachers, 210 students.
Immanuel Lutheran Normal, Greensboro, N. C. (colored ; Synod Conf.), 4
teachers, 56 students.
Concordia Teachers' College, River Forest, Ill. (Missouri Synod), 13 teachers,
231 students.
Lutheran Teachers' Seminary, Seward, Nebr. (Missourt Synod), 9 teachers,
152 students.
Evangelical Lutheran Normal School, Woodville, Ohio (Ohio Synod), 5
teachers, 62 students.
At various other colleges, seminaries, and academies of the Luth-
eran Church bodies normal courses are given for the preparation of
teachers for the Christian day schools.
THE OHICE OF THE CHRISTIAN DAY SCHOOL-TEACHER.
The teacher of the Lutherliai day school is called as an assistant
to the pastor, and before he enters upon his duties he is installed
in the capacity of a "regular" minister of religion, whereupon he
takes the oath of office that he will well and truly conform to the
principles of religion as quoted in the official Hand Book, Confes-
sions, and Holy Writ as taught by said synod. And as such it is his
regular and customary vocation to teach, the principles of religion
to the children of the congregation which called him. His duties
further consist in teaching and preaching in regular catechetical and
Sunday services and in conducting the reading service in the absence
of the duly ordained pastor. Thus the teacher not only makes the
teaching of the principles of religion his life vocation, but he is
primarily engaged in teaching such principles to the children of the
congregation.
Where the congregation is too small to engage an
assistant pastor to look after the spiritual welfare of the children
and young people this duty devolves upon the dyly ordained minister.
For this reasonthat he is principally engaged in religious work
assisting the pastor in taking care of the 'spiritual welfare of the
childrenhe is looked upon by the synod, as well as by the individual
congregation, as a regular minister of religion.
'SCHOOL BUILDINGS.
Within the past 11 years the Lutheran Church bodies have made
itomarkable improvements
hoot buildings of cities and large
EDUCATIONAL WW1 OF THE CHURCHES.
567
towns, as-well as in buildings or country schools. Many of them are
approaching the ideal schoolhouse.
Every site selected must be a
location comparatively level and situated so that it can be kept dry,
with enough space for a good playground.
SUPERVISION.
Besides the supervision exercised by the congregation and its
pastor, the Lutheran Church has elected a general board to improve
upon its entire school system, and each district has elected a super-
visory board for the supervision of the schools in its, territory. The
district board is in close connection with the general board, and
must make semiannual reports.
In some localities the following
system prevails: Each synodical district, comprising one or two
States, has elected boards whose duties are to inspect schools, to hear
appeals concerning school matters, to see that the curriculum and the
lesson schedule adopted by
church are carried out so that the
aim set for the school is achieved, to make a summary of the statistics,
to oversee the educational work, in their locality, involving about 15
scltIpols, and to make the necessary reports to the district boards.
The second administrative unit is the district board.
This board
receives the reports of the local boards, and improves upon a uni-
form curriculum and schedule by comparing the reports from the
various localities. In 'some instances, such as in the northern Illinois
district of the Missouri Synod, a superintendent of ,schools is elected,
who is chosen by popular vote at the district convention.
it is his
duty to visit the schools, examine the teachers, call institutes, hes:
appeals in school matters, and superintend the educational interests
tf the districts. ,In all districts there is a board which cooperates
with the superintendent.:
STATISTICS.
According to the reports offered by the representatiVts of the dif-
ferent synods of the Lutheran Church the status of the Lutheran
parochial school is as follows:
The Gernian Iowa Synod reports. 416 schools, 52 teachers, 400 pastors teach-
ing In school,14;130 pupils, 38,847 members, and 128,219 communicant members.
The Lutheran Free Church reports 210 schools, 255 teachers, and 8,500 pupils.
The Joint Synod of Ohio and other States reports 281 schools, 109 teachers,
9.391 pupils, 200 pastors teachii
in school, 208,198 Members, and 139,015 com-
municant members.
The Ut.ited Synod in the South has no Christian day school.
It has a mem-
bership of 73,510 and a communicant membership of 53,228.
From the General Synod no Christian. day school has been reported.
Its
baptized membership is 474,740, and its communicant membership is 384.072.
The General Council is composed of 13 synods, with 810:schools, 747 teachers,
and 24,605 pupils. Its baptised membership is 780,441, and its communicant
membership 631,978..
568
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.,
The Eilson's Synod reports 6 Christian day schools, 6 pastors teaching ip
school, 300 pupils, baptized membership 1,567, communicant membership 1,232.
The Danish Lutheran Church reports 84 schools,
teachers 2,230 pupils,
21,491 baptized members, and 14,463 communicant meinbers.
The German Immanuel Synod has reported no change from the last issue,
4
In which she stands with 15 schools, 15 teachers, 'aid 823 pupils.
From the Icelandic Synod and the United Dan10 Lutheran Church no
parochial school work has been reported.
The Finnish Suoni Synod reports 61 schools, 65 teachers, 3,998 pupils, 32,541
baptized members, and 16,521 communicant members.
The Norwegian Lutheran Church of America reports 853 schools, 1,283 teach-
ers, 50,371 pupils, 485,000 baptized members, and 300,000 communicant members.
The Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other States reports 2,213 schools, 1.173
pastors teaching in school, 1,450 teachers, 96,737 pupils, 1,000,914 baptized
members, and 613,798 communicant members,
The Wisconsin Synod reports 250 schools, 173 teachers. 16,412 pupils, bap-
tized membership 190,946, communicant membership 155,261.
The Minnesota Synod has 120 schools, 41 teachers, 111593 pupils, 37,537 bap-
tized members,26,319 communicant members.
.
The Michigan Synod has 76 schools, 27 teachers, 6,837 pupils, 23,124 baptized
members, and 12,121 communicant members.
The District of Nebraska has 25 schools, 11 teachers, 1,210 pupils, 7,815
baptized members, and 5.969 communicant Members.
The Slovak Synod reports 80 schools, 6 teachers, 1,614 pupils, 12,970 bap-
tized members, 8,570 communicant members.
EDUCATION IN THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
By HENRY H. MEYER,
Editor of Sunday School Publications.
The Methodist Episcopal Church emphasizes the importance of
educational work.
it holds that the individual to be a v,Wul frign-
her of society must have high ideals of life and conducAind must
possess the ability to act in accordance with those ideals both for
the sustenance of his own life and for the service of mankind.
PARISI; INSTRUCTION.
At the foundation of the whole plan is the educational work in
the local parish. The general conference of the church has made
provision for the maintenance of. a board of Sunday schools whose
duties are "to found Sunday schools in needy neighborhoods; to con-
tribute to the support of Sunday schools requiring assistance.; to edu-
cate the church itall phases of Sunday - school work, constantly en-
deavoring to raise ideals and improve methods; to determine the
Sunday-school curriculum, including the courses for teacher train-
ing and, in general, to give impulse and direction to the study of the
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
569
Bible in the c
rch."
For the year 1917 the board reported 36,302
Sunday schoo
with a staff of officers and teachers of 414,480 and
a total enrollment of 4;679,943.
In each case the figures were the
highest in the history of the church.
The textbooks and periodicals furnished by the Methodist Book,
Concern show improvement both in variety and quality. A com-
plete carefully graded course. of study is now provided for pupils of
all ages, a thie-yearmourse of training for prospective teachers and
officers is available, and there is an increased supply of literature
dealing with special aspects of religious education.
These ptiblica-
tions have a circulation of 5,000,000, of which 343,000 are for
teaegrs.
Special attention has been given to the interpretation to
the pupils of present world conditions.
Twelve lesson courses of
study have been prepared and widely distributed on the topics of
" World Democracy " and "Marshaling the Forces of Patriotism."
An important educational work is carried on by the Epworth
League through its study classes and institutes and especially by
means of its plan whereby every league member is assigned to some
definite task in the service of the church and the community.
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.
The Board of Education of the Methodist Episcopal Church holds
an advisory relation to all the Methodist Episcopal schools and col-
leges, which are, as far as possible, independent and self-supporting.
Institutions.
Num-
ber.
Grounds,
buildings,ond Endowment.
equipment.
*A nnual
income.
Debt,
Faculty. Students.
Colleens,
universities,
theologicalsminanes,
etc
Secondary schools
Negro institutions
Total
49
39
20
327,969,503
4, 269,311
2,075,460
$29, 2in, 490
1,7.59,
748,
14,893,
MI,
404,1806.
621,262
372:001
15,000
2,506
.
431
333
38,661
7,343
6,006
108
34, 312,284
31,709,17u
6, 940, 58.6
1, 89S, 263
3,2711
32,010
Much of the endowment 5f the schools and colleges is secured
through the cooperation of the board of education.
In some cases
direct gifts of money are contributed to the annual income, out of a
fund which the board maintains for that purpose.
During the year
1917 a total of $43,030.43 was granted to schools.
i
Through the university senate the church exercises its power to
maintain standatds of endowment, equipment, and scholastic work
in the colleges and schools.
The Mate consists of 16 college presi-
dents.
Created in 1888, it is believed to be the first organization for
standardizing d011eges in America.
570
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 106-1918.
In order that a Methodist Episcopal institution may be listed as a
college it must satisfy five principal requirements:
1. A four-year preparatory course for entrance to the freshman
class.
2. Four years of college work leading to the bachelor's degree.
3. A faculty of not less than six teachers giving time exclusively
to college, as distinguished from preparatory or professional school
work.
4. Not less than 50 students regularly enrolled in the four college
classes.
5. A minimum of: $200,000 of productive endowment over and
above annuities and debts.
SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
Miring the biennium 1915-1917, 39 secondary schools were affil-
iated with the board. Institutions of this class do not progress rap-
idly, since the advance and expansion of public high schools supplies
so well the increasing demand for secondary education.
There is
nevertheless a constant 'need which the public high school can not
fill. Children whose- parents are dead, or divorced, or constantly
traveling, or who are made sensitive by slight mental and physical
defects must receive personal care in their education.
Therefore the
board includes in its responsibilities the support and encouragement
of secondary schools.
*
-
The total faculties include 431 members.. Total attendance for the
school year ending in June, 1917, was 7,343.
Fifteen schools at .widely separated points in the southern moon-
is
field of activity assigned by the general conference of N08.
s are a direct charge and not merely under the board's super-
s sion. Exteftion of education among the highlanders of the South
These southerners were' never slaveholders.
Turning to the moun- ,
tains from a love of.hunting and adventure, or driven the to avoid
the fate of the poor whites, they fell into poverty and isolation, from
which but few have ever emerged.
.
Yhe board of education furnishes iti this section both- institutions
and the means of attending them.
,
Funds for the support of schools are taken from the public edu-
cationaLcollection, of which one -fifth is paid to the board; while the
remainder goes directly to the local Methodist institution.
A
.
PROGRESS IN two TEARS.
Comparing the same 49 colleges, universities, and professional
schools, in the reports for Jim% 1915? and June, 1917, they pro-
.
greased in every direction:
'14
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
571
Grounds,
buildings, and
equipment.
Endowment.
Income.
Debt.
Faculty, Students.
June, 1915
935,563,330
828, 075, 359
$4, 280,632
82, 837,356
2,411
33,528
June, 1917
27,938, 508
29, 203, 490
4,893,997
1,521,262
2,513
35,661
Difference
2,405, 178
1,128, 131
613, 365
1, 310,044
95
5,138
In two years the equipment, buildings, and grounds have advanced
nearly two millions and a half, the paid-in endowment more than a
million, and the annual income more than half a million, while the
indebtedness is reduced a million and a quarter. The combined
faculties have gained 95 members, and the student enrollment shows
'an increase of Aver 5,000.
The increasq in endowment during this period can not be judged
merely from the above tables, which represent actual sums paid in.
In addition the educational jubilee, under leadership of this board,
had subscribed up to June, 1917, something over nineteen millions,
though exact figures are'not available until the close of the campaign
in 1918:
THE STUDENT LOAN FUND.
An important function of the board
the administration of the
studebt loan fund, by which 2,062 students received financial aid
in 1917. With a few exceptions, only persons studying in schools or
colleges of the church may receive loans. The fund is derived from
the annual Children's Day collection in the shurches, which in 1917
totaled $99,000. The church, therefore, contributes nearly $100,000
each year to the cause of education in addition to the public educa-
tional collection.
The loan fund began operation in 1873; since then in all 24,935
studen0 Have received loans.
Of the 2,062 aided last year, the intended callings are:
Ministry
828
Missionary
4rShbs-
133
Ministry and tuissionary_
28
Teaching
L
538
Other callings
t-
537
Total _
2,082
The loans bear no,kterest if paid within fiviyears after gradua-
Cori. As soon as moar is returned it goes into the available fund
and is loaned out again.
NEGRO EDUCATION.
Special work for colored people in the Southern States is under
the care of the Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. For this purpose the following institutions have been
572.
, BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
established: Gammon Theological Seminary, Atlanta, Ga.; Meharry
Medical College, Nashville, Tenn.; Flint-Goodridge Hospital. and
Nurse Training School, New Orleans, La.; Bennett College, Greens-
boro, N. C.; Claflin College, Orangeburg, S. C.; Clark University,
Atlanta, Ga.; Sarnuel Huston Collegd, Austin, Tex.; New Orleans
College, New Orleans, La.; Rust College, Holly Springs, Miss.;
George R: Smith College, Sedalia, Mo.; Philander Smith College,
Little Rock, Ark.; Walden College, Nashville, Tenn.; Wiley 'Col-
lege, M rshall, Tex.; Central Alabama Institute, Birmingham, Ala.;
Cookm n Institute, Jacksonville, Fla.; Gilbert Industrial Institute,
Baldw n, La.; Haven Institute, Meridian, Miss.; La Grange Acad-
emy, La Grange, Ga.;1 Morristown Normal and Industrial College,
Morristown, Tenn.; and Morgan College, ltaltimore,. Md.
Princess
Ann Academy and Virginia Collegiate and Industrial Institute,
Baltimore, Md., are two schools affiliated with the last-named insti-
' tution.
.
At Bennett College,' Claflin College,* Clark University,
Samuel
Huston College, New Orleans College, Rust College, Philander
Smith College, Walden College, Wiley College, and Morgan College,
college preparatory, high school, academic, and normal training are
carried on extensively, with a small college course for a few of the
students who feel that they need the larger preparation either for
entrance into professional schools or for the higher grades of teach-
ing.
At Central Alabama Institute, Cookman Institute, Gilbert Indus-
trial Institute, Haven Institute, Morristown Normal and Industrial
College, George.R. Smith College, Princess Anne Academy and Vir- 4
inia Collegiate and Industrial Institute until recently 'fit Lynch-
urg, Va., now at Baltimore, Md., primary and grade work, with
h gli schdol, academic, college preparatory, and normal training are
c
vied on.
At many of the schools primary and grammar classes
ar kept up, partly for teacher-training purposes and partly to sup-
. ph ent the insufficient facilities for colored children provided in
the sublic schools.
.
.
I , ustrial departments are maintained at Claflin College, Samuel
Hus.n College, Gilbert Industrial Institute, and Morristown Nor-
ma and Industrial College.
Agriculture including gardening is
to ght at Bennett, Claflin, Samuel Huston, George R. Smith, Wiley,
ntral Alabama, Gilbert, and Morristown.
.
-..
.
he curriculum for all of these schools is prepared by the Freed-
i-
menlsAidSoclety and approximates the requirements for similar
grades in schools generally throughout the country.
Of necessity
the same standards can not be maintained as in those sections of the
country' where teachers have been trained for generations, afid the
I Tits property is used by the publk school.
-t
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
573
school systems have the advantages of modern libraries.
Neverthe-
less, everywhere there is t
purpose to advance the standards of pro-
motion and graduation t
to the highest requirements of the best
*
schools anywhere throughout the t ountry.
Grade records are kept
in all the schools and promotion is entirely on the basis of the work
accomplished.
.
The entire attendance at all of these schools last year was 5.864.
The cost of maintenance for the year 1916-17 was $436,034.30, of
which the Freedmen's Aid Society contributed $130,360.03.
The
balance was in student fee.1, board bills, and the contributions of the
colored conferences in ,which the institutions are located.
DEACONESS SCHOOLS,
The general deaconess board of the Mebbodisf Episcopal Church,'
in addition to supervising the deaconess work throughout the church,
carries on important educational work. There are now in successful
operation 56 deaconess homes, 25 hospitals, 23 mission and settle-
ment houses, 11 training schools, 23 rest and summer homes, 6 homes
for the aged, 8 children's homes, 11 girls' homes, 1 boys' school, 2
girls' schools,,and 1 boys' and girls' school.
These institutions are
located in 89 different cities and towns of the United States and
represent property and endowment of $8,270,143.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH,
SOUTH.
By W. E. HOGAN,
Assistant Secretary: Board of Education.
Exclusive of a score ocr more schools which the Home Department
of the Bbard of lgissions maintains for dependent and delinquent
girls, and for children of foreign-speaking people, the educational
institutions of this chuich, within the United States, are as follows:
Universities, 2; colleges of liberal arts, 29; junior colleges, 24; aced -=
emies, or secondary schools, 26; mission and missionary training
schools, 4; total, 85.
The value of the grounds, buildings, and equ
ment of these 85 institutions is $15,641,244.
The amount of the
combined endowment is $8,985,874.
Their gots assets are thereforp
$24,627,118.
The annual income of these institutions was -last year
$2,140,714. The total enrollment was 19,736.
CLASSIFICATION ANDATANDARDIZATION.
Although the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, has teen one
of the pictneerit among the denominations in providing the necessary
574
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
boards and commissions for standardizing and classifying its edu-
institutions, it was not until within the last two years that
this work las been done with anything like. completeness or satisfac- .
tion. As early as 1$98 the church, through its General Conference,
created what is known as the commission on education.
This com-
mission is composed of 10 practical educators appointed quadren-
nially; whose duty it is "to protect the educational standards of the
church."
At least once in four years this commission meets and
issues a carefully prepared report in which it prescribes the mini-
mum requirements a4. to admission and graduation standards, teach-
ing force` income, and endowment to be demanded of the several
classes of institutionsst
the board of educatiOn,of the church
is then committed the task of ascertaining the financial condition
and the equipment, as well as the amount and quality of the work
done jn all the educational institutions, and to classify eacli-ftccord-
ing to the relation of its equipment and the quality of its work to
the standard established by the commission.
Like an other agencies
which, have undertaken the work Of classifying a number of col-
leges differing so widely in material equipment and academic stand-
ards, the board has found this to be a vey 'cult task. The com-
mission would fix quadrennially definite and s
i4c requirements to
be demanded of the different classes of institutions of the church, but
because of the large ntunber of institutions organized as four-year
colleges but unable to meet the college standards, provision was made
for carrying temporarily a list of "unclassified institutions." Al-
though this work Bf correlatifg and organizing its schools into one
harmonious system was carried on by the.church through its board
of education and its commission on education with more or less
success for a nurnher,of years, and this list of "unclassified institu-
tions" gradually grew smaller, it was_ not until the General Con-
ference of 1914 that legislation was enacted which made possible the
classification of all the schools of the church.
It is interesting to note that the junior college movement assisted
materially in making possible the complete elimination of the list
'of "unclitssified institutions."
Although the commission had made
no provision for the junior-colleges up to 1914, a dozen or more of
tite "colleges of the churclh,were attempting only two years of college
work, the freshman and/ the sophomore,sand were calling themselves
junior colleges.
The sixth repbrt of the commission,
i.issued
in Au-
gust, 1914, prescribed definite standards for acaVnes, junior col.-
loges, colleges, tlukalogiCal seminaries, and universities, and gave ex-
plicit directions that eery institution of the church should be placed
in one of the classes and that this classification, based on the new
requirements and standardsohould.be made not later than thessum-
..
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
575
mer of 1916.
Accordingly in September, 1916, the board of educa-
tion, with great care, made a thorough classification of all the insti-
tutions of the church.
The elimination' of the list of meaningless
1
"unclassified institutions" has been therefore one of the important
educational achievements of this church during the last two years.
THE CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL.
A unique feature of the educational work of the Methodist Episco-
pal Church, South, is the correspondence school which the board of
education has maintained for 16 years.
The purpose of this school is
to give instruction through correspondence to the Young preachers
pursuing the four-year courses of study required of them for admis-
sion into annual conferences.
During the 16 years of its opereition
his correspondence school has proven to be a most valuable agency
for the training of preachers.
It gives instruct ion annually to about
1,000 young preachers.
Heretofore these men have not been re-
quired to take their conference courses of study through the corre
spondence school, although they were strongly urged to do so.
But,
beginning with the conference year 1'918-19 all of the young preach-
ersmust take their annual conference courses of study through this
school.
This Will increase the enrollment about 50 per cent.
At
the'
present (July, 1916) the instruction is given by the members of the
faculty of the Candler School of Theology of Emory University.
But the General Conference this year authorized the board of educa-.
tion to divide the work of the school between the two universities
of the eh ur h, so that the territory east of the Mississippi River will
be served by the Candler School of Theology at Atlanta, Ga., and
that west of the Mississippi by the school of Theology of Southern
Methodist University at Dallas, Tex. The work will continue to he
done under the general supervision of the board of education, but
instruction is to be done by members of the faculty of the two schools
of theology.
sr
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.
-Along with (Aber denominations, this church recognizes the increas -'
ing importance of distinctively religious education.
During the last
two years the boakl of education has made surveys of the religious
instruction provided in the institution of the church and the need
for religious education of students in State institutions. As never
before, the church's obligation to provide for the religious education
of all its childreti and youth is being recpgnized by both educators
andchurchmen. The increased emphasis which is being placed upon
this itnportant work by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, is
1
576
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1P16-1918.
shown by the recent establishment of the follbwing new agencies for
promoting religious education as distinct from secular education:
1. A joint committee on religious education.This committee con-
sists of 10 members," 5 appointed from the Sunday school board
and 5 from the board of education, and to it has been committed
the (laity of promoting specific religious instruction in the educa-
tion:0 institutions of the church.
2. Annual conference commission on religious education in ,,tate
institutions.ProvisioA has this year been made for the creation in
each of the 40 annual conferences of a commission for the purpose of
providing for the religious education of students in State institutions.
Upon the approval of the flnnunl conference, this commission is em-
powered to employ a director of religious education at those charges
in which are located state institutions.
The five annual conferences
in Texas and the three in Missouri had already begun this work at
the seats of the universities of these States even before this commis-
sion was provided for, and the authorities of the church and of the'
universities have been working in perfect harmony and genuine
cooperation.
3. Secretary of department of nniiisterial supply and training
and of religious education.Por some years the board of educa-
tion has maintained a department of ministerial supply and train-
ing to which a secretary has given all his time.
But the proposed
division of the work of the correspondence schbol and the election of
a director at each of the two schools of theology will relieve this
secretary of much of his work, so far as it relates to ministerial
training. The board has, therefore, elected li,m to the office of " sec-
retary of ministerial supply and training an'd of religious educa-
tion," with the understanding that he is to give practically all cif his
time to questions pertaining to ministerial supply and religious.edu-
Cation.
Beginning with the college year 1918-19, therefore, the
board is to have a secretary ti whom is committed the specific ta,,k
' of promoting distinctive religious education in colleges of the church,
in State institutions, and wherever else he deems it practicable.
AID TO NEGRO EDUCATION.
This chtirch does not own and contr*l outright any Negro school,
but jointly with the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church it owns
Paine College, Augusta, GC In addition to its contributions to this
school the church has also been making small annual donations to five
or six of the schools belonging entirely to the Colored Methoinst
Episcopal Church. In recent years approximately $20,000 have been
given annually through the board of education and the home de-
partment of the board of missions to Negro schools. Much more
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.'
577
than this amount was given in response to appeals at annual confer-
ences and elsewhere, but that has been the amount officially and defi-
nitely set aside for certain specific work in Negro schools.
But the General Conference of 1918 was much more responsive to
the educational needs of the Negro than any previous General Con-
ference has been. The program which the General Conference of this
year has laid out includes: (1) An annual assessment upon the entire
church of $55.250 for colore,d work, one half of which is to be admin-
istered by the board of education and the other half by the board
of missions.
(2) The missionary centenary movement, which pro-
poses to raise $35,000,000 in the churck within the next five years,
carries with it a program of about $1,660.000 for the religious wel-
hwe of the Negro. about $100,000 of which is to go to Paine College
and $250,000 is to be distributed equally among five other educational
institutions of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church.
CAMPAIGN FOR ENDOWMENTS AND PLANT IMPROVEMENTS.
In his annual report to the Board of Education in 1917 the corre-
sponding secretary called attention to the financial needs of the
whole educational field of the church and made certalit specific
recommendations for meeting these needs. After making a detailed
analysis of the prsent educational situation, he declared it to be "of
the greatest importance that the debts of our schools be paid ;that
.endowment sufficient to insure to them at least a moderate annual in-
come be secured, and that their buildings be made reasonably ade-
quate." He recommended that the board endeavor to secure from
the General Conference of 1918 the following action: (1) Fix a
definite minimum sum as required to meet the eancational needs for
the next four years, request the church to contribute said sum, and
authorize the educational forces to collect it.
(2) Provide' for an
agency to apportion to each institution the amount which it should
receive.
(3) Provide for an agency whose duty it shall be 43
eliminate or combine superfluous schools in case it appears that such
action is necessary.
(4) Provide for an organization under whose
general superintendency an educational forward movement shall be
conducted.
The board thereupon directed that its corresponding secretary
obtain detailed informatipn from th13 institutions themselves as to
the amounts necessary for them to secure " to enable them to carry
on their work successfully."
This direction was carried out with
much care, and the secretary's quadriennial report to the General
Conference.in May, 1918, gave an itemized statement of the need
of the several institutions. Not including the two universities the
aggregate amount which the institutions need, according to their
reports to the board of education; is $13,208,655. The two alli
171029°-21BuIL 88-87
578
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
versifies reported that they should have within the next four years
additional resources amounting to $5,000,000 each.
Recognizingiirt
fact that to carry out successfully any movement to secure the
5423,000,000 needed to strengthen the institutions of the church would
require the cooperative. effort of all available agencies and that such
cooperation would be impossible without the proper organization, the
General Conference of 1918 enacted the following legislation looking
to a great educational forward movement.
1. A church-wide campaign to raise $13,000,000 for the schools and
colleges of the church was approved and ordered.
This campaign
is to be " conducted under the general supervision of the General
Conference board of education in cooperation with annual conference
boards of education and collige trustees."
2. A campaign for $10,000,000 for the church's two universities
$5,000,000 for Emory University, at Atlanta, Ga., and $5,000,000 for
Southern Methodist UniIrsity, at Dallas, Tex.was indorsed and
ordered.
The immediate conduct of this campaign was lodged in
the boards of trustees of the two universities.
3. The organization of an educational association among the
schools, colleges, and universities of the church:
This association
has already been organized. Its purpose is to foster the cause of
Christian education, and it is expected that it will render invaluable
aid in the conduct of the financial campaigns which have been
ordered.
4. The board of education was authorized, if it deems wise, to
make provision for a coinmission on consolidation to which shall be
given "authority to investigate and advise with reference ,to the
correlation, elimination, or consolidation Of any educational institu-
tion or institutions of our church wherever one or more annual con-
ferences request the board of educ
-ion for such assistance."
There has been no more impo ant achievement in the educational
history of the last two years
this church thastmthe securing of this
legislation which makes po ible the necessary organization and ma-
chinery for a unified, coo.rrative church-wide financial campaign fgr
the endowment and *nt improvement 2f all those institutions of
learning which the/best educational thotrght of the church believes
should be maintained and strengthened'
EDUCATIONAL WORK LOP THE BAPTIST CHURCH, NORTH.
By FRANK W. PADELFORD,
Beacutive Secretary Board of liducation.
/ The educational interests of theNorthern Baptists are fostered by
two denoMinational agencies, the board of education and the An4r-
ican Baptist Home Mission Society. The latter owns and directs
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE C/AURCHES.
579
the schools for Negroes and Indians. All other educational interests
are directed by the bo.ard of education.
The denomination, as such,
however, does not own or control its scha .1s for the American whites.
They are all under the direction of b.dards of trustees, most of which
are self-perpcquating.
While the denomination supports and fosters
many schools, it wishes them to be free from denominational control.
The Baptists of the North have 8 theological seminaries, 9 train-
ing
schools
mostly
for preparing ministers for non-English-
speaking churches, 22 colleges, 10 junior colleges, and 20 academies.
These institutions enroll 28,286 students, have property worth
$31,525,203 anil endowlnents of $49,084,299.
The Baptist' Church, North, owns and controls through its Home
Mission Society 23 schools for the Negroes of the South, 13 being of
college grade ayd 10 of secondary grade.
It owns one school for the
higher education of the Indians and several for elementary educa-,
tion.
It also conducts one school in Cuba and one in. Porto Rico.
The total attendance at the missionary schools is 8.073, of whom
2,396 are receiving some form of industrial training and 444 are
preparing for the ministry. These school properties are valued at
$1,454,000.
-
.
In 1915 the denomination adopted a progi.am of advance for a
five-yea period. The educational items in that program are as fol-
lows: " Student pastors in 25 universities, 15,000'Baptist students in
colleges and-universities. 1,000 Baptists students in theological semi-
naries, and.$6,000,000 additional equipment and endowment for our
schools at home and abroad."
Until caw entrance into thb war the
church was making rapid progress in the attainment of each of these
goals, but the war has caused a serious setback.: We had student pas-
tors or assistants in 19 universities. The exact number of Baptist
students in colleges was unknown, but we-had 17,841 students in our
Baptist colleges.
The number of students in our theological institu-
tions was 997.
There has been a serious decrease in all these direc-
tions as a result of the war.
The financial program of the Church for its schools has not been
seriously affected as yet.
During the three years 1915-1918 there have
been added to the funds of our institutions $10,568,094.
Thus in
three years we have surpassed the goal set for five years. During the
year 1917-18 the additions hax..te amounted to more than $3,500,000.
The most important development of the last two years has been the
decision of the board of trustees of the university of Chicago to
t
found a graduate medical school of the highest grade.
The origi-
nal foundation for.this school will be.$15,000,000, a half of which
had been subS8tibed when war was declared. The project is only
temporarily delayed by the war.
It is the intention of the trustees
. to found. the school at the. earliest possible moment. The Middle
580
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 191% -1918.
States will then have a graduate medical school of the grade of Johns
During the past year another consolidation has taken place in
Iowa. Union Co Ikke, located at Des Moines, which is a result of
the consolidation two years ago of Central University and Des
Moines College, has now absorbed Highland Park 'College and pur-
chased its property in Des Moines. This has assured one strong in-
stitution in the place of three weaker-ones.
The board of education has just embarked upon a project to raise
a large fund, the interest of which shall be devoted for a period of
five years following the close of the war, or so lon-g as may be .neces-
sary, to assisting Baptist boys who have been
.c Army and Navy
in -completing their education.
Large number
. boys left for the
war with their education'only partially corn
d.
Many of them
will wish to return and the church intends to assist them in finish-
.
ing their education.
The Baptist Church, North, has maintained an increasingly ex-
tensive work among the Negroes of the Southtinee the days of their
liberation.
The most important of its institutions are Spelman
Seminary for girls at Atlanta, Ga., with an ervollment of 780; Bene
diet College at Columbia, S. C., with an enrollment .of 694; Shaw
University, Raleigh, ',.NT. C., an institution with fi II collegiate depart-
ment and several gradutite schohis, with an enrollment of 402.. The
one school for the higher education of the Indians is Bacone College'
at Barone, Okla., with an entollment of 266.
The church maintains schools for training ministers for the new
Russians,
in America'among the Danes, Hungarians, Norwegians,
Russians, Slovaks, Swedes, and Germans.
SOUTHERN BAPTISTS' AND EDUCATION.
By J. NV. CAMMACK,
Secretary, Education Commission of thsO Southern Baptist Convention.
In the 17 States which cover the territory of the Southern Baptist
ConvArtion are more than two and three quarter million white Bap-
tists Who are enrolled in the churches. A number of their colleges
were founded around the year 1825.
In their orgabize'd educational
work Southern Baptists were preceded by the Northern Baptists, who
founded Brown University in 1764 and who gave to Harvard Uni-
versity its first president. For many years Southern Baptists shared
the poverty which was general in the South. Mauy.of their members
are in the rural districts and very much of whativei progress has
been made in rural free schools in the South haa been due. to the
initiative of Baptist country pastors and to the' volunttiy gifts, in
addition to the school levy, from Baptist men and women.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
THEOLOGICAL SCItOOLS.
581
For the training of ministers and mission workers Southern Bap-
tists haC'e the Southern Theological Seminav at Louisville, Ky the'
Southwestern Theological Seminary at Fort Worth, Tex. ; and the
Baptist Bible Institute at. New Orleans, La. The first of these has
mere male students than any other theological seminary in this
country, the number, in 1917, being 322.
The institute at, New
Orleans opened itb first session in September, 1918.
In the other two
in't itutions, in 1917, were 474 meti and 217 women: the latter were
taking training for mission and social'settlement work. Their prop-
erty was valued at $1,100,000 and the endowment amounted to
$1,6 45 000.
-
COLLEGES AND UN INTIZSITI ES.
Southern Baptists have 3S schools of college and university grade.
Not :ill of these have reached the standard college grade. according to
the. Southern Association of Schools and Colleges, but are giving four
years of college work beyond the stand rd high school.
In these, in
191 7, were 399 male and 3 76 female
,tellers, and 5.433 male and
0,851 female students. The property was valued at $S,563,493 and
the productive endowment nt $5,370,000.
Their income amounted to
1s1,1 20,2S9.
J U N 1OR COLLEGES.
A syqem of junior colleges, giving two years of standard college
tvok, in addition to high-school courses, is being devebved by South-
ern Baptists.
There are 15 of these, and in 1917 there were in them
671 young men .and 2,212 young women. Their property is valued
at $2,000,000.
Most of 'tiwso schools are unendowed.
Several of
them are supported in part by annual gifts from the churches.
ACADEMIES.
Of the hiferigebool grade, Southern Baptists have 77 institutions.
These give from 14 to 17 units; credit for, work done, and *prepare
students for universities and colleges.
In them, in 1917, were 5,851
boys and 5,029 girls.
Their property is valued at $2,335,250.
oRrHANAGE.9.
School work is done in 13 orphanages which are under control of
Southern Baptists.
In some of these the work is cartied on up to the
eighth grtide, and some give four years of high-school work.
In the
schools of these institutions in 1917 were 877 boys and 965 girls.
Theii property is valued at $2,000,000. Thus the total number of
$:
582
BIENNIAL SURVE4OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
,
schools fostm.ed and controlled by white Southern Baptists is 145.
The total number of students is 28.040. The property value is $15,-
993,000, and the endowment amounts to $7,343,000.
PRESENT PROGRA\f.
At the last meeting of the Southern Baptist Convention, in May,
1918, a program was unanimously adopted which definitely calls for
the securing oL. 815,000.000 for new equipment and endowment for
denominational schools Itithin five years, and an enrollment in the
schools of 35,000 students.
A. part of this program is to bring 25 of
these schools up to the requirements of standard colleges according
to the standards of the Southern Association of Schools and Colleges.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE PRESBYTFHT ANT CHURCH IN THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
By M. C. ALTAREN,
Suprrintendent of Moult Woman's Board
of Home Missions.
The educational activities of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States of America arc for the most .part covered by the reports
of (a) the Woman's Board of Home Missions,
the Board of
Missions for Freedmen, and (c) the College Board.
The church is
'baking contributions to the cause of education throughout the
United States as wv11 as in Alaska and Cuba and Porto Rico. Men-
tion should be made of the fart that one boarding- school, nameh the
Polytechnic Institute of Porto Rico, is under file Board of Home- Mis-
sions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America,
The task of the Woman's liloard of Home Missions is primarily to
estahlish and maintain grammar and secondary schools at strategic
points throughout the United States, among communities deprived-
by location, race prejudice, environment, or for some other reason of
the advantages of public-school education or Christian-influence and
training.
Through the mission schools established in such centers
appeal is made to the moral and spiritual sides of life, and the result-
ing tendency is almost invariably a general Mental awakening and
improved standard of living.
The course of study followed in the
mission school's is similnar to that of the State public schools, with
particular stress on industrial training, so that-wben boys and girls
leave these schools they may be well equipped for the successful un-
dertaking of life in a rural environment, both as .useful citizens and
as home makers.
There are also Presbyterian schools in immigrant'communifies.
These are conttollea on a 'different basis from the others, the work
4
"f
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
583
being administered locally, although the funds pass through the
hands of the board.
The officers of the Woman's Board and the College Board are lo-
cated atv156 Fifth Avenue, New York City; the headquarters of the
Board of .Mi-sions for Freedmen are 513 Bessemer Building, Sixth
Street, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Tile following is a r6sum6 of statistics of boarding and day schools
of the Woman's Board of Home Missions: Boarding schoolscom-
missioned workers. 185; enrollment, 2.159; average attendance, 1,03;
Sunday-school scholars. 1.636; young people's ,society members, 866;
number united with church, 159; schools, 21.
Day schools--com-
cioned workers 33 ;enrollment, 1,145; average attendance, 748;
urn
school scholars', 508; young people's society members, 1-16;
number united with church, 7; schools, 17. The figures for enroll-
ment and average attendance are obtained from the annual reports
covering the school year 1910-17,
All other statistics are for
16
calendar rear 1917.
The Board of Missions for Freedmen has for its task the.greate t
possible contributions toward the educational development of the
Negro race in the South. This is a problem which has confronted
the church ever since the emancipation of the Negro 50 years ago,
until
it is concerned with more than 8,000,000 colored people,
largely in rural communities. scattered throughout. 13 States.
When
the fact is considered that 30 per cent of these 8,000,000 people are
illiterate, it can readily be seen that the church is committed here to a
ino4 important work.
The schools maintained by this board have a property value of
approx ma tely' $1,100,000.
Number Of day Schools_
140
Number of teachers In flay schools
Nutliber of boarding schools
'27
Total humber Of schools
167
Enrollment
jr..
18, 108
The College Board was organized by the General Assembly of he
Presbyterian Church in 1883.
It represents the churirh in its walk
-and relations with educational institutions, including those of college
and university rank, as well as academies and special schools.
Its
function is to aid in the establishing and strengthening Of such
tutions. In this it differs.from the board of education of the Presby-
terian Church, the function of which is to aid-students and to carry
on religious work among Presbyterian students in tax-supported in-
stitutions.
Presbyteriancolleges are so called for variouseri3asons.
Some are
coniected with the church by meals-Of a charter provisiOn requiring
their trustees to be elected by an ecclesiastical body, such as a pres-
;0"
584
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
bytery or synod, or that all or a part of the trustees be. members of
the Presbyte.-ian Church. Sometimes both of these charter require-
ments exist.
The relation thus established between' the church and the institu-
tion -is commonly called the "organic" relation.
Other colleges
called "Presbyterian " are so by reason of historical associations and
the_fact that a majority of their students- and friends have been
iltembeTs of this church.
Amorig.such institutions are Washington
and Jefferson College, Hamilton College, Coe College, and others.
The relation of. the College Board to a Presbyterian college is an
administrative or financial' relation, not an ecclesiastical relation.
This board gives out of its treasury from time to time whatever funds
may be available toward the endowment or current support of cer-
tain Pres'yterian colleges needing such help.
The number of such
institutiois -thus aided varies from year .to year.
With other col-
leges not rueiving such financial aid the board sustains an advisory
relation, counseling front time to time with Loai as of trustees or with
presidents on matters of policy or administration.
During the college year closing Jura, 1917, there. were in the list of
institutions sustaining the above relations with the College Board
1 university, 44 colleges, 7 special and technical schools, 3 junior
colleges, and 6 secondary schools.
These institutions reported a net
total enrollment of 27,180 students; a total income for current ex-
penses during the year of $1,446,936; a total value of grounds, build-
ings, and equipment of $21,370,086; and prodpctive endowment funds
totaling $17 060,056.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE PRPTESTANT EPISCOPAL. CHURCH.
.
By WILLIAM E. GAImNER,
'General Srnctary, General Board of Religious Education.
The educationahfield of the Episcopal Church contains 12 theo-
logical semintiri6s, 3 clpirch colleges, 112 church preparatory schools,
and 7,000 Sunday schools.
There are no separate boards of educa-
tion or independent controlling organizations in charge of these
agencies. With the exception of the General Theological Seminary,
located in New York, which is under the control of the General Cone
vention of the Churcl the'institutions are directed by boards of
trustees that a4 self-pPetuating or elected by diocesan conven-
tions.
-
-
.To unify all the educational work, the General Convention, which
meets once in three years, has authorized a general board of relig-
idlik eddcation and committed to it the "unification and develop-
ment" of all the etlacatiopallwencies of the church. As the board
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCRES.
585
has been at work since 1913, a description of its organization and
administration will represent the educational movements within tl:e
Episcopal Church.
The board is organized into four /departments:
(1) The Department of Parocl-Kal Education studies and develops
all.the educational agencies withialthe parish, i. e.,.in Sunday schools
(now called church schools), in the'various etforfs to stimulate Chris-
tian ideals in the home, aniinthe educational opportunities in clubs,
guilds, and societies maintained by the parish.
(2) The Department of Secondary Education surveys the stand-
ards of religions education within the preparatory schools, organizes
cooperation and conferences among the teachers and principals, and
discovers the best methods of administration.
(3) The Department of Collegiate Education aims to strengthen
the student in loyalty to the church,. to further his religious educa-
tion by the study of Christianity and church life, and to train him
for Christian leadership. This department accomplishes much will*
through a national student council organized and conducted by the
professors, college pastors, and students.
(1) The Deranment of Theological Education strives to raise
the standards of the educational requirements for the ministry and
. to
them in harmony with changing social conditions; it devises
and promotes plans for recruiting the ministry and encourages the
establishment of financial aid in the form of scholarships and fellow-
ships.
All these departments call counciloi's to their aid.
These are
chosen because they are expert or practical workers in some particu-
lar educational field. At all times there are at least 50 persons giving
volunteer and expert service as councilors.
. Auxiliary to the general board and also organized by vote of the
General Convention are eight provi
al boards of 'religious eductt-
tion,one in each of the eight proviI es of the church.
These boards
exist for the purpose of putting into operatioc. the plans of the ge-
crud board in se far as they are possible within the province, and to
reptirb to the general board educational conditions within-the proTi-
ince.
Within each of the hundred dioceses there is a diocesan board of
education, or a commission or an educational committee. These deal
with localtroblems and apply principles and methods recommended
by the general board.
With, this view of the educational organization of the Episcopal
Church, the followint paragraphs will deal briefly with' some of the
activities which haVe commanded the attention and admitietration
of these various boards.
586
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
CIIIItSTIAN NURTURE.
A general unity of organization and purpose has been introduced
into the course of studies in the churctrschools of 'he various parishes.
A'system ofChristian Nirtation from the home through adolescence
has been defined, published, and in a large measure accepted.
It is
called the Christian Nurture Series, because it is committed to two
fundamental principles: First,. it believes in putting the child in
the center; in other words, it recognizes the law of growth as the
highest consideration.
The plan of teaching is determined more by
the kind of material capable of feeding the child's spiritual life than
by the desire to have certain subjects studied.
Secondly, the Chris-
tian Nurture Series recognizes a training,in religion which is more
than mere teaching.
This training includes, but does not end with.
instruction in truth.
There must be a development of loyaloy to
the church, a fostering of the inner' spiiitual life, and a constant
practice in Christian helpfulness.
Care has been taken to secure an orderly advance from cent=s to
course, each one being built upon previous instruction, and leading
up to that which follows.
Each lesson has a specific aim stated,
and these aims in succession make a clearly defined pathway up which
the child is led to the goal appropriate to each period of his develop-
ment.
On account of the great diversity in grading in various schools and
dioceses, no attempt is mad(' to assign certain courses to definite de-
partments; as, for instance, primary, junior, and senior.
Each
school sis left to make the adjustment for itself as to where one de-
-partment en, s and another begins.
Approximate ages at Which the
instruc
.s appropriate are suggested.
The course is not Bible-centric.
While all the valuable material
in the Bible is ultimately placed before the pupil, there is a five:fold
aim throughout the entire series; the study of the Scripture, training
the memory, training in church loyalty, trainin4 devotional life,
and training in community service; all find place
each course, to
the end that the young Christian is helped to give expression to his
Christianity as he studies it.
During' 1917, 108,000 teachers and puisils studied this course.
1
A BETTER EQUIPPED MINISTRY.
The boar's has also given lunch. attention to the new studios which
should enter into the training of the minister in order that he might
fulfill the new demands made upon the church.
The General Con-
vntion of the Episcopal Church in 1916 instructed the board to
make a study of the training of the minister -and,. formulate such
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
687
new canons as the study would reveal to be necessary. The board
committed the task to a council composed of men,' some of whom
were expert in theological education and others ministers in various
types of communities. and therefore familiar with the new demands
niade upon the church by modern life.
They proposed five princiPles
upon which should be based any requirements for the education of
the ministry.
The first principle is that there should be a full nar-
null standard, formulated by the clowns of the church, mandatory
in character, put to the tore as descriptive of the church's min& and
expressed in simple and general terms intended to indicate subjects
The second principle is that of electives. To the. above normal
standard should be added the requirement that each candidate for thd
ministry must offer sonic electives in order that some degree of
vpecialization niay take place in his preparation.
The third principle has to do with it minimum standard, which
shall be sufficiently low and elastic to meet all proper needs and con-
dit lobs. but this standard must be reached by the process of obvious
subtract ion and departure from the full normal standard;nd shall
be strictly limited to well-defined special- cases. ---
. The fdurth principle defines these special cases to he (a) men of
30 years or over, (b) men of other race orspeech,
who
to minister in a localized field.
The fifth principle concernr the intAeltretation and definition of the
subjects of examination and places the responsibility upon bishops
and examining chaplains, with the advice and counsel of the general
board of religious education.
Around these five principles is gathered the discussion regarding
lr
the education of the minister and the method of his admission into
office.
The new canon will be presented to the general convention,
which meets in Detroit in October, 1919.
TILE APPROACH TO STUDENTS.
The Episcopal Church has approximately 500 professors and
f7,000 students in colleges'and Stale universities. In order to reach
thest and make themfeel that their period of academic study is not a
period of separation' from the church, the general board has organ-
ized the national student council, which is the medium by which
the church approticheS the student
ith requests for study, wor-
ship, missionary giving,.and enlistme
and.community service. In
all the colleges and State universities are local oganizations of
Episcopal students, in some'cases affiliated withithe Christian asso-
ciation:
These are called " units." A unit becoMes n member of the
national student council when it agrees to fulfil the following
minimum program:
588
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
Worship: The unit shall make provision for attendance at a church
service once a week, which tf possible shall he the holy communion, and shall
.
also make provision for a monthly corporate communion.
(2) Religious education: The untt shall make prodlision for religious educa-
tion under church auspices at least during Advent and Lent.
(3) Church extension: The unit shall undertake to extend the church both
In the college and throughout the.world by personal prayer, worm and con-
tributions.
(4) Serice/ The unit shall provide opportunities for personal service
In the- cllreh and In the community.
(5) hleelings: At leastrfour meetings of the unit shall be. held each year.
The advantages of this council are many: First, it unifies the
npprdach of the church to the student.
The appeals made by the
various organizations of the church for the attentidn, interest, and
investment of the student ark rapidly increasing.
By this national
' student council they come in an orderly process and receive at all
times the best attention..of the student.
Secoddly, the national
student council is a djmocratie organization; its control rests with
the students and with the members of the faculty, who are Episco-
palians.
These two groups ativays constitute a majority. And it;
tire third place, the council makes no attempt to define the type of
local. organization. Any society within the college or any group of
Episcopalians whb are willing to fulfill the minimum prograin may
be recognized as a unit.
The emphasis is not on the organization,
but on the plan of work.
WEEK -DAY RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION.
The board is active in promoting week-day instruction in religion.
For many years it has maintained a day school for religious instruc-
tion in connection with the public schools of Gary, Ind. This is
an experimental station. Here are tired out those methods of coop-
eration with the public school which will render religious instruc-
tion a part of the child's total education.
This school has demon-
sttated that it is practicable to maintain a week-day religious school
and that the children will attend such a school regularly and study
as hard as in the public school.
This.experimental station%as had a good deal to do with develop-
ing public sentiment, which is more and more coming to sustain
religious day schools cooperating with public schools.
Closely, related to the Gary experiment, is the encouragement given
to'religious instruction by the credits offered in certain high schools
thrOughout the land.ftor work done in the Bible outside of school
time.
The actiorrof the State board of Virginia is typical.
By
arrangements with the University of Virginia, an official syllabus
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
of Bible study for high-school credits has been published and has
become operative. All Saints, Lakewood, N. J., and Grace Church,
Grand Rapids, Mich., are types of parishes where arrangements have
been made with public-school authorities so that the church conducts
Bible study, for.which credit is git"en in the public schools.
SUMMER SCHOOLS.
The general board through its provincial and diocesan boards
The: facilitated the movement of summer schools.
In the simmer of
1918, 21 summer schools were held in various parts of the United
States.
A fev *ere exclusively for clergy; the others were for
church workers.
In many cases in'these summer schools courses are
now given so that the work done may count for credits toward a
diploma of the general board. Under this plan a portion of the work
is done in summer
and another portion through correspon-
dence or home reading, with examination.
TEACHER TRAIN I NO.
.
The war has revealed more clearly than ever Before the need of
spiritual leadership in the life of the Nation.
In a thousand ways it
has shown 'that spiritual ideals control mankind, that the con
of a nation can be at its best only when the citizens of that nation
recognize and obey the laws of God.
These dffitviction§ have became
the basis of a vast movement for the training of all the religious
teachers of the youth of the land in'homes and schools.
In the au-
tumn of 1918 the general board did its shit& in a large interdenomi-
national campaign by which thousands of teachers were encouraged
to begin the study of a standard course of teacher training, contain-
ing 120 units, the completion of which would take three years. The
unique feature orthis standard course is its turning from the content
of the Bible to the method of teaching Christianity. Such subjects
as "How to teach the life of Christ," "How to teach the Jnission
of the church," "How to train the .devotional life," show conclu-
sively that the cb_vrch. is seeking for definite methods in the accom-
plishment of its egiritual work with the young.
EDUCATION AND THE WAR.
ifiroughtout the years of the war the board endeavored to stimulate
widespread patriotic effort.
The buying of Liberty bonds, of war-
,.
saving stamps, gifts to the Red Cross, the Young Men's Christian As-
sociation, and.the Armenians andSyrian relief occupied the attention
of the various institutions of the church.
J
590
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Feeling the depression that would ultimately come over the coun-
try as the casualty lists came in, the board published and issued a
pamphlet entitled, "Studies in Religion for War Times." ThiS was
circulated among the clergy and teachers of the church with the in-
tention df providing material to maintain spiritual morale in the
midst of personal loss.
LATTER-DAY SAINTS' SCHOOLS.
BY HORACE A. CUMMINGS,
General Superintendent L. D. S. schools,
I. HISTORY AND FUNCTION OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS' SCHOOLS.
In Utah, as in New England, parochial schools preceded the pub-
lic schools.
True, our State university was founded, so far as the
legislative act was concerned, in 1850, less than three years after the
Utah pioneers :,rrived, but it did not perform its functions as a uni-
versity until nearly a quarter of a century later.
The common
schools were supported by tuition entirely until the later seventies,
and from 1815 until little more than a decade ago most of the high-
school work outside of the two largest cities was done by our church
schools.
The reason for the maintenance of an expensive system of church
schools, when the State schools are free and so efficient, is a wide-
spread feeling that religious education, to be of force and value, must
be given with the same care and efficiency and at the sailie stage of
the child's development a,s secular education.
..
II. STATISTICAL.
The following brief table of statistics will ,show the number of
schools in session during th;g_14ist bri
lznium; dieir location, number
of teachers, highest erpgment, and average attendance.
All of
them give four years of regular high-school work, and the first six
give, in addition, two years of college work in education to prepare
teachers for the public schools, where there is always a great de-
mand. The Brigham Young University offers full college courses
and confers degrees.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
591
Statistics of Latter-Day Saints' schools.
Name.
Location.
Number
of
teachers.
Enroll-
ment.
A omega
attend-
ance.
1. Brigham Young University...-
Provo, Utah
55
1,410
1,307
2. Brigham Young College
Logan. Utah
34
924
666
3. Dixie Normal College
St. George. Utah
23
403
372
4. Snow Normal College
Ephraim, Utah
13
332
2:38
5. Ricks Normal College
Rex berg. Idaho
25
473
401
6. WeherNormal College
' i 'glen, Utah
22
518
422
7. Big Horn Academy
Cowley. AV vo
7
118
110
8. Casio Academy
Oakley. Ididu
7
165
152
9. Emery Academy
Castle Dale. Utah
7
109
90
10. Fielding Academy
Paris. Idaho
10
230
214
11. Gila Academy
, Thatcher, Arm?
9
226
167
12. Knight Acadetry
I Raymond. A lberta . Carinda.
8
202
154
13. Latter-Day Saints' UnierNity High i Salt Lake City, Utah
43
,
2,141
1,296
School.
14. Murdock Academy
I Beaver. Utah
8
201
160
15. 11 Ili,rd Academy
Illoctley. Utah
10
174
150
16. Oneida Academy
I Preston. Idaho
12
227
213
17. Snowflake Aendon y
! Snowflake. uric
7
138
116
IS. St. Johns Academy
St. Johns, Ariz
6
86
77
19. San Lois Academy
Manassa . Colo
5
73
55
20. Unitah Academy
. Vernal. Utah
7
223
156
21. Juarez Academy I
Cchmia Juarez, Chihuahua.
Mexico.
'Not reported.
The total disbursements for these schools for the biennium
amounted to $1.208,784.78.
The church also maintains eight theological seminaries and has
authorized the establishment of seven more next year.
These 'are
classes held in small buildings owned by the church and located as
near as possible to large State high schools, where a great many Latter-
Day Saint children attend. The church furnishes a competent teacher
who teaches the Bible'to the high-school students at such periods
during the day as will not interfere with their other lessons.
Thq,
students get credit toward graduation for this work; otherwise there
is no connection between the two.
In our missions on the islands of the Pacific about 40 small schools
are maintained, by missionaries and others.
Most of these schools
are small, but the Maori Agricultural College, in New Zealand, is
an institution having a large enrollment of native young men.
Many othe institutions of an educational character, such as Sun-
,
day schools, Young Men's Mutual Improvement Associations, pri-
mary associations, religion clasie.s, etc., which are taught by vol-
unteer teachers without pay, are maintained by the church, and most
of its members belong to two or more of them. This organization
calls into action nearly every member, as a host of teachers and of-
ficers are required to do this vast amount of work with its study
and planning and responsibility to secure succesq in each individual
case. This is a comprehensive System of practical education in social
activities azid public duties. Special courses are prepared for each
organization, and each has a field of its own, while all together form
a well-balanced whole.
,
692
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
M. TEXTBOOKS USED AND COURSES OFFERED.
Contemporaneous with the State, the church schools. adopt uni
form textbooks, which it does every five years, and follow closely the
books adopted by the State. This is done in the interest of economy
and efficiency, as we get a reduced price and adopts the latest and best
texts.
It also makes the work more uniform throughout this widely
scattered, system of schools.
The courses offered are similar to those given in State high schools,
and include work in English, history, mathematics, languages, art,
music, etc., and a liberal amount of industrial work.
In fact., we
claim Co be pioneers in vocational school work, for as far back as 1871
President Brigham Young provided in a deed of trust, giving a large
tract of land to the college at Logan which bears his name, that
agriculture and mechanic arts as well as sewing and cooking s'hoiild
be taught to the students of the institution, and he hoped that the
funds of the school would grow until it could give to each man
graduating from it $500 with his diploma to buy a team, wagon, and
plow to enable him to go at once to work in the soil, so close were
theory and practice connected in his mind. This impress has fol-
lowed all our church schools until the present time.
IV. NOME PROJECT WORK.
The most important development in our school system during the
biennium is what, we call our home project work.
It came about to
meet a need of rural high schools, which. are nearly all situated in
farming districts.
From the beginning, a great many young men
and young women have been prevented, by the press of home work,
from entering school when it began in the fall, or remaining until it
closed in the spring, and, therefore, many of them would not enroll at
all, and those who did were under a handicap. Winter courses were
provided to meet this condition, but they overloaded the teachers
with school work, as extra teachers could not be hired for a short
winter term. Holding school on Saturdays and thus shortening the
school year, was tried for a number of years, Ihit this preyed too
strenuous for both teachers and students.
At length it was decided to shorten the school year two months,
allowing the students a thonth longer at home in the harvest field
in the fall, and another in the spring for plowing and planting.
During the winter, book work is emphasized and classes are arranged
so that the students can earn three units of credits, mostly in the
intellectual, or cultural subjects.
In the industrial subjects the stu-
dents are assisted in projecting the work they will have to do at home
during the summer, besides learning the fundamental principles of
each subject taken. 'These home projects are properly prepated and
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF . THE CH U RCH ES.
598
passed on by the teacher, then, after school closes for summer vaca-
tion, the teachers of industrial subjects visit the homes of the stu-
dents once a Aveek to see how the work is progressing. About one
hour a day of study or reading is-required during the summer, and
for this work and study, one unit of credit is allowed, making it
easy for each students to earn his regular four units of credit each
year, and to graduate in four year;, prepared to enter college, or the
world of work.
The visiting teachers check up carefully on the home work, evaluat-
ing it as they do work done in school.
They give the best expert
advice concerning the care and treatment of crops, or stock, or cook-
ing. or sewing. etc.
Students give weekly reports to their teachers,
who forward to the superintendent monthly reports of all the
achievements of students.
Besides this work, the teachers check up on the social and church
activities of students and keep a record of the number and kind of
amusements attended. the religious services, church work, charities,
those who attend regularly to their prayers, abstain from using
tobacco, liquor, etc.
This maintains the school standards throughout
the whole year, and the boy who quits smoking to-enter school does
not resume the habit as soon as school closes.
Not 1 per cent of our
boys smoke after being in our schools a few weeks. When they live
for four years in this way the force of the habit tends to keep them
in line continually.
Some of the good results of this work, which was fiut tried out
two years in one of our schools and is now required in all our rural
schools may be summed up as follows:
A mpch greater number of young people go to school.
All are able to earn full school credits and graduate in four years,
as in the old way.
Labor is dignified and made more scientific and efficient.
Study is made more practicable and productive.
The school and home are brought closer together to the vast
improvement of both.
The moral and social instincts are guarded and guided, and the
high standards of the scticol maintained throughout the whole year.
Parents get the help of their sons and daughters for two more
months in the year, and when it is most needed, which obviates the
employment of transient labor, which is often unsatisfactAiry and
even dangerous.
Better'and more crops are raised, and all home work is immved.
It educates toward the farm instead of the city and ptepares the
children to take their parents' places on the farms, so that our best
farms do not fall into the hands of foreigners, because parents from
1710291-21Bull. 88-88
594
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
the farms have sent their children to schools in cities for so many
years that the children lose their love for the farm and refuse to
live there.
While the experiment is still in.its infancy, we have great hopes of
it as solving some important probleins of the home and school.
ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS.
By PATRICK J. McComicK,
Professor of Education, Catholic University of America.
. -
The Catholic school system in the United States at present em-
braces elementary or parish schools, high 'schools, academies, colleges,
ecclesiastical seminaries, universities, and a great variety of schools
of a special or vocational type, such as novitiates, normal schoolss in-
dustrial schools3, schools for Indians, Negroes; orphans, etc. The
elementary schools represent by far the largest 'division of the sys-
tem. They are now established over the entire country, and are most
numerous naturally in those dioceses where the Catholic population
is greatest. A substantial growth is noticeable every year in their
number and enrollment.
Secondary and higher education has also
consistently expanded in recent years, the biennium of 1916-1.8, in
spite of war conditions, having been no exception:- As there are im-
portant points of difference to be noted in the administrative arrange-
ments for the various departments of the system each of them is re-
viewed separately in this report.
PARISH SCHOOLS.
The Catholic Church in the United States consists of 14 arch-
dioceses and 87 dioceses.
Each of these administrative divisions of
the church in this country has its elementary schools. The total of
these schools for 1917-18 was 5,74g, a gain of 151 over the preceding
year, 1916-17. The total of pupils was 1,593,407, an increase of
.95,060 pupils in one year.
The statistics in detail for each diocese
may be found in the Official Catholic Directoary (Kenody, N. Y.).
The ordinary unit of administration for the elementary schools is
de .diocese.
All parish schools .consequently come under the imme-
diate jurisdiction of the bishop, the head of
diocese.
This is
similar to the public-school system in which the administrative unit
is the State.
The diocesan systems are usually presided over by school
'
boards and superintendents, or other officers 'appointed by the bishop
of the diocese, another point of resemblance to the State system in
the United States, whose ordinary governing authorities in school
EDUCATIONAL. WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
595
matters are State education boards and superintendents. The fol-
lowing table shows the personnel of the diocesan school boards and
officials for 1917-18:
DIOCESAN selloor, ito.knns AND SUPERVISING OFFICERS.
'Archdioceses are indicated by an asterisk (*)1
Eeeleslest teal
province.
Diocese or
Title of governing hoard and number 1 Name and title of supervising
archdiocese.
of members.
°Meer
Baltimore
Baltimore
Examiners of teachers (2)
e
Examiners of schools:
For Baltimore (4)
For Washincion (4)
For rural districts (4)
Rev. tawrence Bros-n, su-
perinfendeut
(Baltimore
city).
Richmond
E xaminers of schools:
Northern and westerndistrict (2).
Southern and eastern district (2).
W hefting
E xaminers of schools:
.1 district boards (I, 2, and 2)....
Wilmington
School board (4)
Boston
Boston
Rev. Auguglne F. Illrkey,
8.
T.
1.., supervisor of
schools.
Burlington
School board (3)
Fall River.
Diocesan school visitors (2)
Dartford
Rev.
W.
J.
Fit/roraid,
8. T. L., diocesan super-,
visor of schools.
Portland
School visitors (4)
Providence
Examiners of teachers (3)
Examiners of schools (8)
School board (18)
Springfield
Rev. John F. Conlin, P. R..
diocesan
school
visitor:
Rev. P. F. Doyle, assistant
dim:roan school visitor.
Chicago
Alton..,
Beneville.
15locessan school board (6)
DiOCentl school board (7)
Chicago
Diocessn school board (3)
Rockford
School board:
4 district boards (6, 4, 4, and 4)..
Cincinnati
IN
Columbus
School board (5)
Rev. John P. Curran, super-
intendent of schools.
I)etroit
E xorniners of teachers (6)
'
School hoard:
6 district boards (15, 12, 3, 3, 3,
and 3).
Fort Wayne.. *
Dloceean school board (9)
Rev. A. E. Lafontaine, su-
perintendent of schools.
Cleveland
Red. William A. Kane, su-
perintendent.
Grand Rapids
School board (13)
Louisville
School board (10)
Nashville.
Examiners of teachers and diocesan
school board (7).
Rev. B. A. Stritch, D. D., su-
pervisor of diocesan schools.
Toledo
School board (7)
Dubuque
Davenport
School board (l )
I bruin
Diocesan school board (3)
Omaha.-- .......
Diocesan examiners of teachers (10)
P1ocasan school board (10)
Sioux City
Diocasan school board (6)
Milwaukee.. ...
Omen Ray
Diocesan school board (4)
Rev. P. (Magnet:, secretary
and superintendent.
La Crosse
School board (7).
Marquette.
Schools/n=1010n (7)
Milwaukee
Diocesan school board (2)
New Orleans. ..
Dallas
Superior
School oommission (3)
(tor. L. 1. Harrington, school
examiner.
Galveston
Diocesan school board (3)
11ev. J. H. O'Leary, diorama
director of schools.
Little Rock
Diocesan school board (7)
Rev. Thomas V. 'Tobin, su-
perintendent.
Mobile
Di000lan *shoo' ififit-
*New Orleans
Catholic board or
on (1/4) (10
aockalastics,
la
Kavanagh, super
Rev.
d.
intende
'
59(
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1926-1918.
4
DIOCESAN SCHOOL BOARDS AND SUPERVISING OFICERSContInuecl.
Erviesinstical
I
Diocese or
pro, itWC.
New York
Albany
urihdio.cso.
New York
Orem°
Title of governing board asst number, Name aol title of super using
of rnembets
officer.
Diocesan school board (11)
Brooklyn
Kings County school board (20).....'
queen, County school hoard f
S'assati County school board I
SulTolk County school loud f ro..,
Diocesan sellout board
.
Buffalo
Newark
*New York
oedemburg
Rochester
8 hoot board (2)-
8,-racues
8 hoot board (7).
Trenton
... Examiners of teachers (3)
School board (18)..
sew York City and Yonkers school
board (21).
W retches( er Cou nt y school board (s).
Orange and Rockland Counties
school. bss-d tat.
Ulster and 8 dlivan Counties school
board (4 ,.
Putnam and hutches Counties
school board (4).
8 hool board (5).
Ciregon City
Diocesan school board (8)
Philadelphia.'
Erie
Ruthenian.
t1reek.
81. Louis
lat Paul
Harrisburg
*Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Concordia
Kansas City
Leavenworth
*St. Louis
Wichita
Plan3srek
Crookston
hool board (11)
Diocesan school board (11)
'f3
:7.xamlnera of school teachers (10)...
Rev. Joseph A Punney, in-
spector
scho.d,
Rev. Joeph X', S. Xlcclancy.
inspector of schools.
Rev. Francis T. Kanotey,
perintendent of parochial
schools.
Rev. John A. I 'Ilion. ,oper-
intendent of twhool,.. Rev.
Vi Minn F.
I am
ant
superintendent
of
s^hools
Rev. Joseph F. 8 nail and
Rev. Michael I.
aqin,
perintendents o (schools.
Rev. Jolteph 8 Cameron, su-
perintendelit of 9Ci10019.
Rev. Charles F. McEvoy, au-
,erinlendent o I schools.
Itev. William J. intention,
superintendent
of
paro-
chial schools.
Rev. Edwin
V.
O'Hara,
diocesan superintendent of
schools.
Rev. John M. (;anon, D.
D. C. L., superintendenta
schools.
Rev. John E. Flood, super-
intendent of parochial
schools: Rev. William
I'.
NeNally, assistant sums
bat rodent
Rev. Ralph L. Hayes, super-
intendent of schools.
Diocesan school board (r)
Diocesan school board (3)
Diocesan school board (5)
Diocesan school board (a)
Diocesan school board (la)
Diocesan high-school board (3)
Diocesan school board (14)
Diocesan school bbard (4)
Parochial schdol board (5)
8 hold hoard (a).
Duluth
8 hool board (II).
Fargo
El
Cloud
8 Paul
bioux Falls
Winona
Ran rranciseo.. IdontereyLos An-
eeles.
I *Son Francisco.
Bantar.
Denver
"loteaan schoolboard (5)
8 nool board (a) -
inocesan school board (6)
School board f7) .
impstors of diocesan schools (8)
8 .hoolboard (4).
Rev. Patrick Dooley, super-
intendent of schools
Rev. John P Fuitk.diocesan
superintendent of schools.
Very Rot. J. Baker, V. 0.,
inspector of schools.
Rev. Ralph Hunt, 8. T. is.,
superintendent Ms:noels.
It will be observed that of the 14 archdioee-sei; and 87 dioceses, a
total of 67 have some form of school supervision provided.
This is
more remarkable since many of the dioceses owing to the scattered
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
597
condition of the Catholic population have very few schools. The
diocese of Cheyenne. for example..witl) a Catholic population of
19.000. 18 churches and resident priests, and 21 mission churches has
only 2 parish schools. The diocese, of Baker City, with a Catholic
population of 7,359, 22 churches and resident priests, and 26 mission
churches, has only 6 schools. Ten dioceses have each less than 10
schools: 22 have each less than 20.
The number, therefore, of those
having some form of school supervision among the dioceses with a
considerable school enrollment is proportionately very high.
There has been a notable increase in tip number of supervisory
(tilicers for the parish school systems.
Former reports have men-
tioned the steady increase in the-ranks of diocesan superintendents,
Lott there have been no published accounts of the increasing number
of community inspectors who are to-day the most important auxili-
aries of the diocesan samerintendents.. These inspectors are members
of the teaching communities appointed to supervise the schools of
their respective communities. While many of them cover a wide ter-
Aritory in their worle4sf inspection, many others are limited to the
schools of their community situated in
dio:ese.
All of the largo.
communities engaged in 'elemental.
schgol -work have their in-
spectors. In recent years it has heroine a matter of diocesan organi-
zation to have local or diocesan inspectors for each diocese.
These
latter usually constitute a board of inspectors under the chairman-
ship of the diocesan superintendent and cooperate with the latter
official in the supervisory work of the diocese. An idea of their num-
ber may be had from the lists published in the reports of the super-
intendents.
In Philadelphia, for example, there were 15 of these
inspectors in 11)17 -18, and in New Ydrk, 17. The diocese of Hartford
had three inspectors for one teaching community. The results of the
community inspector's efforts hav% been so gratifying that it is safe
to predict that their appointment will become a universal practice in
the Catholic system before many years.
MOH SCHOOLS.
No other department in the Catholic school system has attracted
more general attention in the past decade than the secondary. A
marked activity has set in in the various teaching 'communities to
meet the increasing need for high schools created both by the rap*
growing parish-school system ow-the one hand and the colleges
the other. The entrance into the field of the parish high school
and the central high school, the latter for the accommodation of the
children of a larger section or of a group of 'parishes, has had a
pronounced effect on the movement.
The proceedings of the Catholic Eductional Association for the
past 10 years bear` witness to the interest manifested.in the move-
598
BIENNIAL' SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
meat by Catholic educators and their concern for its proper control
and direction. Two important 'reports (1912 and 1915) have been
submitted to the association by the committee on secondary educa-
tion appointed to study the movement. The later (1915) showed that
there were 1,276 Catholic secondtry schools in the United States.
Of these 473 were for boys an
girls; 125 w ere exclusively jor boys;
577 were exclusively for girls; 100 were connected with colleges.
They enrolled in the year reported a total of 74,53i pupils, 34,798
of whom were boys and 39;740 were girls. A _more detailed study
of the high schools containing boys showed that of the 438 schools
investigated, all but 29 were directly connected with one or more
parish schools.
This was not found to be true- of the high schools
for girls.
Of the 577 schools listed only165 had ant
parish con-
nections, the majori% being academies conducted independently of
the parish schools by the teaching communities.
Abundant evidence shows thatlthe high-school movement is spread-
.,
ing rapidly. A comparison of the two reports mentioned above in-
dicates this. As compared with the 1912 figures of 310 high schools
containing boys, the 1915 repOrt designates 599a very substantial
increase.
Many other indications point to their annual increase in
number and efficiency.
Since the year 1912 the Catholic University of America, Washing-
ton, D. C., his undertaken to affiliate Catholic high schools which
are able to meet certain standard requirements in teaching staff.
equipment, and courses of study.
This movement has spft!ad every
year and in 1918 the list of affiliated high .schools' contained 144
institutions distributed according to States as follows: Alabama, 2;
Colorado, 2; Connecticut, 3; District of Columbia, 1; Florida, 3;
Georgia, 2; Illinois, 5; Indiana, 3; Iowa, 11; Eansaso8; Kentucky, 5;
Louisiana, 1; Maryland, 1; Massachusetts, 5; Michigan, 2; Minne-
sota, 4; Missouri, 9: Nebraska, 2; New Jersey, 1; New York, 3;
Ohio, 22; Oklahoma, 3; Oregon, 5l,'; Pennsylvania, 22; SOuth DaloOta,
1; Tennessee, 2; Texas, 15; Virginia, 1; Washington, 2; Wisconsin,
6. Annual examinations are set for all affiliated high schools.by the
university, the pupils receiving their credits on the basis of their
standing in them.
COLLEGES.
Institutions listed as eollegds for men in the Official Catholic Di-
rectory' for 1918 number 217, or one more than for the preceding
year. As may be seen from the. statistics of enrollment to be found
in Volume II of the Report of the United States Conimissioner of
Education not all of these institutions
students of college grade;.
Ten years ago (1908) a report on Catholic colleOs for men was sub-
*, milted to the Catholic Educational Association which shuwed that in
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
599
a list of 116 there were 16 institutions which had no students above,
the high school. There has undoubtAly been an increase in the num-
ber of Catholic colleges in recent years. The total in the directory,
however, must include other institutions besides colleges. A list
supplied by the Catholic Educational Association for this report
contains a total
colleges.
,of 176 colleges, of which 35 aro women's college
Almost all of these -institutions are members of the college depart-
ment of th6. Catholic Educational Association.
Most of the colleges for men and all 9,fAtiose for women are con-
ducted by the teaching orders and communities.
About 14 colleges,
like Mount St. Mary's, Emmetsburg, Md., one of the oldest Catholic
institutions in the United States, are conducted by members of the
secular clergy. Some of them, however, properly belong to the group
of .preparatory seminaries.
PREPARATORY SEMINARIES.
The preparatory seminary is really a college open fb aspirants to
the priesthood whose courses prepare for entrance into the lal.ger
or theological seminary.
Frequently it bears the name "cathedral
college," us in New York- City and Chicago, where the institution
is conducted by archdiocesan authority and is open to students from
the archdiocese Who aspire to enter the secular priesthood.
Its
course is chiefly classical and extends over five or six years.
Occa-
sionally this institution is to be found in a diocese which has no
theological seminary of its own, as, for example, the diocese of Jlart-
ford. Again it forms the classical department of the larger seminary
as in Milwaukee and Sin Francisco and is not distinguished aft a
'
separate institution.
In the United States there are 15 preparatory
seminaries for the secular clergy situated in the akhdioceses of Chi-
cago, Milwaukee, Pliiladtlphia, New Orleans, New :York, St. Louis,
'and in the dioceses of Brooklyn, Cleveland, Detroit, Galveston, Hart-_.1
ford, Little Rock, Omaha, Rochester, and San Antonio.
The preparatory seminaries are, as a rule, diocesan institutions,
and are taught by the members of the secular clergy.
St. Charles'
College, CatOnsville, Md., has the same educational purpose as the-
preparatory semiunry but is not diocesan in its organization or con-
trol.
It is conducted by the Fathers of St. Sulpice and is the clas-
sical department of St. Mary's Theological Seminary, Baltimore, Md.
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
The theological seininfly offers, as a rule, two years of philosophy
and four years of theology.
This institution is the lineal deScendant
of the old episcopal or cathedral school which goes back to the early
days of Christianity as the first school for the training of the clergy..
600
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
It was revived by the Council of Trent in the sixteenth century and
made obligatory throughout the Catholic world.
In this country
there are 23 institutions of this kind, situated in the archdioceses of
Baltimore, Boston, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, New York, Philadelphia.
St. Louis, St. Paul, San Francisco ; and in the dioceses of Altoona,
Brooklyn, Buffalo, Cleveland, Columbus, Deliver, Detroit, Galveston,
Indianapolis, Little Rock, Newark, and Rochester.
1V1th the exception of three all of the theological seunnarie l. are
conducted by the members of the secular priesthood drawn for the
most part from .the clergy of the diocese.
The largest theological
seminary in the United States St.. Mary's Seminary, ,Baltimore,
under the charge of the Fathers of-the Society of St. Sulpice,
a community of secular priests having. fonits purpose the education
of the secular clergy. Th6y also conduct St. Patrick's Seminary,
Menlo Park, Cal.
At Baltimore 330 students were enrolled in
1917-48.
These came from all parts of the United States.
SEMINARIES OF RF.LIGIOUS ORI)EBS.
11
The Official Catholic Directory enumerates 106 seminaries for the
year 1917-18. The preparatory and theollgical seminaries numger
38; the remaining 68 seminaries are the training schools of till.;
religious ordot of mere Intended for the recruits of the respectivk
orders or communities they are conducted by the religious organiza-
tions themselves and present certain distinguishing characteristios
owing to the peculiar constitution or function of the organization
they serve.
The Jesuits, for example, have their novitiates and
scholasticate; the Congregation of the Holy Cross has its novitiates
and seminaries; the Marists have their seminaries and colleges.
Alh
the orders, however, whose members become priests, give the candi-
dates for admission' to their ranks a course having this at least ill
common that it embraces the classical or college'courses, philosophy,
and theology. In a certain sense their institutions correspond to
the preparatory and theological seminaries intended for recruiting
the secular clergy.
17NIVERSITIES.
A total of 4 Catholic institutiops in the United States are desig-
nated in' the Official Catholic Directdry as universities.
These insti-
4utions are for the most part conducted by the religious orders and
congregations. The Society of Jeans, or Jestiits,conducts 12, viz, the
University of Detroit, Detroit, Kick; St. Mary's University, Gal-
.veston, Tex.; Creighton University, Omaha', Nebr.; Oonzaga Uni-
versity, Spokane, Wash.; Georgetown _University, Washington,
D. C. Loyola Mayoralty, Chicago, Ill.; Afarquette University,
.stlk
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES.
601
wattkee, Wis.; Loyola-University, New Orleans. La.; Fordham Uni-
versity, New York, N. Y.; ,St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo.; St.
Ignatius University, San Francisco, Cal.; University of Santa Clara,
Santa Clara, Cal. The Vincentians, or Fathers of the Congregation
of
Mission. operate three, viz, Niagara University, Niagara
Falls. N. Y,: De Paul University, Chicago, DI.; and the University
of Dallas. Dallas, Tex.
The Benedictines conduct two, viz, the
Catholic University of Oklahoma. Shawnee, Okla., and St. John's
University, Colli,geville, Minn. The Holy Cross ^Fathers conduct
two, viz, Notre Dame University, Notre Dame. Ind.. and Columbia
University, Portland, Oreg.
The Fathers of the Holy Glwst con-
duct Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pa.
St. Mary's University,
Baltimore. Md., is conducted by the Sul
Fathers. The Cath-
olic University-of America, Washington./". C., founded by Pope Leo
XIII, and ranking as a pontifical university, is conducted by the
Catholic hierarchy of, tlle United States.
Detailed statistics in regard to faculties, departm tits, enrollment
of students, etc., may he found in Volume II of this
ument._
NOVITIATEa AND NORMAL SCHOOLS.
The novitiate or training school for the members of a religious
community has already been mentioned in connection wi.., the semi-
naries of the religious orders.
AS this institution is common to all
religious congregations, those of priests and brothers, as well as those
of sisters, it needs to be noted again us perhaps' the most'sommen
type among the schools of a wiecial or vocational character.
The
brothers of the Christian SchoW (Christian Brothers), for example,
in each of their four provinces for the United States have a school of
this kind, called in one instance, Ammendale Normal Institute (Am-
mendale, Md.1 for the pilivince of Baltimore; and in another, St.
Joseph's Normal College (Pocantico Hills<N.. Y.) for the province
of New York. Th. Brothers of Mary, another teaching community.
has its novitiate in Mount St. John, Dayton, Ohio, and a scholastij
cute in Mount St. John Normal School;also in Dayton.
-
The novitiate gives that training required by the community to fit
its members for the religious life. In the case of teaching commu-
nities, however, additional training is provided for the preparation
of the teacher. This holds both for the communities of men such as
the brotherhoods, and the
mmunities of women such as the sister-
hoods. The 'course closely orresponds to that of the normal school.
Lest the impression be had t I
this school is of recent.origin, or that
the practice of giving a normal course to Catholic teachers is new
.this country, it may be observed the the maintenance of such a
school has been a matter of obligation in all teaching communities
since the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore held it4884..
602
BLETNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
In add'
n to the normal-school course given before the novice
enters up
his teaching career, a number of communities conduct
sulmer sc ools and institutes in the novitiates for the improvement
of teachers in the service.
The summer-school courses usually con-
tinue for five and six weeks.
Catholic universities have in recent years offered summer courses
to teachers and these have been largely attended .by the religious.
In 1918 such summer sessions were held at Creighton University,
Marquette University, Notre Dame 'University,. and the Catholic
University of America.
It may be of interest to-note that in the
latter institution the summer session is conducted under the auspices
of the Catholic Sisters College; it is open only to religious and lay
women and is chiefly attended by the former.
.
Normal schools for lay women are also found in the Catholic
system.
Conspicuous examples are the Academy and Normal School
of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, Seattle, Wash:,, and Holy
Names Academy and Normal School, Spokane, Wash., conducted
by the Sisters'of the Holy Names; St. Catherine's Normal Institute,
Baltimore, Md., conducted by the Sisters of the Holy Cross, and the
Catholic Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis., which had a faculty of
six priests and three laymen in 1917-18.
As these institutions aro
at present classified with theacademies and colleges it is impossible
to designate their exact number.
.
t
SCHOOLS FOR INDIANS.
Catholic schools for the education of Indian children numbered
.in 19)1-18,63. They include 8 day and 55 hoarding schools, and in
many instances offer industrial and agricultural training: Of the
boarding schools, 3, located in Alaska, receive some support from
public funds, in the form of salaries paid certain of their teachers.
Of the remaining boarding schools, 14 are partly supported, not out
of public funds, but out of Indian tribal funds. The balance of these
schools (38) are entirely supported by the church, as is the case with
all the day schools.
SCHOOLS FOR NEGROES.
Catholic schools for Nelroes include pariah establishments, agri-
cultural. and industrial schools and some colleges.
They represented
total of 132 in 417-18. These schools are supported. by endow-
ments and by the voluntary offerings of Catholics collected and dis-
tributed through the"Catholic Board for Mission Work among the
Colored People, and the Commission for Catholic Missions among
-the. Colored People and Indians.
EDUCATIONAL W6EN. OF THE CHURCHEEL,,
SCHOOLS FOP 01IPHANS.
608
Another class of school's of a special character, comprising a con-
siderable number of educational establishments in the United States,
are the schools for orphans. Only 11 of the dioceses of the country
were without orphan asylums in 11817-18.
Two dioceses, viz, Phila-
delphia and Newark, had as inan: as 15 each. In all, the dioceses
there were 297 orphan schools, accommodating 46,474 children.' This
total, taken from the Official Catholic Directory, includes the re-
forinatdries.
A notable feature of the education of the orphan for many years
his been the industrial training, the aim of the Catholic authorities
having been to send the young man or woman into the world at the
completion of his training as a self-supporting and industrious mem-
ber of the community. A similar purpose has actuated those charged
with the work of reforming the wayward; many of these protec-
tories being now in fact as well as in have industrial schools of a
high degree of efficiency.
Among other. schools of a special character which are annually in-
creasing in number are those for the deaf and dumb, for the blind,
for the feeble-minded, for most of which no general statistics are
available. The schools for the deaf and dumb now number 12.
f
N.
CHAPTER XXII.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN
ASSOCIATIONS.
By WILLIAM Olin,
Senior Educational Secretary rithr International Cbmmittet.
CoNrr.s-rs.Ilistorical sketchAims awl objectivesFields of educational work: City associations: rail
road branches; .1rmy and Navy: county work: industrial department; colored work; boys' work:
foreign field: war workProgram of association educational work: statistical tables.
HISTORICAL SKETCH.
At the time when the first Young Men's Christian Associations in
North America were organized in 1851, at Montreal and Boston,
there appears to have been little thought of including a definite
educational program in the work of these associations. Such educa-
tidnal work as was done was limited to 'reading rooms, libraries, a
few lectures, and, from time to time, the organization and mainte-
nance of literary societies.
The great emphasis placed upon distinct-
ively religious work appears to have largely occupied the energies
of the leaders in the movement.
In fact, there is some evidence
to support the view that other activities than those distinctly relig-
ious were regarded as secular and as .,,ossibly inimical to what was
conceived to be the real purpose and spirit of the association.
Despite this attitude, the manifest desire of many members of the
associations for opportunities to develop along intellectual lines led
little by little to the recognition and introduction of systematic edu-
cational work.
The records of the movement show a steady growth
in the educational' activities mentioned above.
In 1866, 15 years
after the initiation of the work on the North American continent,
however,' only four associations reported class work, with a total of
but 60 students.
It is notable that the subjects taught were mainly
in the ancient languages, and for the purpose 'of aiding. divinity
students in preparation for the ministry.
About 1880,, the conception of the field of the association in its
work for young men began to take on new content and to develop
a new meaning.
It was agreed that opportunities for physical,
mental, and social development were in no way contrary to the main
purpose of the associationthat is, the fostering of the spiritual life
but contributed most effectively to this end.
605
lilltj
BIENNIAL SURVEY
F EDUCATION, I916-1518.
In 1889, the International Convention, for the first time, indorsed
educational work as a function of the association.
The subject had
also been discussed for several years previously at State conventions.
A number of the leaders gave the support of their influence to this
form of work.
Reading rooms, libraries, and lectures were supple-
mented by practical talks-and educational groups.
Class work was
extended to include commercial and language subjects; and from
1890 to 1893, beginnings were made in teaching industrial and science
courses.
It is noteworthy in this connection that the associations
were coming to realize that their large field of service in educational
work was in connection with preparation for, and training in, voca-
tions.
In 1893, the II ernational Committee established a department of
education with G orge B. Hodge as senior secretary.
This depart-
ment was made
esponsible for the studying of the fundamental
principles of the
rk and for gathering data front the various asso-
ciations on which suggestions for development could be made :40 Under
the impulse of this new departure, a few local associations employed
secretaries specially charged with the supervision, and direction, of
educational work.
Methods for boys' classes and courses were
carefully studied, and a large field of service, especially for boys
leaving schpol early to enter employment, was revealed.
As the work with classes became more systematic and thorough,
it was recognized -that tuition feei might fairly*be charged, and a
beginning was made in such a financial policy.
To systematize and
standardize the work, international examinations were introduced,
the result of which was to increase respect and support for the work
on the part of the general public and of educational institutions.
In
fact, much commendation was expressed for the value of the service
rendered by the associate& in promoting interest in vocational ed-
ucation.
In 1900, there began a period of expansion and extension.
Instead
of the class work being limited to the winter time, such instruction
was continued throughout the spring. Day work was also intro-
duced, and sununer.schools for boys were organized to supplement
tie work of the public schools.
Special schools, such as automobile.
salesmanship, advertising, insurance, real estate, textile designing,
plumbing, fruit culture, and many others were established.
The
educational program of the association was also extended into fields
outside .the building.
There was a steady increase in the number'of associations employ-
ing educational secretaries.
To some extent, supervision from State
committees was inaugurated.
Higher standards of instruction were
established.
The years from 1900 to 1915 witnessed a remarkable
JI
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
607.
growth of the association educational work, as exhibited by the
following statistical data :
Mt
len
Number of lectures and talks
3,041
14, 819
Educational club members
4,615
26,700
Number of associations with educational socretane,
21
144
Number of p Lid teachers
901
2,592
Total different students, day and evening
9C.1
83.771
Number of international certificates won
1,532
2, 240
Students in arkKiati.-i clay courses
StiO
8,031
Students out side building
351
22,653
E wens° of advert ising
$12,507
$81,772
Tuition receipts
848,000
$14, 044
In September, 1916, George B. Hodge, who had with remarkable
success, fidelity, and devo ion brought the educational work of the
association to a high stanWrd of efficiency, and who had been a large
factor in developing it in all fields, resigned to take up the important
task of developing the statistical work of the International Commit-
tee and of the associations as secretary of the bureau of records.. He
was succeeded in the educational secretaryship of the International
'Committee by William Orr.
Since 1916, the educational work of the 'associations has continued
along li11 6s that have become recognized as standard.
There was
imposed upon the association, in consequence of the war, the respon-
sibility of meeting the needs for a most extensive educationalprogram
in connection with the prisoners of war in Europe, in the Army and
Navy camps, and training stations in this country, and later in con-
nection with the extension of the service of the National War Work
Council to the American Expeditionary Force in France and among
the French an
Italian troops, in fact, wherever the Young Men's
Christian Association was maintaining lied Triangle...work for the
benefit of the men with the colors.
Meantime the local associations had, in many cases, modified their
courses so SS to contribute toward the training of men for technical
service in the Army; the achievement in this respect is one of the
wnost notable in the annals of the movement. Much was done also
through lectures, practical talks, and 'clubs to educate communities
and the immediate membership of the association upon the great
issues of the war.
With the signing of the armistice in November,
1918, the need for the war work in the local associatiens ceased, but
-
there continued to be an even more urgent call for such service in
the camps. In January, 1919, for example, after a considerable period
of preparation, there was inaugurated iii France one of the largest
educational movements on record in the shape of schools and classes
for the benefit of the men in the American Expeditionary Forces
The direction of this undertaking was in charge of an Army Educa-
tional Commission, with headquarters in Paris.
608
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1016-1918.
In the home field, tie associations have been adapting themselves
to a return to peace conditions, and are now consideringnda.-d-
ization of certain classes and schools on a national basis.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES.
Association educational wo,.k originated, as one might say, spon-
taneously, in response to the needs of boys and men with whom the
secretaries of the associations came into sympathetic relations,
through observation, through personal interviews, and through an
intimate. knowledge of the embarrassments and difficulties which
beset the path of those seeking a satisfactory and worthy life career
The workers in the association movement, both laymen and em-
ployed officers, came to zealize the great need of educational oppor-
tunities in the field of both general and vocational training.
Grad-
ually the aims of the movement in this enterprise became clearly
defined, and in all development of the work ty.te aims have been
kept clearly in mind as guiding principles deternAing both content
and methods.
The particular function of the association, through its educational
service, has been to furnish and to make easily accessible to men and
boys, mainly those in industry, Such courses of instruction as would
enable them to become better citizens and workmen.
It is signifi-
cant that even at the very outset of the educational work, this pur-
r
pose appears in the courses in ancient languages intended to aid men
preparing for the ministry.
While such subjects as these no longer
appear in the programs of instruction, the vocational aim has contin-
ued to dominate. As expressed in terms of the particular purpose
of the association movement, such training is regarded as essential
in developing capacity for the largest service to one's fellows and
for the best realization of one's life in accordance with the highest
Christian ideals.
In undertaking to realize these purposes, the association has. con-
sistently sought to supplement rather than to duplicate the oppor-
tunities offered by the public schools and other educational agencies;
In fact, an extreme solicitude in this respect is to be noted; and,
from time to time, tests have been made with resultant revisions of
the program, whereby certain forms of work are eliminated and
others introduced in accordance with the educational conditions and
needs in each Community.
Naturally, much of the service of the educational departments has
been of a pioneer kind, and from competent authority definite.recog-
_ition has been made of its achievements, particularly in the field
41"-- of vocational education. One of thene is that of E. E. Brown, now
chancellor of New York University, and formerly United States
Commissioner of Education, who states:
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEWS CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
609
The Young Men's Christian Association is one of the best pioneer educational
agencies in America, blazing a way for public schools and abet. +o follow.
With the development of vocational courses in publi, schools and
higher institutions of learning, especially since the orga 'nation of
the Federal Board for Vocational Education, it has been I .und nec-
essary for associations to make progressive adjustment to the oppor-
tunity for vocational work offered by other agencies.
The increase
of the age of. leaving school, and the establishment of continuation
schools have made unnecessary at certain points much of the work
formerly done through the associations for boys up to the age of 16.
It is significant, however, that in centers where there are abundant
facilities offered in technical and business courses; association schools
are maintained successfully.
The education of public opinion as to
the value of skilled workmen, as against unskilled, in all fields of
business and industry, tends to great, increase the demand for
vocational training.
There appear to be certain subjects that can
ho offered on a satisfactory basis to groups of men and boys through
the association channel, and consequently classes in those subjects
tae well patronized.
The aims of the association in its educational *Fork are by no
means limited to vocational training.
Much i
being done in ad-
vancing knowledge in fields of general information, such as history,
science, literature, art, and mathematics.
There is a definite endeavor
to promote reading and to stimulate the circulation of books from
both associalion and public libraries.
It may be noted in connec-
tion with reading that for the year ending May 1, 1918, 13 associa-
tions reported a circulation of over 5,000 hooks each among the
membership.
In many cases there is very effective cooperation
between the public libraries and the local associations.
Railroads
branches have been particularly active in the stimulation and direc-
tion of the reading habit.
Other means of general cultdre are through
lectures, practical talks, and, to a limited extent, through classes.
Where an association is not in a positisp to develop organized edu-
cational work on its own part, al
secretaries in city and county
associations are cooperating effectivily in promoting the work of
public schools and of higher institutions of learning.
FIELDS OF EDUCATIONAL WORE.
CITY ASSOCIATIONS.
By far the greatest part of the class work of the Young Men's
Christian Association. is done undthe *auspices of well-organized
and adequately minned associations lb the larger centers of popula-
tion.
The extent of this field can be
froni the followingsstatisties
taken fide' the Yearbook for 1918, whi
howl there were in opera -
171028 °-21 --BAIL 88-89
610
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
tion in 1917, 699 city associations ministering to a population of
39,680,000.
The total membership in these associations was 516,366.
Of these associations, 441 were in cities from under 25,000 population
up to those maintaining what is known a the semimetropolitan
organization; 58 were of the semimetropolitan type, and 15 were
metropolitan city associations.
Out of a total of 79,263 students as
reported, 5,884 were in the first group; 14,683 were in the second
group; 23,377 were in thesemimetropolitan ; and 35,322 were in the
metropolitan city associations.
In most, if not in all of these citieshe association maintains one
or more buildings with art especially trained and equipped staff of
employed officers and a well-organized body of laymen as directors
and committee men.
The net property and funds in these associations
amounted to $82,465,600 and the operating expenses415,553,000;
and an evidence of their intimate contact with business and industry
is shown in the fact that 63,681 positions were ,filled through the
employment bureaus.
RAILROAD DRANCIIES.
Through its railroad 6epartment,
the Young Men's Christian
Association maintains 239 organized centers, with a total membership
of 94,126.
While it is not possible, owing to the conditions under
which railroad men work, to conduct any large amount of formal
class work, the railroad associations are alert to their facilities
to furnish the men coming under their influence with of
for reading and for general culture through the provision of books,
the maintenance of 'reading rooms, and through lectures and talks.
The book service is notable, in that 111 associations report that
their members read 253,183 books; 179 report 8,819 periodicals on
file; 108 report 2,707 lectures and talks.
Work is also given in
cooperation with higher institutions of learning through extension
courses and through classes within and without the building.
To
some extent these courses are related to the occurttions of the men,
although the taking over by the railroad corporations of training
along technical lines has made it unnecessary for the association to
continue a number of classes formerly operating in the technical
field.
The following details regarding educational work of the railroad
departments aro given-by John F. Moore, senior secretary for railroad
work:
In the work of the milroad-departmsut,. much emphasis has been given to practical
talks on vital 'subjects, such as hoaltii; thrAft and patriotism, to groups of men, in
association buildings and in railroad shops and rouddheuses.
Onfthe Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific Railways specially-it aLlifled lecturers
devoted weeks to special health campaigns primarily among the apprentreat_
railroad shops.
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. 611
In the Albany, N. Y., and a number of otiteprailroad associations, classes in teliir-
raphy are conducted, these classes being open to women as well as men.
At the
larger railroad terminals, such as Philadelphia, New York, St. Louis, and Boston,
educational work of varied types is in operation, including not only practical talks,
but educational classes as well.
Much use is made in all railroad associations of the stereopticon and in a growing
number, the moving picture is being given place.
ARMY AND NAVY.
Prior to the war, the association, through its Army' and Navy
department, furnished a great variety of educational opportunities
to the men in service with the colors, whether as solditis, sailors, or
marines.
This work, since 1917, has become merged in the vast
enterprise of the War Work Council of the Young Men's Christian
Association, an account of which is given later. -In 1916, there were
27 Army and Navy associations with a total membership of 4,613.
These associations are for the special service of men at Army posts
in this country and 'for sailors in the United States Navy at their
base ports.
Opportunities are offered for reading.
Periodicals are
on file, and a limited amount of class work is conducted.
The
purpose of the work is to give the men on leave, and during their
leisure, opportunities for wholesome and satisfactory intellectual
work.
Something is also done to promote their training for callings
they are likely to enter after leaving the service.
The following details regarding educational work of the Army and
Navy department are given by B. C. Pond, secretary of the Army
and Navy department:
Prior to the entry of the United States into the World War, the Army and Navy
department of the International Committee promoted through its various branches at
Army posts and naval stations, and in port cities, association service with men of the
Army, Navy, and Marine Corps.
Here, as in other association fields, the educatiom.lwork had a definite place on
the program.
The frequent changes in location of mon of the Army and Navy, however, made it
difficult to carry through as comprehensivea program as elsewhere.
At certain Army
poste, educational classes' have been maintained with considerable success. The
subjects studied include the elementary branches andsome special topics especially
related to promotion to higher grade, such as
thomatics and electricity.
Formal
class work was carried through the season mice,
In the Navy associations, attempts have bee
ade in the past to maintain formal
class work, and with success in some instances
hen the men remained at a station
for some length of time. These classes w re ch. fly in subjects relating to promotion
to higher grades.
.
In both the Army and Navy some attest
given to circulating books,
and reading rooms in the association have
: of work at both Army and
Navy points, and the stereopticon has been
this connection.
Such lectut'ea
include historical, travel, and inthetrial topics
The educational program in the future of the Army and Navy department of the
International Oommittee will be determinedly
needs which may be discovered and
by the association's ability to meet these needs in cooperation with existing agencies.
612
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
COUNTY WORK.
There are now in operation 279 counfy'associations with a member-
ship of 9,463.
In few instances does a county association possess a
building, and its work is done mainly through the county work secre-
tary and committee, and consists in promoting forms of activities for
the betterment of county life.
In the educational work in this field,
the most effective service is through cooperation with other agencies,
such as State and National Departments of Agriculture, the grange,
the church, and the public schools.
Reports shod that in 1917 the county educational work consisted
mainly of lectures and talks of which 1,074 were given; total number
of students in evening schools, .293; in class work, both day and
evening, 1,300.
The ftollowing details regarding county work are given by Hugh
D. Maydolo, of that department.
Period July 1, 1916July 1, 1918.
241a nber of lectures for which admissions were charged
600
Number of communities in which these were given
205
Attendance.
59, 022
Number of practical talks
3, 698
Communities in which practical talks were given
1
466
Attendance
72, 836
Number of discussion groups and educational clubs
4, 631
Communities maintaining discussion groups and educational clubs
167
Number of educational trips personally conducted by secretaries and leaders..
163
Number participating
1, 838
Number of communities in which agricultural contests were conducte.1
342
Number participating
3, 653
Boys and men in educational classes
(
490
In addition to activities conducted along educational lines through the county
work department, as recorded in the Yearbooks, other features are carried on by the
county organizations through the loonl associations and in cooperation. with the insti-
tutions of the church and school, and with many organizations such as Granges,
boards of agriculture, lodges, parent-teacher associations, etc.
They include debates,
mock trials, thrift campaigns, instruction in first aid, swimming and life-saving, na-
ture study, talks on agriculture, horticulture, stock raising, and many features re-
lated to farming and rural life which are often illustrated by stereopticon views.
The furnishing of speakers for schools, ch
ches and various conferences and meet-
ings, frequently falls into the educational
because of theruntumal message
brought to the rural districts.
A
INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENT.
The industrial department operates partly through city associa-
tions and partly through organizations in the industries themseivet.
COnsequently, it is not possible to give detailed and accurate statis-
tics.upon this work.
It may be stated, however, as indicating the
g
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN
CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
613
extent of the constituency, that 405 city associations report 102,884
members in industrial occupations, and that 53 city associations have
63 secretaries giving full time to organized industrial extension Work.
Many associations, Without full-time secretaries, are doing extensile.
work for industrial work,!m, 4,500 volunteers serve regularly as
teachers and leaders of industrial workers; 9 secretaries are working
with immigrants in ports of landing and in depots; and in addition,
there are 132 buildings with 187 secretaries operating in single in-
dustrie: and groups of industries, as follows:
Indusuy.
Bond-
lugs.
Soon,'
lades.
Coal
Lulu bor
Colton
Mobil 111111111-
1nm nn I
,
Shipbuilding ond munition plains
35
19
19
16
12
31
46
18
25
so
The imlyrstrial work during the rear period has grown greatly
in view of the concentration at certain points of great numbers of
workmen. Much has been done to promote an intelligent relatim
ship between emphters and employed in this field by means of
d-
ing courses and discussion groups and lectures.
The sevi
of the
industrial department.in
immigrants in
glish and
in civics has also been notable.
The following details regarding educational wor
the industiial
field are given by Fred II. Itindge, of the indu:
al department:
In connection with the industrial work of tiro associa
1, a large, comprehensive,
and varied,educatkonal program is being promoted.
ver 200,000 industrial workers
are members of the association, and these are being reached by the usual educational
classes, clubs, lectures, discussion groups, etc., held for the mast part in the associa-
tion buildings.
In_addition. 5,000;000 industrial workers are being served through
various liaos of association extension work, and fully half of these are being touched
through some form of educational work.
Possibly the most significant single development has been the largo program of
Americanization, especially along lines of English and citizenship to foreigners.
Over G0,000 of these foreign industrial workers are being served annually in small
groups, and approximately one million are being reached through educational lectures
of various kinds.
Other interesting features that have Leon promoted with marked success have
been the supplying of technical and other special periodicals of interest to working-
men and boys; Lireign newspapers and books in the reading rooms; educational
clubs and classes of all kinds; practical talks freely illustrated with motion pictures
and stereopticon views; exhibits on health, hygiene, alcoholism, tenneemnce, right
living, etc.; special exhibits of industrial products manufactured by home Industries,
vocational guidance classes and institutes, etc.; educational facilities in the workers'
neighborhoods; special educational bulletins and printed matt
used th advantage in
the shops; entertainments and pageants; and proper celebration of foreign And
Aitnerican holidays with an educational motive.
614
BIENNIAL SURVEY or EDUCATION, 1916-4918.
Some of the most interesting activities are in operation not only with foreigners
but with Mexicl ils,. colored workers, apprentices; and foremen. Most inter
tiny,
results have bo9n obtained through special talks and discussion groups with for
ten
from each plant in a community.
Particular mention might be made of the
rk
which in being done through the Industrial Service /iovement of the Amdbiationin
securing college men, particularly those who expect to go into businees andindua-
trial life, in various forms of volunteer educational service with small groups of
workingmen and boys.
At least 3,000 of these men are annually enlisted from'
many colleges to teach English to foreigners, to lead technical classes of American
workingmen to handle clubs of apprentices, etc.
The Industrial Department fully realizes that industrial workers can not 10 properly
educated tfiless their managers and employers are sympathetic with the idea.
In
its educational work, therefore, the association is reaching the coming leaders of
industry by developing the enthusiasm of these potential leaders while still i4 college.
While teaching an English class of foreigners, an engineering Atudent learns the value
of this work, acquires a sympathetic understanding of the foreigner and his needs
which makes him a valuable educational ally in the years to.come.
In addition to
opportunities fur practical service, these engineering students are given a chance to
hear special lectures, and to attend weekly discussion groups along lines of the human
side of their business.
They are taken on special observation trips, and urged to read
Selected books and literature dealing with those themes. One great achievement,
has been the outlining of a special course in the human side of engineering which
has been adopted in whole or in part by a number of leading colleges.
COLORED WORK.
Tare are 150 associations especially for the service of colored
men. A very large proPOrtion of these are in the South.
Vero:I:aro
77 employed officers and a total Membership of 17,602.
Of this
total, 12,810 are in city associations, and 4,792 in student associa-
tions.
All forms of educational work are in operation in the city
associations.
It
is
recognized, however, that
there is :a large
field to be developed in meeting the needs of colored men. The
recent movement of colored industrial workers into the- North has
accentuated the importaice of this service.
BoYsis WORK.
The following details regarding educational work of the boys'
departments are given by C. C. Robinson, boys' work secretary:
In the first place, it should be said that the educational work of the boys' division
is in the realm of informal rather than formal education, that is, most of the work is
done in clubs rather than classes and is in connection with various activities, into
which we put the educational emphasis. 'The last Yearbook had something like
131,000 boys in physical education and about 12,000 in day and evening schools.
Boys' camps.Approximately 25,C90 boys attend summer camps each year under
the auspices of our association; a large majority are in what would be termed "recrea-
tion camps," but there is much excellent educational work done, particularly in
woodcraft, nature-study, and camperaft, with many talkslectures, and discussions
on ethical and religious problems.
The camp shop, where the boys make everything
from kites to bookcases, is coming to be a feature of all the larger camps.
In many
camps, one leader is engaged to instruct the boys ip elementary manual training.
,et
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
615
The training camps are growing in number and importance.
Groups of high-school
and employed boys are carefully selected, and brought together for a week or 10
days' period, where they study moral, religious, and social conditions among boys
of their group and formulate plans for definite improvement of conditions in their
respective groups at home.
These conferences are conducted by State), count', and
local associations.
Approximately 2,000 boys are brought together in 'this way for,
periods varying from four days to two weeks. The educational value of tide program
is great. partly because the boys are thinking of others rather thari of themselves,
and are unusually open-minded to suggestion and instruction of leaders..
Gyrnnovium leaders' \cluh.--Six thousand boys are enrolled in these clubs\ where
they are given formal Instruction weekly by trained physical directors in apparatus
work, first aid, and in the pedagogy of leading and teaching other boys in athletic and
gymnastic work.
Younger boys.The libraries maintained by most boys' divisions are regularly
patronized by the boys 12 to 11 years of age, and this is true of the workshops, which
are increasing rapidly.
Educational outings, to newspaper offices, power houses, A
museums, factories, etc., are most popular with this group.
High school boys. In connection with the 15,000 boys enrolled in high school clubs
under association leadership there is both ethical and rraral instruction, in formal
talks and in-free discussion.
The infcrmality of these exercises draws out the boy's
own opinion and adds greatly to the value of this feature from an educational stand-
point. Many associations make definite efforts in campaigns and other short-term
efforts to induce boys to continue their education in school through what has been
known as the "Stick to School Movement."
Employed bogs.IIera there is opportunity for a wide range of educational work, as
often the association is the only educational agency' that touches the boy's life.
Corrective physical training is given to about 35,000 employed boys, and considerable .
effort to give instruction to these and as many mord' reached in, extension work is
winning -uccfss in such lines as teaching thrift physical fitness, sex education,
health in.ws, value of education, vocational guidance,' etc. The use of charts,
pictures, and various types of visualized instruction mak their appeal both in asso-
ciation buildings and in stores and factories.
In vocational guidance "Find Yourself" campaigns
re growing in extent and
improving in value.
The city' of'llochester, under the I
dership of the association,
has recently put through such a campaign, in which all he educatiApal agencies of
the city cooperated.
About 1,200 employed boys have been studitd through self-
analysia and reanalysis, and have had interviews with 1 ading citizens, prominent
and skilled in the various lines of trate, businees, and prof
ion. Committees of lead-
ing men are following up the work carefully, and a special
retary has been employed
to give his full time ti individual cases and in aiding the
ork of the severl commit-
tees. Employed boys' brotherhoods in 100 leading cities and towns form the same
basis for moral and religious instruction that the high-ec
clubs do in their field.
Education in citizenship.Both high-school and employ
boys, under association
leadership, have shown remarkable interest in the disc
n of social and economic,.
questions; in fact, no type of Bible study or discussion club
been quiteso popular.
One of the first books issued in the country fax the disc
on of these questions by
older boyszas our publication "Christian Teaching en Sir isl and Economic Ques-
tions."
Rural boys.County associations have similaiLy served the
is in village and rural
communities. The camps, conferences, athletic events, and
kly meetings of these
groupe of farm and village boys are of supreme value in teat
the younger genera-.
tion social ideals and giving them practical experience in coope tion, a social factor
eo much lacking in the smaller centers of population.
e opportunity to earn I ya ou a ong THe ines o
seir specia in e
ties.
This might be called prevocational education, for it is not done witlithe imme-
diate vocational guidance objective, but more from the standpoint of giving the boys
self -expression.
Especially for boys in public schools, where instruction is formal
and runs in restricted grooves, this instruction is valuable also from the standpoint of
mental hygiene.
To many boys regular school work is a deadening process and has
a tendency to. thrust aside or relegate to the suliConscious many of the boys' dearest
hopes.and interests. By giving boys an outlet and a means of expression for these
otherwise submerged sections of their nature the association performs an effective_.
.
educational service.
11 I
FOREIGN FIELD.
Through its foreign department the Young Men'; Christian Asso-
ciation maintains 292 associations of which number 67 are city and
225 student.
These associations are distributed throughout the Far
Eastthat is, China, Japan, the Philippines, and India; the Near
EastEgypt and Turkey; Mexico, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the South
American States.
Four hundred and sixty-two officers are employed,
of whom 173 are American and 2890natire.
Tie total membership
of the foreign associations is 58,231.
Through the educational work
much is being done to give fuller information to members and to
communities, so as to promote a better understanding of other
cptintries and also to furnish an opportunity for better equipment
in vocational callings.
All told, there were in the educationul classes,
of the city associations in foreign countries 18,292 members.
The significance of the association's educational pfogram abroad
may be illustrated by what is going on in China.
The 'association
early discovered that the most attractive of all the privileges it
had to offerfar more attractive than its physical prog-ram--=-
was that of educational facilities.
Its willirigness to adapt its
educational policy to the demands of the hour made it popular among
the more far-seeing- Men of that rapidly awakening nation.
It was
his Putung School, for example,' which gave Gail6y, of Princeton
and the associatioq of which he was the general secretary, an
'-entr6e among the officials and gentry in the original city of Tientsin,
who had hitherto reisisted the approaches of toile Christian missionary;
and had successfully prevented the opening of any mission premises
within the boundaries of the city walls.
The prestige thus gained
gave the 'association an opportunity to enter the Capital with a
similay work. The association has extended its educational activities
.'to a score of the major cities of China, in which it has a teaching staff
of 423 and a total enrollment of over 8,000 students, 44 per cent of
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. 617
whom are taking colic-go preparatory studies.
So much are khe
educational classes appreciated that they have the distinction
being the only phase of association activity in China which is self
supporting.
WAR WORK. 4"
Prior to the entrance of the United States into the great World War
the International Committee was conducting educational work of
great importance fur the prisoner; of war in Europe in all the belliger-
ent countries except Turkey. and BUlgaria.
Through this service
opportunities were given to men who were utterly deprived of any
freedom and were cut off from all former associations.
Men who
were living under the most depressing condition% found plaeo and
refreshment of spirit in listening to lectures and in the pursuit of
definite study.
Statistics as to the number of men thus reached are
not available, but it is no exaggeration to say, that the secretaries
employed in this seriice were able to he of the greatest passable help
to hundreds of thousands, if not to millions, of men.
ARMY EDUCATIONAL WORK.
then the United States troops were sent to the,Mexican border
the association, in inaugurating its work for these' men, undertook
the supplying of both books anlmagazin'as, and also began., at such
places as afforded an opportunity, a certain amount of class work,
particulhrly in commercial subjects' and in Spanish.
This work,
however, was not thorouglanized nor put in charge of specially
designated secratiaries.
With the entrance of the United States into the World War care-
fully formulated plans were made with regard to extending the
educational work of the International Committee td the camps and
naval training stations on this side of the Atlantic and later to the
expeditionary forces.
This work brew by leaps and bounds until
it constituted in its total one of the most notable achievements in
education that tlfe world has ever seen.
Practically every Man in
service with the colors, whEther on land or sea, was afforded oppor-
tunities for mental recreation, for profitable consecutive reading,
and in many instances received instruction in subjects of a general
and vocational character.
In, tup pl y ing reading matter the War
Service Committee of the American Library Association cooperated
most effectively with the association, With the result that literally
millions of books were provided for the men with the colors.
(0) Ite110110 CAMPS AND STATIONS.
The value amid success of this service were in no small measure
due to careful and compreheniive Planning in anticipation of the
needs and opportunities in this field of association' service. As
ze,
618
- BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1518-1918.
early as February, 1917, at the suggestion of John R. Nott, meMa-
randa were prepared setting forth an extensive program of educa-
tional work for the armed forces of the United States, both on land
and sea, in the event of war.
At the first meeting of the National War Work Council of the
Y. M. C. A., held in New York on April 28, 1917, a statement was
presented by the educational department of the International Com-
mittee giving in detail the proposed educational activities of a program
of service to men with the colors, including forms of work, equip-
ment, and organization.
These recommendations were adopted, and
later an educational bureau of the council was appointed by William
Sloane, chairman of the council, consisting of Frederic B. Pratt, Dr.
D. II. McAlpin, W. E. S. Griswold, F. L. Slade, Samuel Thorne, jr.,
and E. L. Shuey.
William OIT, senior educational secretary, was
chosen director of the bureau.
This bureau was charged with the responsibility of putting the
plans into effect.
A limited program, consisting mainly of lectures,.and reading matter
(books, magazines, and newspapers), was soon in operation in the
Reserve Officers' Training Camps. Some class work in conversa-
tional French was also given at certain points.
With the gathering of volunteers, and later of drafted men, in the
cantonments and naval training stations, the full program of asso-
ciation educational war work was put into effect.
This program
included practical talks on subjects of special interest to the men;
classes in elementary English, writing and ,arithmetic, and in more
advanced and technical subjects, such as bookkeeping, stenography,
typewriting, automobiles, gas engines, and French.
Liberal studies
in history, science, and literature were inaugurated, with lectures on
.
causes and ideals of the war,
In the provision of books and,maga-
xines. there was dose cooperation with the War Service Committee
of the American Library Association.
As the work grew it became necessary to add to the staff of the
educational bureau John L. Clarkson, of the educational department
of the Philadelphia Y. M. C. A..
A great ,demand soon appeared for conversational French,, and
several manuals for the use f students and instructors were prepared
and widely distributed.
like manner special texts in elemetary
English were published.
e work soon extended to all camps and
training stations, large and 'small, in this country, and later to the
forces overseas.- A minimal for the guidance of directors and in-.
structors wail issued in three editions. A total of over 20,000 copies
were distributed.
,
...
With t44. assembly of the drafted men in the camps in the fall
of 1917, a great need pf instruction in E
for illiterates and
i
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
619
.
.
those unable to speak this language appeared.
This need was met
in a direct effective fashion.
When later, in the spring of 1918, the
War Department assembled men lacking in elementary knowledge
in the development battalions, the conduct and direction of the work
was made a responsibility of the V. M. C. A. educational directors.
in the camps.
The extent of the Army educational work can be judged in some
measure from statistics, gathered by the War Work Council, for the
months of January, Febuary, and. March, 1918, as Fhown by the
following table:
Depart !tient.
Northeastern
Eastern
Southeastern
Centml
Souther,
Western
Total
Book el - i Number
euMtedr.
, of Ire
Attend'
Number
lecsorest
of elubs.
Attend-
selal.:`
Number
ci of
.
Atteni$1-
elLesc'et.
72,422
416
128,286
143
2,780
1,906
46,125
419,607 i
1,014
330,703
154
22,536
6,485
1133,714
277,1118
1,671
675, 1124
31.446
521,714
,
205.813
1, 181
348, 557
152
4,373
11, 028
295,123
103,124
847
206, 375
8.329
146,102
108,714
972
208,132
57
1, 43,5
85,138
i
1, 246,308 I
,6,143
I, 898, 046
502
31,574
50
1,277,010
On this basis the figures for a year ir the six departments would be
as follows:
Books circulated
Number of lectures
4, 985, 232
24, 572
Attendance at lectures
7, 592.184
Number of clubs
.
2, 008
Attendance at clubs
126,206
Number of dames
251, 000
Attendance at clafees
4
5, 111, 864
In view of the growing importance of the educational work and
the close relations established with the Commissionon Training Camp
Activities, Raymond B. Fosdick, the chairman of that commission,
appointed on August 31, 1917, a committee on education, consisting
of William Orr; Dr. P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of
Education; John H. Finley, superintendent' of instruction for the
State of New York; Dr. Harry Pratt Judson, president of the Uni-
versity of Chicago; and P. H. Callahan, of Washington, D. C.
This
committee was charged with the duties of advising with, and report-
ing to, the Commission on Training Camp Activities
,g the
educational work in the camps, and of making rem
a. endations
regarding programs and policies.
In the fall .of 1917, John L. Clarkson, who had rendered most
effective service in the educational bureau, was sent by 'the War,
Work Council to France to make a survey and to report u0on.edu-
cational Work for the American Expeditionary Forces in (hat calm-
64
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATrON, 1916-101.8.
try.
W. 0. Easton, of the educativnal department of the Philadel-
phia Y. M. C. A , was secured as associate secretary in place of Mr.
Clarkson. 1
The growth of the r-rrk for the Army in this country and the de-
mands of the home educational work made it desirable in August,
1918, to separate these two fields of service and a reorganization was
made of the educational bureau whereby the following stair was
appointed: Professor Ernest H. Wilkins, of the University of Chi-
cago, director; Prof. A. C. Trowbridge, of the University of Iowa,
.associate director; Prof. E. C. Armstrong, of Princeton. director of
instruction in French; Prof.' A. 0. Li)vejoy, of Johns Hopkins
University4ggstor of lectures.
In October the staff of the bureau was completed by the addition
of E. D. Roberts, assistant superintendent of schools in Cincinnati,
as director of instruction in English; Prof. J. W, Young, of 1)art-
mouth, as director of instruction in mathematics; and N. W. Pomeroy,
as assistant director. An advisory committee was appointed, con-
sisting of President W. A. Jessup, of the UnKersity of Iowa, as
chairman, Dr. S. P. Capon, of the Bureau of Educatioh, l'rof.
Anson Phelps Stokes, of Yale, and Frank V. Thompson. superin-
tendent of schools in Boston.
The main policies of the reorganized bureau were, first, service as a
center from which good methods reported from one part of the field,
or plans originating in the bureau, might be transmitted to all parts
of the field; second, the maintenance of close relations with the
several offices and agencies of the War Department concerned with
educational matters; and third, the standardization of texts and
methods in the different camps.
For such standardization there was
great need.
Hitherto, even in English, French, ,and mathematics,
the subjects most universally studied, there had been no attempt at
standardization,
Each camp had made its own choice of texts, or
had worked out its own texts.
The bureau set about the preparation of standardized texts in
English, French, and mathematics. Tho standardized French text,
"Liberty French," was published by the association prose early in
November, and a text prepared at Fort Oglethorpe, "Camp Arith-
metic," by Boehm and Buchanan, was accepted as a standard text
in arithmetic. Tho other texts were'not actually issued until 1919.
During the lase four months of 1918 the educational work in the
camps included, as previously, four main typesof servjettclass work,
lectures
and talks, library management, and bulletin and map
service.
.
Prr to the. signing of the armistice, the class ,work consisted
chiefly pf instrnotion in English for foreigners and illiterates, both
within and without the Development Battalions '(since General
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
62T
Order No. 45, made optional, not mandatory, the sending to the
Development Battalions of men lacking in knowledge of English, a
very large number, probably over 50 per cent, of the able-bodied men
who needed English instruction, were not sent to those battalions),
instruction in French and mathematics.
'Crider the direction of this bureau, the work continued until the
armistice, and is now in operation in the period of demobilization
with a special emphasis upon the lecture service.
(b) Witll TILE AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY roam.
France.In September, 1917, in response to an urgent cable from
E. C. Carter, general secretary in cha.rge, of the Y. M. C. A. work
with the American Expeditionary Forces in France, John L. Clarkson,
who had served acceptably as assistant in the work of the educational
bureau, went to France to survey and organize the work with the
Army in France.
After making some studies and a stimulating and
helpful report, Mr. Clarkson voluntee41 for active service.
For
some months the work of organizing the educational services for the
expeditionary forces was in abeyance, although Prof. John Erskine,
of Columbia University, with several associates, engaged in lecture
and class work.
The following extract. from a report of E. C. Carter, general secre-
ary in charge of the work with the American Expeditionary Forces,
under date of April 16, 1919, summarizes the beginling and progress
of a most notable educational enterprise:
On January 8, 1918, Prof. Anson Phelps Stokes, of Yale University, arrived in
France to make an educational survey.
On February 18, 1918, the chief secretary
submitted Prof. Stokes' report to general headquarters, and on March 15, the chief
of staff replied: 'The Commander in Chief approves the project in principle and his
directed that proper faCilities be given for this work throughout this command."
An a result of the lines laid down in a draft of two proposed general orders, sub-
mitted by 0 euerll Headquarters, on May 4, the Y. M. C. A. undertook the responsibility
for educational work in the American Expeditionary Forces, and constituted the Army
Educational Commission composed of Prof. John Erskine, of Columbia University;
Frank E.
patilding, superintendent of public schools in Cleveland; and Kenyon L
Butterfield, president of Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amhereet, Mass. On
October 31;1918, the Commander in Chief issued the first general order ofthe American
Expeditionary Forces on education, the. first paragraph of which read as follows:
"The YoungsMen's Christian Association, through the Y. M. C. A. Army Educational
Commission, has organized, with, the approval of the Commander in Chief,an educa-
tional system charged with the standardization of educational methods and the estab-
lishment of schools for instruction of officers and soldiers in all of the larger posts,
.
camps and hospitals of the American Expeditionary Forces."
Xven during hostilities the educational work carried on by the Y. M. C. A. Was of
large dimensions.
It all had a direct bearing on military efficiency and morale. It
is estimated that at least 300,000 American soldiers studied the French language in
the days which preceded the armistice.
Largo numbers studied European geography.
Through lectures, pamphlets, and posters effort was made to build up en intelligent
appreciation of the achievements and ideals of our principal Allies and of the great,
622
BIENNIAL SITRVY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
aims for which the Allied armies were fighting.
With the coming of the armistice
there was a marked falling off in the attendance at French classes and an increasing
de3iro to study American problems and to prepare for the return to china', life.
The hundreds of thousands of textbooks which American publishers had produced
for the Educational Commission at unpreedently low prices had not begun to arrive
in France until after the armistice, though most of them hall been prepared in the
hope that they would be inVrance at the beginning of demobilization.
In the months
following the armistice the Army was Ale to assume an ever increasing responsibil-
ity for the educational work. By General Order No.
division educational centers
and university courses were established and by General Order \o. 27, issued in Nlan h,
it became possible to excuse men from military duties during the, af ternoon, to permit
of their attendance at post schools.
A survey showed that 50,000 melt of the A nictican
Expeditionary Force were competent to teach.
From this number men were de-
tailed as instructors.
Enrollment in the post schools was voluntary except for illiter-
ate and non-English-speaking persons.
The division educational centers were
organized to offer advanced courses in trades and vocational training as well as ad-
.
vabcocl academic courses.
Through arrangements with French and British authorities the Army made it
possible by March 15, 1919, for approximately 8,004) American officers and men to
attenZ classes at French institutions and 2,000 at British universities.
As entrance
requ
nts of European universities are very high, it was deemed best to send only
men,
were graduates of or who had been upper clansmen in American universities.
For
n desiring university work corresponding to freshman and sophomore work
in American colleges, the American Expeditionary Force 'University was estab-
lished by the Army at Beaune, CZte d'Or.
This university took over an American
base hospital camp and converted the buildings into classrooms, laboratories, study
hall °Mem and laboratories.
Col. Ira L. Reeves was appointed militar)' superin-
tendent, or commandant, and Prof. Erskine, of the Y. M. C. A. Army Educatieinal
Commission, president.
On March 14, 1919, the c hief secretary inquired of the commander in chief whether
in view of the fact that as a result of the preliminary work of the Y. M. C. A. the
Army itself had established an educational system as an integral part of the American
Expeditionary Force there would not be advantage in having General Headquarters
assume complete responsibility for the Army Educational Commission and its staff.
To this inquiry the commander in chief replied as follows:
"With reference to your letter dated March 14, 1919, with inquiry as to whether
it is deemed advisable for the Army to relieve the Y. M. C. A. of all further control
and responsibility for the educational work in the American Expeditionary Force,
you are informed that it is considered, in view of the extensive educational system
now being developed, that the complete control should now vest in those headquar-
Ulm"Recommendation to that effect has been made to the War Department and au-
thority obtained for the Government to assume complete financial responsibility
fir the entire educational project, including the taking over and placing under Gov-
ernment control the members of the Army Educational Commission, Y. M. C. A.,
and all pereoks within its organization who are required in educational work. The
transfer will also include the purchase of textbooks previously authorized and reliev-
ing you from further financial responsibility for other items of current operating
expenses of the commission at the earliest practicable date.
"It is desired In conclusion to express the highest appreciation of the work of the
Y, M. C. A., through its Educational Commission in organizing the educational
work at a time when it was impracticable for the Army to do eo and for the continued
assistance up te the present time in the wide development of the educational system
.4
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS
623
in the American Expeditionary Force. The large number of well-qualified educa-
tors brought to France by the Y. M. C. A., during the past year, will be of inesti-
mable value to the Army in its educational work and this contribution ie especially
appreciated."
Brits c1t Isles.The following statement regarding educational work
conducted in the American Expeditionray Forces in the British Isles
is given by J. CAstav White:
At the time of the signing ul the armistice there were In centers in the British
- Isles where American soldiers and sailors were quartered. Some of these centers
contained comparatively few troops, who were there for training purposes, attached
to an English unit.
Others, like the naval bases in Scotland and Ireland, were doing
active patrol ditty or laying mines in the North Sea.
Still °Thor camps, and the
largest ones, were so-called " rest" camps, where troops from America pansei for a
short while before resuming their journey to France.
Our work, therefore, had to
be very elo-ttic and adapted to the requirements of the various centers.
Our first effort along Mut-admit lines began in August, 1917, when books were
collected from American residents in England and were purchased outright by Ameri-
can Young Men's Christian Association funds, to be sent to the soldiers.
Queen Mary
had participated in one of these early efforts, but at all times during our work in Great
Britain we refrained from soliciting any aid from Britishers, as we felt they had suffi-
cient obligations to their own British Young Men's Christian Association.
Educa-
tional lectures were the next line of service undertaken, and while the English speakers
were very cordial in their cooperation, yet we found that the American soldiers and
melons were particularly anxious to hear Americanspeakers. Hence we often deltiyed
Young Men's Christian Association secretaries and others en route to France to render
a few weeks' service in the British Isles.
As tiOrm as a sufficient number of teachers,
superintendents, and other educational men were,available to promote class instruc-
tion, we undertook this us a third line of service.
The first conference of educational
secretaries, held in July, 19IS, brought together 34 men who were devoting their
entire time to various forms of educational activities.
Plans were perfected for
beginning this work the first part of October, although some classes commenced
considerably earlier.
Registered enrollments Were arriving' at the central office at
the rate of a thousand a month when the armistice was signed, and all educational
plans had to be entirely readjusted.
Front that time on the main objective was to
place in English universities such officers and men as could secure release from their
military duties and have the necessary qualifications for university study.
Gen-
eral popular education was abandoned because all troops were removed from England
except the men on special leave and there connected with Headquarters.
As the
men k,., &taw were in England only for a very brief time, educational work was, of
course, out of the question for them, exceptas an occasional educational lecture might
be enjoyed at "Eagle I lut" or elsewhere.
The following items taken from educational reports, issued just
before and after the armistice, will give a fairlyfrcurate idea of con-
ditions:
.
1. It would be quite (say to found a Garfield University here with an American
soldier student sitting down on a bench with a Young Men's Christian Association
instructor, provided you have the instructor and the bench and provided the com-
manding officer doesn't call the soldier away.
In some, camps the Young Men'e
'Christian Association hardly had a " log " for the men who wanted to study.
Coal
was scarce.
French pronunciations cleaved to the roof of the soldier's mouth in
bold
Young Men's. Christian Association marques,
In Wet camps the Young Men's Chris.
624
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
tian Association camp secretary felt too overworked with the obvious cup -pas 3ing
work to organize and supervise serious study, and in October, 1918, the association
had jest half the number of educational secretaries sanctioned by the Cabinet vote
on August 1, 1918. The promised general orders had not been issued, so the needed
cooperation of local commanding- *officers had to be enlisted individually. The
Young Men's Christian Association looked forward to the day when the student,
the teacher, and the log could be brought together and kept there for a considerable
time.
Just then the armistice was signed.
2. The Library service during its first year ilktributed 478,103 books, magazines,
pamphlets, maps, etc., to troops in the United
ingtlom and dispatched more than
twice that number to France. The "stake" set by the educational conference was
to have 25 per cent of each camp's constituency reading worth -while books each
week.
(The complete figures of library material dispat,hed, together with report
for September, are given in Table 12.) Pamphlets issued by the department included
"A Welcome to American Soldiers and Sailors," by lan Hay; "To Fighting .kmer-
icans, " by Rudyard Kipling; and "The Huns' Ally in Our ('amps," by (lenient (3.
Clarke.
"American Home News," issued daily, provided a rout attraction on f 7 )
every
camp bulletin boards, while eve
coup6 of American troops leaving Livergoui
-as
given a double copy of this little paper.
3. Educational lectures were utilized, in almost as many camps as library service.
One hundred and thirty-nine such lectures were supplied by the lecture bureau
during the four weeks preceding the armistice.
This included 42 given in connec-
tion with "concerts" in cooperation with tho social department.
This is a stim-
mary of educational lecture given during the last six monthsMay, 65; June, 88;
July, 44; August, 78; September, 96; October, 138; total, 509 lectures.
Based. upon
the average attendance during October this should mean that 129,795 soldiers and
sailors attended our educational lectures during the last half year. The goal was
at least one lecture per week in each camp of 300 mon with 50 per cent of the men
attending. The growing strength of the lecture staff caused the educational secre-
taries to plan not only the single lecture, but lecture series, thus enhancing the edu-
cational product.
9. Eduattional \tura conducted by the Young Men's Christian ,'.ssociation secre-
taries to places
'historic interest were very popular in north Scotland, Liverpool,
Oxford, London, and the Winchester region.
History was thus taught on the ground
where it was made.
5. Class instruction ran the gamut frOm reading and writing for illiterates to prep-
aration for Annapolis entrance 'examinations
for
sailors.
Tho latter was under-
taken at the request of the naval authorities.
So-hre of the special courses were:
Motor engineering for transport men, "buzzer" and electricity classes for signalmen,
aeronautic:pier 100 construction men who were anxious to transfer to aviation units.
Nineteen different subjects were offered in the various centers.
During the first
week in October 199 enlollments were registered at our headquarters from areas 2,
6, and 4. Before an enrollment could be-counted a student must have attended
ilt least three class sessions.
Notice of his enrollment was sent home to his it of
kin if he so requested. We felt that we had merely begun with the class instruction
program during the sunuuer while we were building our organization. The "stake's"-
mot, was 20,000 students in classes and correspondence instruction before April 30,
,k.
1919.
We expected each Young Mon's Christian Association man to utilize the
service's of five part-time instructors secured from theArmy er Navy or civilian neigh- A
berhood.
(See Tables 13 and 14.)
6. 'rhe educational staff included the following secretaries: At headquarters, 7;
in field, 43. The training of these men in, absolutely now educational methods way
a bit el6w. Two general conference's in London, visits to field, correspondence, and
bulletins were used as 'means.
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN 'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
625
(C) EDUCATIONAL. WORK TOR PRISONERS Of WAR
An illustration -of the kind of work done for prisoners of war
given in the following account by J. Gustav White of the education
activities conducted among prisoners in Switzerland.
If one multiplies this enterprise by the hundreds of points in
which similar work was done in the belligerent countries, some con-
ception can be find of the scope arid extent of this service.
EXTRACT FROM RF,PORT OF J. GUSTAV WHITE ON EDUCATIONAL
WORK AMONG PRISONERS IN SWITZERLAND.
The work done by the Swiss Young Men's Christian Association for the interned
prisoners was divided into two distinct iroup;, that for the Germans conducted from
Zninh and that for the Frenclgand Belgians conducted from Geneva. The Com-
mission Romande des Interns; was created a. the agent of the Young Men's Christian
Association to care for French and. Belgiansinterned, and 31, was with this organization
that I worked to further educational advantages.
I was privileged to visit some 22
stations to investigate educational needs and conditions.
I found that usually
two hours per day, Ater it/the moruing'or afternoon, for five or six days per week,
was the schedule.
Only in three case; did I find classes conducted in the evening
for the men after they had returned from 'work. Attendance was usually obligatory,
especially for the illitec.,Lc*.
Students were forced to attend by military means
rather than pedagogical.
Practically no reward or recompense was held out to attract
the students or to encourage them to study.
Leysiu was an exception.
Hero the lieu-
tenant in charge had planned trips to model farms and indukrial plants as rewards
for his students. Among the British Army men promotion certificates were also incen-
Lives for the primary studies.
Commendable educational features were found in .nearly every station.
For
instance, at Zweisinunen a circular was sent out by the Swiss commandant of
the region asking all who wished to study to register.
A hundred and twenty signed.
Th teachers were aasembled and the work was divided. Four stations were desig-
ns centers for tho illiterates.
An examination of 2,500 men showed 190 to be
illiterate.
Fifty per cent of these illiterates found work within 15 days in order to
avoid going to school.
At Oherhofen the interned prisoner who was a teacher was
recompensed by the special privilege of being allowed td stay out until 10 p. m.
All other interns; must, of course, report to their hotel at supper time and iemain
in for the evening, At Engelberg 1 found wireless telegraphy taught for the muti-
lated.
At Diablerets a series of pnictical talks upon various occupations were given
by interned men to their comrades.
At Sierre I found 16 Moroccans and Algerians,
black men, as very Willing students.
At Clarence a number of practical vocational
courses Were °tiered into which new students might enter at any time and progress
at their own speed according to ability.
The privilege extended to all internee men to enter Swiss universities drained
out some of the best teachers from the various stations and made continuity of edu-
cational.work very difficult. The regulations which obliged the men to remain in
their own hotels after supper also prevented general evening classes.
Textbooks
and materials were not always plentiful. The greatest need, however, seemed to be
for a uniform plan and for aggressive promotion of educational activities from some
center.
Most of the internee apparently had a mistaken idea concerning, the condi-
tions which would exist after the war. They felt that their country owed them a
living and did not stop to figure out who would pay for it.
Our problem was to give
them a more accurate conception of the future and arouse their ambition so as to
prepare at once for a changed economic condition. The difficulties which we bad to
171029*-21Bull. Std --40
626
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
overcome was the uncertain stay of the internes,the fact that when they arrived
they were too weak to study, and when they worts stronger they were put to work or
sent back to their country. We also had to cont,end* with the general feeling against
schools and classes for teaching illiterates.
This impression was doubtless deepened
by the employment of pedagogical methods adapted for children in instruction of men.
To overcome these -difficulties and solve the problem, [ submitted the fdllowing plan
to the Commission Romande dee Internee, which was adopted and largely carried
out before I left C Atzerlaud:
" 1. Call a two-day meeting of leading Swiss, Frenft, Belgian, and British (?) repre-
sentatives who are or should be interested in educational classes among internee.
discuss educational needs, problems, and plans, and be guided by conclusions formu-
lated by leading internes at close of meeting.
"2. Form an advisory and publicity committee from among internee to help work
out the plans this summer, especially the advertising campaign.
"3. Secure necessary cooperation of Swiss, French, and other authorities to carry
out foregoing plans.
"4. Train five or more supervising teachers who can bio relied upon to stay with
the work through next winter.
This training should include some pedagogics, and
also close study of the methods of summer schools, night schools, correvondence
schools, apprentice, industrial, and occupational schools, and especially of Young
Men's Christian Association educational methods.
These educational supervisors
should have the qualities
a Young Men's Christain Association secretary, especially
resourcefulness, adaptability, aggressiveness, and a Christ-like spirit of service.
Have
each supervisor give personal attention to one large station, but visit often in his
assigned region.
" 5. Train internee as local teachers.
"G. With the guidance of advisory committee this summer have supervisors
secure text material and preppie sample examinations, instructions to instructors, etc.
" 7. Let these educational supervisors help arrange for lectures and otheractivities
of the Conimission Roisande des Internee."
Another worker among prisoners of war, Julius E, Heckel-, was
for a year in charge of a district in Austria in which there were more
than 150,000 prisonerA.
During the year more than 200,000 men
passed through these camps.
Classes ranging from 50 to 1,000
students each 'were organized.
Some of. these students completed
courses and received certificates.
The most important service
Tendered,however, was that of popular lectures and instruction for
illiterates.
Hundreds, possibly thousands, learned to read in these
prison-camp schools.
On the basis of this experience, Dr. Hecker prepared , a manual
entitled "Organization and Program of Y. M. C. A. Educational
Activities Among Russians."
This manual outlines the essential
features In any plan of educational work conducted in camps, and
constitutes a record of the procedure followed with the prisoners of
war.
The organir,ation centered in an educational committee selected
from the men in camp by the Y. M.X. A. secretary or other competent
person.
This committee con
a general educational director
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S ('FIRISTIAN. ASSOCIATIONS.
627
and a number of sectional or associate directors, one for every 500 to
1,000 men in camp; a general librarian, a general registrar and secret
Lary of educational supplies, such as texts, charts, and stationery.
This registrar also kept the record of students registered for educa-
tional work and distributed supplies.
In large camps sectional
educational committees, made up as the general educational com-
mittee, were also organized.
The teaching staff included teachers, loaders of study groups,
reading circles, and lecturers.
All these men, together with the
administrators, welts volunteers.
From time to time little tokens
of appreciation worn given.
Strict discipline and punctuality were
required from teachers and administrators. A teachers' training
class was organized by the educational director for the more intelli-
gent among the men who were not-experioneed in teaching.
In the program of educational activities the first efforts were to
arouse interest on the part of the men, most of whomand suffered
physical privations, and, through the long period of separation from
home, had lost interest in intellectual and moral values. . Interest
was aroused by advertising, educational rallies, and by personal
visitation of the men by members of the educational committee.
A ntonher of/educational postett were prepared as part of this
a mpaign.
Educational lectures made an especial appeal, particularly when
illustrated with slideS,
films, or simple blackboard designs. A
number of written lectures, richly illustrated with designs and
pictures, were prepared.
These lectures wore on both practical
and theoretical subjects and could be read or used as material
where the lecturer &uld !speak without a manuscript.
One or two
lectures per week in each of the sections were sufficient.
Where the
number of men was too large to attend one reading the lecture was
repeated until all who desired to hear it had opportunity to do so.
Those lectures wore distributed throughout the camp and in hos-
pitals and to. working pszties.
Sometimes men in the camp pre-
pared and delivered lectUres.
It was found that a wide range of
interests should he covered in the lectures and that not too many
should he given on the same branch of knowledge.
Educational
classes weo organized for 'almost any branch of knowledge for which
a teacher and teabOoks were available.
Thirty students were
regarded as a morimum. The students in each class were, as far
as possible, graded with reference to intelligence and knowledge.
When more and less advanced students wereln one class the more
capable wore likely to drop out.
Effort was made to supply each
student with a text, and for this purpose the publication depart-
628
BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
ment of the 17. M. C. A. prepared'a number of hocks in Russian, a list
of which is given herewith:
Copies.
ThartoffThe Mechanic's Trade
3, 000
Key/ineLGeneral Bookkeeping
4, 000
Hi/itchRussian National Poetry
4,000
IgnatoffLegislative Institutions of NVe...t.orn VII rope a' d . merles
1,500
TclacnoffSwitzerland
app
Korolenko's Selected Works
Tolstoi's Selected Works
5, 000
Tehekoff's Elelected Works.
6, 000
.VetchGeography of Rumia
3,490
Finn Russian Reader
18, 580
Anthology, First Part
2, 898
Anthology, Second Part
2, 955
Grammar.
3, 000
Arithmetic, First Part
3, 040
Arithmetic, Second Part
2,407
Dr. N. Roubakinr:
Popular Chemistry
3,000
Popular Physics
3, 000
Popular Astrononit
3;000
Popular Ethics
5,000
Popular Cosmolov
3, 500
Dr. Patiotsky:
Tho Human body Popular Biology, A natorn> , Physiology, Path(lgy,
.41
and II ygienZy.
First edition
5,000
Second edition
10, 000
FosdickThe Meaning of Prayer
20, 000
New Testament and Psalms
19,000
WestfillJesus of Nazareth
500
!kicker:
Knowledge and Faith
-r
5,000
The Young Men's Shristian Association
3, 900
Birukof:
General Agriculture
4, 000
General Agriculture, second edition
5, 300
BatorRural 'Raiding Constructions
,
.
3, 000
useian calendars (folders)
200, 000
uasian posters (colored)
24:000
In a report dated Geneva, April 15, 1918; Dr. Hooker prAents the
following review of the work done through the .oducatio,nal '001)011-
ment:"
The educational department, in charge of Dr. J. F. Hecker, which has been or-
gan4ed with the consent of Dr. A. C. Harte at his last.visit of September 17, 1917:-
has been working along the following lines:
;
1. Supplementary educational activities for British interned in Switzerland : Ten
lecturers were secured who visited the seven organized stations on an average of
twiee.a month. The total number of 4ectnres offerekwas 73, on 16 different sub-
jeFts, and 1 concert tour.
Due to difficulties at the stations, somewere not delivered,
jiving a total of lectures actually delivered 58, with a total attendance of 6,960.
Be-
WORK OF ;FHE "YOUNQ MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
(i29
.
aides furnishing lectures, we were sending educational and religions literature.
Foi
the French interned similar work was -done through the agency of "Commission
Romande des Internee," by which the educational department was sending material
and equipment to the huts at Salvan and Interlaken.
2. Educational activities in the prir.in camps of the belligerent nations are carried
on through the.sespective association bureaus of titvarious countries and in cluee
cooperation with them. To systematizg the educational activities, J. Gustav White
planned an educational manual. The manuscript was completed by Mr. Anil, with
the cooperation of numerous Swiss university professors and teachers.
It was trans-
lated into Fiench, Russian, and German; 5,000 of the English, French, and German
editions have been since printed and rat.,tof them have already been sent out to the
various countries.
In response to the suggestions mad() in the manual, numerous 1.'0-
quests for textbooks have reached us, which'are being premptiy answered.
.
3. The Russian issue of the Messenger is being prepared by the educational depart-
nient, and original articles suitable to the Russian mentality furniahed.
. The editing of Russian books suitable for prisoners of war wasIelt asA particular
necessity; 18 different ones wore prepared and 17 were printed.
Btaideslthese,
numerous volumes of school books, religious books, and Bibles were procured.
The
"
present actual stock is the following:
Peas and pamplil
on popular science
17, 500
Vocational books
10; 300 "'
School books (readenton the Four R's, etc.)
24,000
Good reading
13, 000
Religious
2.000
Bibles
100
New Test fonts with Psalms
'21, 000
Total
S7, 900
Of these, various books (11,941) were already sent out; the rest are being prepared
to b3 sentia traveling libraries, depending upon the decision of the senior secretaries'
._ohfcrenCo as to whether the Russian prisoners are still expected to stay in captivity.
to .:ase their speedy return is etpected, these books could be shipped to Russia for
use in numerous invalid and soldiera' homes. We have also procured 70,000 Russian
Toone, of which 30,000 were sent out.
5.. The educational department has been recruiting secretaries for the soldiers'
wc.k in France; 12 candidates were interviewed and 6 of them were accepted.
i. Finally, the educational department has served as i medium between the aseo-
elation interests of American secretaries and citizens in thevarious belligerent coun-
tries in forwardinere-queste for nocessities, information,etc.
At preessikao..department is working at plain foe follow-uNwork and work 'aft&
the war, which it expects to present for discussion et the present conference.
(DI WITH ARMIES AND PEOPLES OF rex Aurr.s.
The Canadian Expeditionary Forces. Unklei the auspicos of the
National Council of the Y. M. C. A.'s of Canada, an oxtensivolduca-
tional program for the benefit of Canadian soldiers in Franco and
England'ivas put. into operation in the summer of 1917.
It is sig-
nificant that the success And vitality of this movement appear to
haVe been duo, in large measure, to evangelistic campaigns con-
ducted in the camps.
-
680
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDU)ATION, 1916-1918.
1)r. H. M. Tory, president,of the University of Alberta, was com-
micsioned to survey, the conditions and to provide working plans.
Within a, month after his arrival in England, 700 men wore enrolled
at Wit ley Camp under volunteer leaderships.
By May, 1918, the
total number of students at "Wit ley College" was 1,065.
"Colleges"
wore also organized at Bramshott, Seaford, Shorncliffe, Basing-
stoke, and Epsom in England.
In London ozer 400 students were
provided with free instruction by the authorities of University Colt
lege.
In France there was established what was known as "Vimy
Ridge Co 'lege."
So comprehensive a program.was soon in operation that tho term
"Khaki University" was adopted, and the different branches were
known as "Khaki Colleges."
The eurriculum was based on the best
Canadian university standards.
Provisions were made to enable a
man to matriculate %for universities and colleges; while the more
advanced courses were such as to make it possible for hien to com-
plete his academic course.
The subjects included history and eco-
nomics, applied science, languages and literature, agriculture and
business.
A special course on problems of reconstruction, dealing
with the lessons of the war, the economic resources of the Canada of
to-day and to- morrow, conservation of national resources, reor-
ganization of industry and commerce, and the development of avia-
tion and transportation, was also provided.
The direction of the work was the responsibility of an advisory
committee consisting of Chairman, Sir Robert A. Falconer, Presi-
dent University of Toronto; W. C. Murray, President Saskatchewan
University; Sir William Peterson, McGill University; R. Bruce
Taylor, Queen's University; A. S. McKenzie, Dalhousie University.
The following extracts are from an article by John L. Lovein
Association Men of May, 1918:
These men, with others of outstanding eminence, in the scholastic and commercial
worlds, with Dr. 11. M. Tory at their head, are placing the Khaki UniVersity on a
yroasi and comprehensive basis that can not but succeed in achieving the great object
of not merely relieving tho Canadian soldier from the tediousness of camp life, but of
equipping him as thoroughly for peace as the army training has equipped him for war.
In the colleges themselves the teaching staffs are recruited from within the Cana-
dian army, and consist of distinguished professors The senate is prepared to add
to the list, to cover any subject whatever, for which there is sufficient demand.
The men have seized upon their studies with extraordinary avidity; so much so that
the cry, "Men are going eoggy," would appe,ar to have been a timely warning rather
than a literal statement of fact. Examination results have been almost astounding,
and have demonstrated thst.phyakally fit bodies can house marvelouslyalert brains.
Students in the Khaki College have covered in six week; three months' university
work. his related of five men who comoleted in three months what, in the ordinary
ran of evenis, would have been an 18 months' course in wireless telegraphy, that
they eat for the British Admiralty examination, and every one of them passed. It is
not to much to eik that this record is typical of the new Canadian army university,
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S csiusniaz ASSOCIATIONS.
631
such is the enthusiasm of the teaching staff and the dead-set earnestness of the stu-
dents. These soldier undergraduates are absorbing knowledge as a dry sponge drinks
in water, and in this connection Dr. Tory's remark' that never in all his teaching
experience have his brains been "sucked" so completely as when he is lecturing to
a Khaki College class is most illuminating.
That the scheme looks good to the boys, other than those strictly of the student
class, is seen in the following testimony.
Writing to his mother in Brantford, Ontario,
the writer says:
"The Y. M. C, A. has started an educational system in camp now (Willey), and by
paying the small sum of 24 cents any soldier can become a student.
Almost every
branch is being taken up, so that one can take up anything from the dead languages,
of course modern too, to bookkeeping, stenography, etc., and even agriculture. The
different classes are on every night for two hours in special huts, and I understand
that the grades of the students are to be recognized by the educational boards in
Canada.
So it. is a splendid thing in every way.
Will give the boys a chalice to
learn a lot free of charge, and will also be a nice way to spend the evenings in winter,
and'even those too old to begin can go and polish up their rusty joints. The teachers
are, of course, soldiers, officers, and N. C. 0's.
There are a good many universitymen
with degrees in the division, and the classes, even at the start, are not small.
There
is no doubt about it, the Y. M. C. A. has proved itself a God-sent institution for the
soldierswriting rooms with material supplied, eating counters at reasonable rates,
services, Songs, free concerts, libraries, everything possible to fill in the men's spare
troe are placed at their disposal, and they don't forgetto avail themselves of all that's
going."
FranceFoyers du Soldat Union
Franco-Americaine.In the
Foyers du Soldat, the Y. M. C. A. units in the French Army, the
teaching of English made up the greater part of the educational
work.
All the American secretaries participated in the instruction
and with giatifying results.
There was also a limited program of
lectures, usually illustrated with cinemas.
Many of these lectures
were on the United States.
They did much to bring about a better
mutual understanding between the two countries and also to inform
the French soldiers on modern scientific methods in agrictIlture and
in other industries.
A library of 200. or more books was placed in each foyer.
These.
books were selected from a list made up by a. special commission
appointed by the Secretary of War.
There is no doubt that-Rthe
Frehch soldier took more interest in classical literature than did the
American.
lie was also eager to study books oh electricity and
intensive agriculture.
William Sloane Coffan, who furnished the greater part of this
material, and who speaks from a first -hand knowledge gained in war
iaervice in France with the Y. M. C. A., states that, while the prograni
in each but was determined by the immediate special needs and by
the interests of the secretary in charge, the controlling purpose, on
the whole, was, to foster and develop friendly relations between
France and America by giving the French soldiers an intimate knowl-
edge of America, and to arouse intelligent interest in the minds
632
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
of men, who had, been taught in trench warfare not to think too
much. While the organization was crude and many of the teachers
inexperienced, the results were far greater than there was reason to
expect.
The extent of this service can be expressed in terms of the number
of foyers in operation.
According to the Association Year Book for
1918-19, the 1,000th foyer, that at St. Mihiel, was opened in Sep-
tember, 1918. By December 15, 1919., 1,238 foyers had boon started
and at that date 848 were in actual operation.
The personnel
included 638 French
directors, 234
directresses, 272 American
directors and 417 directresses.
Geographically, foyers were found in France, in Alsace and
Lorraine, in Belgium, Luxemburg, north Africa, Saloniki, and in the
area of occupation in Germany.
Units were also established at naval
bases and on the fleet.
General oversight of the work was given by a committee of
patronage composed of representatives of the French people and
Government. There was also a special bureau in charge of the work
of physical and moral education.
William Sloane Coffin and D. A.
Davis were the secretaries of the war-work council of the Y. M. C. A.
in special charge of the foyers.
Warm words of appreciation of this service have been received
from men high in official and army circles, as PainlevO, War Minister,
. the Premier Cleme-nceau, and from Gen. Lyautey, of Morocco, and
Gen. PO tain.
y.Case del Solclato.In 1917 the Y. M. C. A., at the invitation
of leading Italian authorities, civil, military; and ecclesiastic, extended
its work to the Italian Army.
When the' armistice was signed in
November, 1918, the War Work Council was maintaining 200 build-
ings, and was active in 318 hospitals and in 127 military barracks.
Twenty motor routes for moving pictures were in operation.
Units
were established at all the railway stations in Rome, Bologna, Flor-
ence, Turin, Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Palermo! v There were in
service 223 directors. Up to the 31st of January, 1919, $9,842,000
was expended in Italy by the War Work Council.
The need and demand for educational work led to the organization
of class work for officers and privates, in English and in elementary
subjects in Italian.. Lecturers of Italian birth who had lived in
America gave addresses on the aims of the war and on America's part
therein. A plan of propaganda was also put into effect.
Men of
the Y. M. C. A. staff-who knew Italian spoke fo soldiers at the front
tad to those at mobilization points, and to the people in the cities,
on the issues of the war.
A full account of the Y. M. C. A. work in Italy with the troops and
the people, including the educational service, is given in an article
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
633
by Prof. A. Marinoni, of the University of Arkansas, under the title
"L'Opera della Y. M. C. A. in,Italy," which appeared in Nuova
Antologia, Rome, June 16, 1919. This article is discussed in the
Anteriain Review of Reviews for September, 1919.
Prof. Marinoni thus describes the educational work:
An agency such as the Y. M. C. A., which seeks the development ofthe entire man,
included in its program the teaching of the alphabet. As a large proportion of the
people of Italy do not know how to read and write, instruction in reading and writing
was undertaken with zeal and skill. A special method was employed whereby groups
or combinations of letters, in place of oingle letters, were taught.
"Gn," "be,"
"gb," are combinations which occur frequently.
"Ca" is also a good example.
The teacher writes the two letters on a blackboard in large hand and then.adds suc-
cessively the other syllables, forming the more common words, as: " Ca-ne," "ca -re,"
"ca-ldo," "ca-po."
A mastery
the words occurring most frequently was thus soon
gained by the pupils.
Many officers and soldiers expreawd a desire to study English, and classes in that
language were opened at every point where there was a Y. M. C. A. station.
Not only did the Italian Government cooperate heartily in all these
enterprises, but it also expressed its appreciation by letters and
by .decorations bestowed on Y. M. C. A. secretaries, as the Cross of
the Commander of the Crown of Italy on one secretary, the Cross of
Chevalier on five others, while 61 were given the War Cross. A
cordial letter, among many, was that of Lieut.-Gen. Pencils to
Director Nollen.
Greece. Wben Y. M. C. A. huts were first opened in the Greek
army in August, 1918, it was soon found that many of the soldiers
had very little education, and that, furthermore, a considerable
number were unable to road or write.
This condition was largely
duo to the fact that, in addition to two years of compulsory military
training prior to 1912, a large proportion of the soldiers had been in
constant active service in the wars in which cirence had been engaged
'for the past six or seven years.
Again, the Macedonian Province,
from which many of the Greek soldiers came, as these countries had
been under Greek rule since the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913, had
no compulsoryiplucation and were also without good school systems.
There was also a demand for instruction in English, as many of the
men had been to America, and a largo pl'oportion looked forward to
the time when they could go to that eduntry.
To moot those conditions and needs, H. A. Henderson, the Y.
C. A. secretary at Saloniki and Athens, organized classes in elementary
subjects, as reading and writing, and mairtait. i lectures of a simple
character in history, geography, and other common-school subjects.
Classes in these branches, both in Greek and in English, wete con-
ducted in the main Y. Id. C. A. building in Saloniki and in a large but
operated by the Y. M. C. A. in Athens.
At present this work in
Saloniki is in charge of John Granberry, formeny professor of sociology
1684
BIENNIAL SVIIVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
in the University of Texas. Two or three native teachers are assisting
Prof. Granberry.
In Athens, Mr. Vazakis, a Greek, educated in New York, and with
a doctor's degree from the University of Chicago, is at the head of
the educational work.
While there has not been time to evaluate the results of this effort,
the enthusiasm and eagerness of the soldiers are manifest.
Two
thousand per day is the attendance at the Y. M. C. A. but in Saloniki.
At present, 14 huts are in operation in the Greek army.
Egypt.Reports, memoranda, and general orders show that educa-
tional work among the British expeditionary forces in Egypt, after
the conclusion of hostilities, was under 'direct military control, with
the Y. M. C. A. acting in close cooperation.
Staff officers not only
were friendly to thal enterruse, but in several instances, gave per-
sonal attention and support. The classes were conducted in accord-
ance with military proedure and discipline.
The program was a
comprehensive one; including physical training, commercial and
technical instruction.
General education and training for the dis-
charge of the duties and responsibilities of citizenship in a democracy
during the period of reconstruction were also emphasized.
This
quotation from an address by, Maj. Hobart, of the General Staff of
the Fifty-third Division, stationed at Aboukir, is significant of the
viewpoint of many British officers:
And here I come to the general education of the mind.
It L9 this, and not his tech-
nical excellence, which makes a man a good citizen and an efficient member of a
democratic State.
The fate of an uneducated democracy is writ largely in history
Greece and Rome; the Nineties in France; and now the Bolshevists in Russia.
It
is unnecessary to strew the importance of every voter being in a position to judge
fairly and intelligently the issues at stake.
Upon the wisdom of his decisions depend,
not only the safety and the standard of life and happiness of the British Empire, but
it is hardly too much to say, in view of therowth of powers in the East, the ultimate
failure or success of.all that we understand by European civilizationthose ideals,-
those arts, that social life, and that philosophy handed down to us from Greece and
Rome.
It is a commonplace to say that all institutions are now in the melting pot, but
remember that the molds into which that pot will run will be decided by us, by
this generation, predominately by those vary men who now form the British army.
There is only one way I know in which a man can arrive at sound decisions, and that
is by knowledge.
Without knowledge he is at the mercy of gusts of prejudice and
superittition, of mob emotions exploited by demagogues.
There will be inevitably great discontent during the next five or six years.
Read-
justment and reconstruction are matters of immense difficulty)
Discontent with
the conditions to which they aro returning is inevitable with men who have learned
a new standard of living, and of honor, new ideals, and 4 new sense of comradeship and
solidarity.. And rightly so.
There are many things which need alteration; and none
of us could. for a moment contemplate with satisfaction any of our men going back to
the conditions of existence common to poorer quarters of the great cities of England.
Alongaide of this danger of discontent ihere.is the unequaled opportunity of Dotting
tblnp'ieally rightthe greeted opportunity% of real- reconstruction in the history of
-
WORK OF THE TOUT O MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
635
the nation.
But the work must be done soundly; the new edifice built on solid foun-
dations, not a shoddy patchwork of meretricious, superficially attractive schemes.
The only sure guarantee of this lies in the mind of the individual voter and in his
ability to see and grasp broad issues through the tangle of personal profits and preju-
dices. The individual must have not only a general knowledge of the broad facts
which history has repeated again and again, and of the thoughts of the great minds
of the past on the fundamental and unchanging problems of human life, but a just
appreciation of the value and importance of art and literature, of the claims and
functions of commerce, industry, and agriculture, of the relationship of capital and
labor, the virtues of individualism and collectivism, the claims of other classes and
other peoples; and an abiding sense of pride and confidence in our own land and what
it has done in the past and may achieve in the future.
*
*
Gentlemen, we have before us a period of opportunity such as is not likely to occur
again in the lives of any of us.
We have now a breathing space during which the vast
majority have ample leisure, awaiting their return to civil life and their proper and
chosen careers. How long this period will last before we receive demobilization
orders it is impossible to say, but, long or short, it is a unique opportunity, and I ask
you to do your best to make the most of it by helping the men not only in their indi-
vidual industrial requirements, but in reachinga broader outlook and a more balanced
judgment onthe things which lie near to our hearts, and for which indeed we have
been fighting.
This opportunity is unique.
It will never occur again.
By the sweat and agony of war we have attained a feeling of comradeship and
appreciation of the relationship of man with man, and a sense of trust in one another;
in the trustworthiness of our fellows, such as iii perhaps unparalleled in the world's
history.
This comradeship and this trust wy be thegreatest asset of all in the coming
critical years, if we can hold to it and be true to it.
The general oversight of this enterpriso was vested in an educa--
tional advisory committee with headquarters at Cairo.
This com-
mittee consisted of :
R. E. Monteith-Smith of, the Public Security Committee.
Gilbert Elliott, principal of Secondary Schools.
William Jessop, general secretary of the Y. M. C. A.
Lieut. Col. R. G. Howard -Vyso.
Maj. D.C. S. Hobart.
Maj. A. T. McMurrough- Kavanagh.
Maj. H. C. Cumberbatch.
In addition to this central committee there were staffs attached to
each division, of which there were four in Egypt at the time, and to
the base station at Kantara.
Wherever necessary, special commit-
Wes were organized for battalions.
Abundant use was 'made of local
educational facilities as colleges, technical schools, libraries, and mu-
seums.
It is interesting to note that for agricultural instruction the
resources of the agricultural college at Cairo and of thatat Jaffa were
utilized.
The educational work was put into operation in Egypt particularly
at Alexandria and Aboukir, at Cairo and near-by points, at the base
station at Bantam, in the Suez Canal zone, and among such units as
63(3
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
were stationed in Palestine.
These educational facilitieg v.-ere pro-
vided for British and Indian soldiers and officers.
The lines of work in detail were instruction, as need and demand
appeared, in agriculture, commercial advertising, commercial arith-
metic, reading, history, composition and arithmetic, shorthand, and
bookkeeping.
In a number of cases, instruction was given in ele-
mentary English for men in both the British and Indian units.
The
following time table gives an idea of the range of work and the sys-
tem by which it was conducted:
INSTRUCTIONAL CLASSEH---LEFT WINO, COMMAND DEPOT, SIM. Bi SUE., DErminEn,
191STIME TABLE.
Subject.
AGRICULTURE.
Lieut. Tooeood, Pvt. Creed,
five lectures.
te
Day.
Time
Monday to Friday .
10.30 to 12
COAMERCIAL ADVER-
TISING.
G Company No. 2 moss hut.
Lieut. Young, stx lectures.... {Tuesday to Friday
10.30 10 12
}C. Company No. 3 moss hot.
11 to 12
COMMERCIAL ARITH-
METIC.
Gunner Murley
RF.Abrigo.
Monday to Friday .
10.30 to t,
(1 Company No. I Mast; 11 II I
('In-
Mr. Jetterosn
Monday
Thursday.
Welnesday
1135 to 12
II Company (0 and 7
('In-
10.30 to 11.15
1135 to 12
I
loot) mess hot.
HISTORY.
Second Lieut. HennIngs, six
lectures.
Monday.
Wednesday,
1315 to 12
Friday.
1' Company No. 1 moss hot.
COMPOSITION AND
ARITHMETIC.
Bmbdr. ShIngleton
1
onday ..
1 10.30 to 12
rueadny .
10.30 to 12
Wednesday
,11 to 1'
Thursday'
10.30 to 12
Wednesday
10.30 to 12
SHORTHAND AND
DOMEIER EPINO.
Wt.=tames
}Monday to Friday__ 10.30 to 12
... IF Company mess hut.
R Company mess hut.
N. B.Those who are taking arithmetic only at 0 Company 1 mess hut.
NCYTICV.
All 0. R's who are desirous of attending the above-mentioned classes will hand
their names itr
2
as early se possible after joining the wing, to the officer in charge classes
at the class hut E Company's dining but nearest No.
officers' mess) at I1.4? hours.
Owart Owaris,
Major, Commanding, .14t Wing.
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
687
By the middle of December, 1918, the work was well under head-
way, as may be seen from this summary of current classes of the
Fifty-third Division stationed at Alexandria and Aboukir:
FIFTY-THIRD DIVISIONCURRENT CLASSES (CENTRAL SCROOLs).
Officers.
0. R
0 Moen.
0. R's.
-Fihadustani
8
Fanning
32
62
Advanced telephone
1.5
Historical lecthres
17
20
Advanced telephone
24
Bookkeeping and accountancy
17
...
English, elementary
advanced
40
30
English composition ...
23
ShorthandSpeed
25
History
... ....
15
French
60
. Geography.
1l
Arithmetic
.
50
Mathematics, elementary.
42
Advanced mathematics
24
Bookkeeping, advanced
20
117
t5&5
Drawing
34
Equitation
25
24
Reinforced concrete structures
12
14
159
Carpentry
2
28
Tradesmen (A. 0. D.)
Cotton trade and markets
Agriculture
'
8
3
rA
Motor mechanics (motor trap
port company)
49
British.
Indian.
Instructors were obtained for the most part from the officers and
men in service.
Supplies and equipment constituted a real difficulty
for a time and much ingenuity was shown in utilizing materials in
the technical units of the Army, in addition to the drafts made upon
local educational institutions. A number of texts' were ordered
from London to meet the needs.
This report from William Jessop,
the representative of the Y. M. C. A. in war work in Egypt, gives a
summary of this -undertaking, together with certain
interesting
details regarding special features:
During the autumn of 1918 an appeal was made to the universities committee of
the Young Men's Christian Association to send to Egypt a director and staff to under-
take educational work with the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. During negotia-
tions hostilities came to an end, and with the object of hastening the establishment
of an educational organization Gen. Allenbyrequested the chairman of the Y. M. C. A.
in Egypt to form an educational advisory committee, consisting in part of civilian
and in part of militarainembers.
In spite of the late start and the difficulties arising
out of the demobilitireg of instructors and students, good work was done. Some
teachers were sent out from England and other professionals were found among the
troops. Many subjects were taught, such as languages, ancient and, modern; mathe-
matics, history, geography, shorthand, and bookkeeping, as well as carpentry.
housing, town planning, and various others.
Educational lectures were also deliv-
ered nightly to largo audiences, sometimes of 1,500 to 2,000 men.
When the Egyptian Nationalist disturbancee broke out in the °ally part of 1919,
educational activities were for the most part suspended except at the main base
camp, Kantara. A very considerable and greatly appreciated work was done among
the Indian troops as well. A unique branch of the educational scheme was the
school of physical education formed for the Fifty-fourth Division by Dr. G. Deaver,
the Y. M. C. A. physical director.
This was a great success and well attended by men
anxious to take up physical trebling as their future occupation.
Thirty men gradu-
ated and received diplomas: Some by t,hia time have no doubt gone into Y. U. C. A.
physical work in England.
688
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The splendid work begun by Dr. Deaver in the autumn of 1917 still goes on,
although under different conditions.
It was first organized among convahrjo6te to
make these men physically fit to go back to their units. The physical training
scheme meant the return of men to military dnty in from a month to six weeks shorter
time than before it was inaugurated, and that in a hot climate under trying condi-
tions. Now that the war is over, of course, this phase of our physical work is largely
finished.
After the school of physical instruction, mentioned in the educational scheme,
closed, a skating rink was taken over and the course continued there in the mornings,
while at night a big program for everyone was arranged which proved a great success.
Two of these trained men have joined our staff and are doing work at Beirut and
Damascus.
Just before the Egyptian unrest broke out, Dr. Denver was asked to organize the
Boy Scouts in the Moslem schools of Cairo.
This was an undreamed of opportunity
to begin work for the Egyptians, who badly need physical (raining.
We are hoping
to receive this offer again. Nothing, of course, could be done during the uprising.
Dr. Deaver is now compiling a Boy Scouts of Egypt handbook
Speckl parts, such
as on birds, minerals, etc., are being written for ;t by experts, and theTxbole will be
translated into Arabic.
Russia. In its educational work in Aussie during the war blue
Young Men's Christian Association sought to serve the Russian
people in three ways: The promotion of general culture by teaching
the English, French, and Russian languages to military units in
different parts of the country; in giving recreation by a service of
movie films to these units; and by presenting the sympathy and
interesb of the American people to the Russian civilian population
in their time of need.
To achieve these aims an educational department was organized
as an integral part of the association headquarters staff fn Moscow
.
in November, 1917. In spite of political conditions this department
.undertook and conducted successfully an extensive work until nearly
a year later, when it was reorganized under the title of "Lecture
Work in the Allied Units and for the Russian People," with R. J.
Reitzel in charge.
This program included two enterprises: Arecreational and educa-
tional film service with lectures illustrated with lantern slides for the
military units and civilian population, and a demonstrated lecture
campaign by I'rof. C: H. Robertson, of China, in which every impor-
tant center in Siberia was Visiteland lectures given to both soldiers
and civilians.
During the summer of 1918, a notable educational enterprise Was
that known as the Volga Expedition, under the kection of C. C.
Hatfield.
In this %xpedition a comprehensive lecture and exhibition
campaign in agricultural science, hygiene, and household arts was
conducted in more than 40 cities and villages on the upper Volga
by means of a steamboat furnished by the Soviet Government.
B. R. Ryitlkone of tha secretaries on this expedition; has described
the work inan article in the January, 1919 issue of "Rural Man-
-
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
639
hood," the publication of the Y. M. C. A. county work department.
Mr. Ryall, as will he seen from these extracts, describes vividly the
needs of the Russian people, their eagerness for instruction, and the
methods employed in aiding them.
TILE VOLGA EXPEDITION.
(a) Plan.The plan of the work of the expedition called for the development of
two distinct phases of work one rather strictly related tp scientific agricultural edu-
cation, the other to the more general 'human and cultural problems of the country.
The agricultural department was divided into several subdepartments, each in
charge of a specialist, Russian not American, although some had had American train-
ing.
Special emphasis was placed on field crops, horticulture, poultry, beekeeping,
dairy, farm machinery, and cooperation.
Most 'of the men in el#Pge of these departs
ments had risen from the peasant class and knew the needs of these people.
The cul-
tural department took up the more general questions which are possibly of .6en more
fundamental importance, in some cases at least.
No one who knows Russia can
question the need of better hygienic and sanitary conditions. The American Red
Cross very kindly financed the department of sanitation and hygiene. Here special
emphasis was placed on giving the people in a simple but concrete way some of the
elemefitary conditions for the control of contagious diseases, which are so prevalent
in Russia, and some of the simple taws of sanitation. Great interest was manifested
in this work and a lot of good seed was sown.
(8) Babies
play -- cooking, The Young Women's Christian Association secretaries,
Misses Dunham, Brice, Dickerson, and Mrs Ityall, formerly Miss Childs, cooperated
in developing certain phases of work of sPecial interest to women. They concentrated
on two line -- domestic science, relating especially to cooking and preserving of food,
and the care of children, referring particularly to babies. The Y. IV. G. A. also cooper-
ated with the Y. M. C. A. in seine special recreational work. This work was at first
intended to deal only with purely recreational problems and the actual demonstration
of games. The question was so closely related to the whole school question, however,
that the work soon broadened out into conferences on a much wider range of school
problems. The teachers were everywhere most anxious to become acquanted a ith the
American system of education both as to school curriculums and organizations.
They were also deeply interested inour trade and agricultural schools.
(c) On board of ship.---Each of the subdepartments mentioned in the foregoing
paragraphs had assigned to them booth apace on the steamship Kcrzenetz for
exhibition material, with only two except ions. These exhibits were made as practical
as possible.
In addition to booth space for exhibits, one room was set aside for a
lecture room. When crowded, as it generally was, it would hold possibly 200 people,
It was well equipped m ith an up-to-date moving picture machine and stereopticon.
Fortunately, a number of reasonably good reels of Russian agricultural subjects were
secured and also a fairly good selection of elides. Only a limited supply of American
films and slides was available.
Besides the accommodations
our
the exhibit, which
fairly large, there were
o
stateroom accommodations for
ur staff of about 40, as wed
the crew of about an
equal number. In addition to this were the large dining mom, the general office, and
the cashier's office. The board bill, for the summer amounted to approximately $45
monthly per man.
-
The boat was secured at Nijni and the first plain bad been to proceed directly to
Tsaritzyn, which is near the mouth of the Volga,River, and then work up the stream.
The internal revolutionary conditions, however, prevented the expedition from
going any farther south than 4imbirek. All summer long the plans had to be changed.
.1/1*
640
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
to meet prevailing-political conditions, and the work was greatly handicapped.
Yet
in spite of all the difficulties, it is really a question if this is not tho.most valuable
piece of work-that the Y. M. C. A. has done in Russia. It was a great period of seed
sowing. During the summer the exhibition was opened at 44 different places on the
Volga and Oka, with an attendance of over 30,000 people. Noone dare prophesy what
may be the fruit of this summer's work.
(d) SuperstitiOns that we wt.Many interesting experiences fell to the lot of the
expedition. The almost universal request fur the exhibit to stay longer and to come
again another year was sufficient evidence of the value of the work.
If political condi-
tions would permit permanent work, there are many towns where association work
could be opened at once. The people are hungry for just the thing that the associa-
tion can give. Atone place the boat was 2i vents' from the town. It had been raining
hard all day, and the pats were nothing but slippery mud. No one had the faith to
expect more than perhaps a baker's dozen of visitors, but nearly 300 people plowed
through the mud and the rain, some of them coming not from the nearest town, but
from a town 6 versta away. Similar instances can be given al 1 along t he line.
Of course
there were also many superstitions to overcome.
Especially was this true in the
sections where the Old Believers predominated. In some places they said that we
planned to get all the children onboard and then run away with them.
Others said
that wo were trying to get the people down on the bank of the river and would then
turn the machine gun on them. Still others Baia that the Red Triangle sign we had
painted on the side of the boat was the sign of the devil and the Antichrist. This last
superstition we met everywhere, especially among the priests of theOld Believers.
The Orthodox priests held that it was the sign of a certain Jewish antichristian organi-
zation..
This attitude has practically compelled us to give up the use o the Red
Triangle among the peasants.
In other places the peasants thou
we were
representatives of the Red Guard conic to take their land and
from them.
At still another place the pr et and the doctor, who were with us, were reported to
have been seen putting poise
to the village wells. One day's stay in a village was
enough to dispel all of these superstitions. Out of these very superstitions and objec-
tions there came the advantage of putting before the people the purpose of the asso-
ciation, which wo possibly would not have had in any other way.
(e) A day's work.An average day's work may be of interest. The boat moved from
one town to the next some time during the night, docking at the regular pier.
After
breakfast most of the members of the staff would go out into the community, each mem-
ber following up his particular interest, the instructor in beekeepinggetting in touch
with the beekeepers, the dairyman with the local men who were interested in that
line, others calling on the priests, the school teachers, cooperators, etc.
The program
on the boat opened at 2 o'clock, with special lectures for the children.
At 4 o'clock
would be a conference with the teachers on recreation and other school problems.
At the same time n another part of the boat would be a conference with the men espe-
cially interested n cooperative work. The program for the adults openedat 6 in the
evening, the &lit our or so being given to an explanation of the exhibit in the booths;
then would begin the program in the lecture room, illustrated by filmsor with slides.
The program would run as follows: Care of Children; the Canning and Preserving of
Food; Talk on the Y. M. C. A. Work; Field Crops, Dairy, Poultry. Very frequently
special groups would get together for conference on special phases ofagriculture. Each
evening a conference was held.
Siberia. In the summer of 1918, classes in English and French
were begun among Russians in Moscow and among the Czech soldiers
in Siberia.
At Vladivostok, Hatbin, Haharovsk, and Irkutsk,
One mile equals I I vents.
MP
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
641
during the winter of 1918-19, classes, particularly in English, wero in
operatiOn at civilian Y. M. C. A. centers in these cities. This work
assumed a substantial character at Vladivostok, and the applicants
for enrollment far exceeded the supply of teachers and material
available.
The Y. M.. C. A. Bulletin, published biweekly at Vladivostok by
the national headquarters of the Young Men's Christian Association
in Siberia, has much material on the educational work in Siberia and
with the armies in north Russia,
Despite disturbed conditions, de-
cided progress is being made.
R. J. Reitzel, director of the lecture bureau, gives a full abcount of
that service, from which thee extracts have been taken:
The work of the Y. M. C. A., so far as adapting itself to the needs of Russia is
concerned, has been, experimental. This is especially true of the work of the lecture
bureau.
The object of this part of this report is to show what facts, us gathered from
experiences throughout the past winter, are worthy of interest and consideration.
First. Scientific demonstrated lectures on The Gyroscope" and "Wireless Teleg-
raphy.' have been delivered by Prof. C. II. Robertson in Vladivostok, Pogranechnia,
llanclahedte,
Changchun,
Kirin,
llabarovsk,
Harbin,
Irkutsk,
Ekaterinburg,
Chelyabinsk, Potropavolosk, Omsk, and Tomsk. This tour, including a trip to
China, has taken the better part of a Aloha year, during which time Prof. Robertson
traveled close on to 20,000 miles under most trying conditions. A few figures which
show the gratifying results in attendance and appreciation called forth by Prof.
Robertson's lectures are the following: Vladivostok, 14,160; Ekaterinburg, 4,225;
Irkutsk, 4,540; Omsk, 10,930; Tomsk, 5,791. The grand total attendance ie 54,931.
Tho different groups Boned by these lectures were from all the allied soldiers in
Siberia, with special campaigns for the pzocho-Slovake, and in the Russian cities
such groups as the school children, railway employees, engineering societieseome
lectures being for the educated class of people and many especially designed for
groups of working men.
In Omsk special interest was manifested by the minister
of trade and industry, and in Tomsk, the cultural center of Siberia, the lectures
were received with great enthusiasm by the leaders of the educational institutions.
The great service that Prof. Robertson has rendered Russia in his two years of lectur-
ing here, iv well as the value of his work to the association movement in its intro-
ductory stage ill this land. can not at this time be meastitd or stated.
Prof. Robert,
sonsummed up the possibilities most significantly at the coeclusion of his lecture
tour and his second year in Russia when.he said "Russia without a doubt is and will
be one of the greatest lecture fields inthe world."
Second. Illustrated lectures: Tho need fe'r a complete library of slides for illus-
trated lectures, upon all lines of scientific, vocatioltal, And popular subjects, with
manuscripts and proper facilities for circulating the samerhas been fully tested out and
proven.
In Ilabarovsk these illustrated lectures havii been held in the town hall,
with the hearty indorsement of the mayor. Tho,Lectures wore given by a local
Russian educator, whose services added greatly to -the value of the slides and texts.
This, is the ideal we have in mind, namely, the stimulatini; of volunteer lecture work
in the local association.
In the development of the Russian texts for these lectures we are now having
them written in Russian instead of depending uppn translations.
Third. Educational films: Still anotherexperiment that has boon fully carried out
shows the value of an educational film service in the city centers and country com-
munities, and since little publicity has been given to this pert of the work heretofore
171029°-21Bull. 88-41
642
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 191671918.
.
C
a little more space should be devoted to it.
In our city work for civilians the call
for educational films with a bit-of comedy thrown in has boon way in excess of what
we have been able to supply.
Russian educators, who are members of our commit-
tees on city work, testify to the great possibilities of this sort of work as an educational
feature. The showing of educational films has not been confined to the Y. M. C. A.
building alone; programs have Ween given gratuitously in city schools and before
other groups, such as railway employees, sport clubs, Boy Scouts, soldiers, etc., so
that it thus becomes a great possibility for extension work.
The value of all this ie brought home to us when we realize that good picture,'
offered to the general public in the moving-picture theaters are 'few and far between.
Graham reports in his book on Russia that a local Russian newspaper made a survey
in five towns of just what was being offered the Russian public by way of films.
The census in 1917 was as follows: Russian cinemas. - Scientific, 2 per cent; historical,
3; industrial, 3; nature, 4; farce, 20; Itirid drama, 60; polite drama, 8 per cent.
Also we must realize that the getatest number of them:, films were produced in
Germany.
A year ago in Vladivostok practically all the films shown were of German
origin and had running through them a subtle thread of German propaganda. Thus
we see very good reasons for maintaining a counterattraction and the great need of
securing the right kind of films. At the present tune we have machines placed in
the city work at Vladivostok, Habarovek, Ilarbin, Irkutsk, Omsk, and Tomsk..
There has never been any doubt in our minds about the value of the educational
(lime in the present villages of Siberia.
When wo see the great need of educes
there and realize that the enlightening influence of the centers of education and the
interchange of, ideas have practically been confined to the intellectually walled
chi& of Russia; further, when we realize the dearth of books, other reading matter,
and all the modern facilities for public enlightenment, and also consider that even I
though there werer an abundance of1ch things, 70 to 80 per cent of the peasants w
can not road or write, we can appreciate what a scientific short cut in the problem
of edutating the peasant is a picture thrown on the screen.
The simple peasant can
'.understand with delight and interest, and when ho hears the interpretation given by
a capable and sympathetic lecturer in the language of his own village he beams with
delight as the wonders of the outside world are unfolded to him.
During the past winter the committee on public information, in cooperation with
the Zemtstso, has circulated throughout re number of the villages in Primorskaya
Province two moving picture lecture outfits. In those, pictures were shown on such sub-
jects as industry, agriculture, mining, natural scenery, and community welfare, while
usually the occasion was concluded by a good clean comedy, which never failed 'to
create a laugh ttnd send the People away happy.
The :Icturers accompanying the
films were capable Russian engineers and agricultural experts.
Interesting tepti-
monies in regard to the impressions created were secured through the maintenance
of a special box, into which those who viewed the films could drop written criticisms.
A few of these testimonies /ill suffice to show the success of the project:
'
1. From a 10-year-old boy: "The beet picture I liked was about school, where chil-
dren walked from the school.
I liked it because it was so nice."
2. Prom a 28-year-old peasant: "Exceedingly thankful to the lecturers for their
great work. I hope that with your cooperation we will have on the screen in our
village, Potrovka, a number of pictures relating to farminglike preeeevation of for-.
eats, scientific dairying, etc., which picttiree, I believe, would awaken initiative in
to
our slumbering population,"
3. Another one: "I liked all the pictures, but best of all was that about alcohol,
becaufe I suffer myself from it, but nobody believes that drinking is a disease.
Con-
tinue your good work; thanks very 'much. Vorobiev."
4. Another says: "Yee, the peasant has seen light for the first time and this will
bringgeed remits. The education will leave a deep trace in the souls ef the dark people,
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S cHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
643
who, watching the pictures, dream of what' they saw and heard. But the people
forget and you do not remind them of it, that it is not enough to listen; we must work,
act, for sweet-voiced-vultures sop and drink the blood of the people.' fk
The swarming of the audience around the lecturer after the performance is over,
asking all sorts of questions, reveals the eagerness of the rural population for educa-
tion, as well as their desire to.analyze critically their own mode cf life to the end that
they may lift themselves to A higher plane of civilization.
Likewise the need f4r
wholesome entertainment; in the rural districts, is even more paramount than in the
eity.
"Fourth.
1.11
es.
Another factor in our service will be the circulating of
libraries, which have been ordered from our publication bureau in Berne, Switzer-
land. Two hundred libraries of50 PAISRifila books each will be distributed from various
centers and sent out through some such organization as the Zemstvo to the villages.
The books are standard Russian educational publications and should find a hearty
welcome in districts where they have practically nothing at preeent to read.
Fifth.
Army wet*. The lecture bureau has been able to afford a great dual of
service to the American Expeditionary Force soldier work in the way oteducational
lectures
Tho plan has.been to use all possible lecture talent of the secretaries who
have come out from America, and almost every secretary has been used in this w*.
The Young Men's Christian Association is fortunate enough to have secretaries whose
travels have coverbd the globe and who have participated in some of the most inter-
esting events of the pig few years.
Our ideal in regard to our soldiers has been to
furnish one good lecture a-week at all points where there are secretaries, and this
with one or two exceptions has been carried out.
In the western field, among the Czechs, Mr. K. P. Miller, who is in charge, has done
an excellent piece of work of promotion along lecture lines. He has developed some
good lectures that ho himself has 'given on numerous tours among the Czechs. He
has also interested all the secretaries at work for the Czechs in doing their utmost in
maintaining the morale of the( men through helpful talks.
Sixth. , Besides he above lines of work for Russia, other services that are proving
of value are the developing and printing of photographs for individual secretaries
and for publicity purposes, and the issuance of the weekly Y. M. C. A. Bulletin.
Also a great deal has'lieeit done.in the way of turning out posters and suitable pictures
for decorating \ arioua soldier huts.
It should be noted also that we haw"! installed
10 movie machines in the Army wqrk for our soldiers in this district, and will soon
have that number operating in the western field for the soldier Work there.
July 5 a training course for Russian eaclers---womon and menwas started with
an attendance of about 20 teachers from Vladivoitek rind the surrounding towns and
villages.
This course, organized..by the Y. M. C. A. in cooperation with Russian
organizations, is free tit chew and its object is to prepare trained men and women
for work with children and youth in the cities and villages of Siberia.
Results, as summari2eel by E. C: Peters.It is too early as yet to measure results
from such an extended and' varied program. too frequently the association leaders
were handicapped by a lack of materials and equipment to carry on the work, besidee
military necessity compelled the abandonment of programs while in the initial stages
of development.
It is not to much to say, however, that the ground has been broken
in many centers throughout Russia and Siberia, and some seed sown.
Tho real
harvest will depend upon the watering and cultivation that must come 'as the neva
step in the development of this work. A brief statistical statement might serve to
make clear some of the general statements made above. '
Number of students in classes at various points
550
Number of points at sthich some educational work was done
16
Number reached throul-h lectureprograms
100, 060
Number reached through movie film eepice.
200,000
644
'thttftfrif 61;t11;t0A+16N, 1916 -1918.
PROGRAM .0? ASSOCIATION EDUCATIONAL WORK.
On the basis of experience, supplemented by study of the needs,
of local situations and a critical testing of the forms of education
that are most likely to meet the needs' of the constituency to be
served', a standard program of educational activities has been formu-
lated.
The main heads under which these activities are grouped
are: (1) Reading, 'through librariesand reading rooms; (2) Lec-
tures and informal talks; (3) Educational clubs; (4) Class lecture
series; (5) Evening classes; (6) Association day schools; (7) Exten-
sion features; (8) English for foreigners; (9) Special courses; (10)
Boys' departments.
Annual examinations are also conducted in certain standard sub-
jects through the educational department of the International
Committee.
READING.
, As will be seen from an examination of the. statistical tables for
1917 and 1918 (Table 2, pp. 5r, 52), in 1917 there were 19 asso-
ciations in each of which 5,000 or more books were drawn from
the libraries and used by memberstithe largest circulation for -1917
is that of west side branch in New
rk City," with 86,120 books; the
smallest eliculation is that of Richmond, Va., with a record of 5,040
books.
In 1918, 13 associations report 5,000 or more books drawn
and used.
Presumably the falling' bff is due in part to disturbed
conditions as a result of the war, and' probably also to tho growth
of the public library service with which agency many associations
are increasingly cooperating.
It should be noted, furthermore, that
of the 19 associations reporting in this table for 1917, 8 were railroad
associations, and in 1918, 6 were railroad associations.
In 1918 the
west side branch of New York City also shows the largest circulation,
namely, 85,854.
In 1917, on the basis of reports received from 858 -
associations, 555,371 boob were read, of which 347,319 were in city
associations, 206,525 in railroad associations, 1,527 in colored en's
associations.
In 1618 on the basis of reports from 774 associations,
681,080 books were read by members, distributed as follows*:
Railroad aasociations
.a.
.
253,183
238, 523
Railroad
City arsociations
Colored men's associations
3,074
'Army and Navy asertiations
128,300
In addition to facilities for reading through libraries, a large number
of associations maintain reading rooms provided, with the'best period-
icals, magazines, and journals, particularly those relating to business
and industry.'
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
645
In 1917, 35,598 periodicals were reported as on file, distributed as
follows:
City associations
26,197
Railroad associations
t
8, 895
Colored men's associations
506
In 1918 there were 41,008 on file, distributed as follows:
City associations
10 981
Railroad associations
8,819
Colored men's associations
623
Army and Navy associatiorui
585
While the reading of hooks and periodicals is, to some extent,
for purposes of recreation, there is an increasing effort to guide
men and boys in systematic courses of reading and study, and to
relate their reading to lectures and class work done under the auspices
of the educational department.
Plans are now being considered, in cooperatio with the American
Library Assoctation, for an extension of the work of the associations,
especially in making, larger and more effective use of the resources
of public libraries.
The admirable results secured ill the war camps
thiltuth such cooperation with the war service of the American
Library Associihion, give good grounds for looking for a large develop-
ment in this field with the home associations in the near future.
LECTURES.
As will he noted from Table 3, lectUres and practical talks constitute
an important service of the associations.
These lectures and talks
cover a wide range of topics:
During the period of the war, much
use w,as made of this means of education to give members and others
in attendance an understanding of the issues st stake, and was an
effective means of .combating the propaganda against the interests
of the trnited States and of the Allied nations.
Other lectures deal
with questions relating to the conduct of life and technical and
business subjects. The associations have been able to secure as
lecturers, men of the highest ability; and in a number of cities, these
lectures are regarded as furnishing exceptional opportunities. The
attendance is not limited to members.
In some instances, admission
foes are charged, but if so, are merely nominal; as 'the expenses are,
in the main; met through contribiltions.
The informal talks are usually given by men from the community,
and to small groups, as a. rule, upon subjects of immediate interest.
Oftentimes, as a result of such talks, an interest develops that leads
to the formation of a reading club or of a class to pursue the subject
exkaustively.
will be note*' rom the tables, there were in 1917, 76 associations
reporting 40 or mom educational lectures and talks each, and in
646
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
1918, 39 associations.
Here again, the influence of the war appears
in the smaller number maintaining this form of work. The totals
show that in 1917 there were given 14,375 lectures and talks, dis-
tributed as follows:
City associations
9, 237
County associations
2, ro
Railroad associations
2. 239
Colored men's associations
378
Army and Navy associations
131
In 1918 there were given 11,931 lectures and talks, distributed as
follos-s:
City associations
7, 888
County associations
1.074
Railroad associations
2, 707
Army and Navy associations
Y
262
EDUCATIONAL CLUBS.
The alert secretary, general or educational, is constantly encour-
aging groups of men or boys to organize educational clubs, even for
a short time, for the purpose of following up some field of research,
study, or discussion., A wide range of interests is thus appealed to.
Such club work has a very definite and important relation to the
service which the associations render througieklass work, lectures,
practical talks, libraries, and reading rooms.
Oftentimes the result
of a talk or a lecture, or the reading of a book is to arouse sufficient
interest on which to ba.,e such an organization; and again, out of
such a club there frequently results the organization of a class to
pursue consecutive study.
Among the fields in which these clubs
are especially active there may be noted music, camera, science,
literature, debating, current topics, and in art, technical, and voca-
tional subjects.
The membership of a club varies from 5 to 15.
It
is important that a leader should be selected who will hold the men
or boys together in a definite program for a month or a. ye
In
1917 there were reported 25,716 educational club members; an
in
1918, 27,411 club members. Table 4 gives a list of associations
reporting five or more educational clubs with a total of 100 or more
members.
In 1917 there were 40 associations reporting 5 or more
educational clubs; in 1918, 30.
CLASS-LECTURE SEEMS.
The class-lecture series is a form of university extension work for
the purp- dse of pursuing a fairly consecutive study of some subject
largely vocational under a leader who conducts quizzes and some-.
times written examinations.
This form of, educational work differs
from.olaas work in that it consists of lectures supplemented by vari-
WORK OF THE YOUNG hAN 'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
647'
ous tests.
The most common subjects pursued in these lecture series
the advertising, salesmanship, credits, efficiency, memory training,
foreign trade, and real estate.
The men in attendance are, 84 a rule,
those engaged in active business, many of whom have had exuptional
opportunities in education through college and high school.
There
were in 1917 in 'attendance on these courses 9,486 men, and in 1918,
5,176.
According to Table 5, in 1917 there wore 47 associations
reporting class-lecture series with 50 or more students; and in 1918,
20 such associations.
EVENING CLASSES.
At the very beginning of its educational work the associations
made rffetch use of- evening classes as an opportunity for men and
boys employed during the daytime to continue their education in
the field of liberal studies and business and technical training.
A
wide range of subjects are offered in these classes, with particular
emphasis upon commercial, industrial, and elementary work. The
courses are, as a rule, arranged in two terms each of from 25 to 30
sessions..
A class in 'a given subject meets usually twice or three
times a: week.
The length of the course and the number of sessions
a week depend, however, upon the character of the work.
Students
pay tuition fees varying from $1 to $50 or more per course, according
to the length of the course and the expense ofmaintenance.
In ele-
mentary subjects, particularly in the work for foreigners hi English
and in Americanization, the charge is usually nominal. The age of
students ranges from 16 to 56.
This typo of work may be regarded
as perhaps the most important undertaken by the associations, as it
provides a much-needed opportunity for the wage earner to supple-
ment his early education and to equip himself for more effective
service with resultant gain in wege-earning capacity and in usefulness
as a member of society.
In 1917 there were reported in attendance in the evening schools
49,533 students, distributed as follows:
City associations
46, 376
County associations
573
Railroad associations
I, 548
Colored men's associations
382
Army and Navy associations
654
In 1918 55,438 students wore reported in attendance in the evening
schools, distributed ds follows:
City associations
51,231
County associations
293
Railroad associations
1, 279
Colored men's associations
239
Army and Navy associations..
2, 398
648
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
The expense of the evening schools, mot in part from tuition
receipts, amounted in 1917 to $304,336.
During the year 1918 the
work of the evening schools was modified largely to meet the needs
for training men for technical subjects connectedwithe Army,
such as telegraphy, wire and wireless, aviation mechas, automo-
bile instruction, and first aid.
An extensive program of work was
initiated and carried on successfully for this purpose until the armis-
tice was signed in November, 1918.
Table 6 shows associations
reporting over 500 students and where such a number is 20 per cent
or more of the association membership. There were in 1917, 35 such
associations and in 1918, 39.
ASSOCIATION DAY SCHOOLS.
Association day schools are intended to meet the needs of boys of
secondary-school age who wish to supplement the education received
before they. left school (in many cases to enter employment) and
later realize the needs of better training.
Another and increasing
group of boys seeking these opportunities for education in the asso-
ciation are those who, for some reason or another, prefer these schools'
to others operating in the community. Many of the city associa-
tions with their fine buildings and equipment, including class and
lecture rooms, workrooms. , and laboratories well equipped fo.r instruc-
tion, and also with admirable provisions for physical training in the
shape of gymnasiums, with opportunities for bringing boys under
wholesome religious, and moral influences, are well equipped for doing
a large and valuable educational service to boys from 12 to 20 years
of age. In a number of instance.s. these schools have attained a dis-
tinct and separate organization from the other educational activi-
ties with their own faculties, including principals, department heads,
- and teachers.
The tuition fees depend largely upon the character
of the work done and range from $10 to $20 a month.
The school
ham* are from 8.30 in the morning to 2 or 4 in the afternoon, with a
program combining supervised study, recitation, practical work, and
recreation. A close oversight is kept of the physical and moral
%II
development of the boys, in addition to the opportunities for a
thorough study.
Such schools are necessarily limited to the larger
centers of population.
They may be said to consist of three groups:
(1) Those that provide for the needs of boys of exceptional ability;
(2) for those who are somewhat handicapped in the pursuit of ,their
\ studies; and (3) for those who wish to avail themselves of the all-
around program of the association.
The aMociation day school has a definite opportunity of putting
into effect the most recent approved methods of instruction, and of
serving a valuable purpose as a pioneer in the field of secondary
education.
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
(;49
There were in 1917 in attendance on the association day schools
7,279 students, and in 1918, 9,632 students. As will be noted,
there is a distinct growth in this form of association educational
service. The expense of these day schools in 1917 amounted to
$87,267, and in 1918, to $196,564.
Practically all of the association
day school work is done in city associations, more especially those
in the larger centers.
As will be seen from Table 7 there were in
1917, 20 associations reporting day work, with 50 or more students,
and in 1918, 26.
BOYS' SUMMER SCHOOLS.
In the summer of 1916 there were in attendance on summer
schools maintained by the associations, 2,350 students; and in the
summer of 1917, 2,263 students. For the most part, those in at,-
tendanco on such schools are boys of grammer and high-school ago
who are desirous of making up work in which they, failed, or in secur-
ing more rapid promotion by anticipating subjects to be offered
later in their regular high-school courses.
There is a fine spirit of
cooperation between public school authorities and the association
in the maintenance of this work; and in certain cases, the teachers
employed are those who are regularly engaged in the work of the
public schools.
According to Table 8, there were in 1916, 37 boys' summer schools
with 25 or more students; in 1917, there were 32 boys' summer
schools with 25 or more students.
y.
BOYS' DEPARTMENT.
1Cotwithstanding the great progress that has been made in recent
yetys in the raising of the age for leaving school, and in the provision
of dontinuation schools for boys who are emoyod, the association
conVnues to find an important field of service in offering class work
to lAys In fact, thew has been, since 1916, an increase in tho num-
ber if employed boys in classes, as the enrollment figures for tkose
tlireelyears aro as follows:-
1916..
11, 724
1917.
12,484
1918
15, 615
The development of this phase of the educational work of the
associations is also apparent from Table 9, which shows that in 1917
there were 23 departments with 100 or more boys in class work, and
in 1918, 33 departments. Doubtless, this increase in the number of
associations offering such class work and in the number of boys en-
rolled represents a definite effort to meet the need. of such instrue-
tion, in view of the number of boys who, as a result of the large earn-
ings offered in connection withwar industries, left school prematurely.
650
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
et
It is probable that these statistics represent a very valuable contri-
bution on the part of associations as an influence offsetting the tend-
encies to disorder and demoralization of youth thiit were noted with
arptietrfor a time during the war period.
ROLL OF HONOR.
As an incentive to the maintenance of educational opportunities
for employed boys, the International Committee maintains an edu-
cational roll of honor, in which recognition is given. to associations
winning the largest number of certificates for successful examina-
tions on school subjects among boy members, and also for associa-
tions in which the largest per cent of boy members win such certifi-
cates.
This roll of honor appears in Table 11.
EXAM1"CATIONS.
The International Committee conducts annual examinations in
four fields of work, namely, educational subjects, first aid to the
injured, book tests for association, employed officers, and Bible
study tests.
These examinations constitute a definite influence in
the maintenance of high standards of work, and also furnish \an
incentive to thorough work on the part of students.'
In 1917, 8,787
`-k persons took part in these tests, distributed as follows:
Educational subjects
2, 620
First aid to the injured
1,200
Book tests
479
Bible study.
4,488
In 1918, the number was 3,401, distributed as follows:
Educational subjects
857
First aid to the injured
690
Book tests
71
Bible study.
1, 983
GENERAL SUMMARY.
The extent and amount of educational work that is being done
through the associationsand its development since 1893 can be seen
from a study of Table 10.
While in some instances, and in particular
features, the work may show a falling off in certain years, there has
been throughoUt this entire period of a quarter of a century steady
consistent progress.
Thus, the number of lectures and talks have
increased from 1,900 to 11,931.
The number of associations with
educational secretaries has increased from 1 to 87; the number of
paid teachers from 416 to 2;203; the total different day and evening
students from 12,900 to 81,899; the tuition receipts from. $2,000 to
$823,490.
, This latter figure shows a falling oft from the receipts in
1917 of about $300,000.
On the other hand, the total expense of
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
661
all features reached the highest figure in 1918, namely, 31,433,887.
The loss in receipts is probably due to the fact thatmany associations
made generous contributions in the way of educational service dur-
ing the war, either free of charge or at an actual loss.
Also probably
the failure of certain 'associations to report may be responsible for
the decline in the amount of tuition receipts.
The educational war
work of the associations, in all its different forms, constitutes an im-
reesive showing, and means that a very definite service was rendered
to hundreds of thousands of men and boys at a time when such help
. and assistance aro most effective in the development of character
and in the increase of efficiency and skill in one's calling.
J
EQUIPMENT.
In most instanc
the educational department is housed in the
association building n quarters especially furnished for educational
work, with desks, ch irs, blackboards, laboratories, workshops, draft-
ing rooms, and office outfit for the administrative body. In recent
.years the educational work in certain associations has grown to such
dimensions that it has been found desirable to provide separate build-
ings for the technical phases, such as instruction in the automobile,
in the tractor, and in aviation mechanics.
Educational departments
housed in the buildings are enabled to use the libraries, reading
rooms, assembly halls, and also to secure the advice and counsel of
the men in the association, of experts in physical education, and in
boys' work. Through the membership and the management of the
association, students, both men and boys, are brought into, Whole-
some contact with virile and strong business and professional men.
ORGANIZATION.
In the case of 87 associations an educational secretary who
specializes in this field is employed.
The educational secretary is
selected with reference to his preparation through school and col-
lege, and also as to his ability as an executive and general manager.
Well-organized educational departments do not, as a rule, expect the
educational secretary to do any teaching, as he, is fully occupied in
the work of management and of promotion.
The staff of an educational secraary consists, in di`e large associa-
tions maintaining strong educational work, of heads of departments
or schools, together with teachers in special subjects.
Such schools
may be an association day school, an automotive school, a school of
commerce, or a school of cooperative, engineering.
The heads of
departments are selected with reference to their knowledge and skill
in their own particular field, and also tosome extent with regard to
e '1
652
BIENNIAL SURVEY" OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
their business and executive capacity.
Among the associations
maintitining large staffs there may be noted the following:
Associations.
Educational
secretaries
and assist-
ants.
Paid teachers
and leaders, LervinfZ,.,
committees.
Deem
17
129
Chicago, central
4
central
10
38
ss
8
IS
Detroit, Adams Avenue
9
115
24
Minneapolis, °entre!
3
2e
38
New York, west side
8
97
Philadelphia, central
11
sa
Portbnd, Oreg
5
35
10
Ban Promisee, 0ohlen Dote
3
30
3
In smaller associations, Iv here the staff is limited to one or two per-
sons, it is obviously not possible to carry on very extensive or highly
organized work.
In smaller associations, oftentimes, the educational
department is put in charge of an employed officer as only one part
of his responsibilities and duties.
Here, again, the range of activity
is necessarily limited.
An important element in the animas of any educktional depart-
ment is the educational committee, which, in a well-managed asso-
ciation, is composed of loading business and professional men with
one or two representatives of public schools or colleges.
The func-
tion of the educational committee is to consider plans, programs,
and policies, and to make recommendations to the hoard of directors
with: regard to appropriations and appointments. A strong educe
tional committee constitutes one of the most importint aids to an
educational secretary.
6
STATISTICAL TABLES.
'
TAMA I.-Associations reporting educational expenses over $3,000, where such amount
is 15 per cent or more of the total currentexpenses of the association.
A. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1916, TO JUNE 36, 1917.
State.
Association.
Epciw .
Pm cent.
Colorado
ri
320,917
orado
I/
Connecticut .
I
Benver
ridgeport
9, 197
District of Columbia
Washington...,
22,800
Illinois
Chicago (oentral).... ,..
46, 517
Maryland
Baltimore.
18,406
Massachusetts
BM( OT1
194,565
Do
Westfield .
3,931
Michigan
Lansing
.
7,315
Minnesota
Minneapolis.
12,320
Missouri
St. LouIs
9,316
New York
Albany
4,654
Do
Now Yorlc(Twentv-third Street branch)
44,706
Do
New York (west side branch )
76,479
Ohio
Cincinnati
28,278
Do
Cleveland
36,069
Do
Columbus.
9,555
Do
Dayton
13,703
Washington
Spokane.
6,181
Illinois
pupa (railroad)
..
18, 053
11. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1917, TO JUNE 30, 101R.
California
Do
Colorado.
District of Columbia
Illinois
Maryland
Massachusetts
Do
Michigan
Do
Minnesota
Now Jersey,
Now York
Do
Do
Do
Ohio.
Do
Do
Do
1..Oregon
P Tarilevtor
22
16
19
IR
51
60
25
1.5
21
31
20
314
17
IR
78
16
Los Angeles
San Francisco
Denver.
INashington
Chicago. .
Baltimore
Boston
Worcester
Detroit
Lansing
Ilinnespolig
Newark
Brooklyn (Belford branch)
Now York
side branch)
New York Twenty-third Htrret
New York wastaide branch)
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Columbus.
Lorain
Portland
'tenon
Seattle
$55, 185
23,606
20,041
21. 301
MT ,510
18, 318
160,037
19, 178
171, MI
3,743
11,308
17,330
34,374
7;991
45, 037
116,759
25,627
42,028
35,017
3,144
43,728
5,639
22,758
ii
15
21
15
.26
16
49
15
IS
20
21
15
26
29
39
17
30
15
.
.
TAieLit2.-Associaliots in which 5,000 or more books were drawn and used.
B. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1916, TO JUNE 30, 1917.
Provinces and
Static.
Association.
Books.
Proving/land
swim.
Association
Books.
.Manitoba.
quebee
,
Dist. Columbia
Indiana
Tows
New York
Do
Do
Winnipeg
Montreal
Washington
Richmond
Dvanenport
Al
y
g
Brooklyn (central)
threat Mandl).
NMI York (west aide
brown).
8,106
22,300
20,068
5,040
2,003
M1,644
19, 5,15
18. N5
28,638
716,120
Pennsylvania..
Ontario
Mirummota
Missouri
New Jamay..
New York CRY
PeMistarania
Do
Do.
Philadelphia (central)...
St. Toomaa (railrcesd)...
St. Paul (railroad)
St. Louis (rallroad)
Camden (railroad). _.
New York, Grand Can
tralTerroinal railroad)
Coo=a(
Prilladelisi (P.
.
t).
81=rallroad)
5'842
6,225
213.180
6,323
23, V*
29, OM
5, X161
20,072
All46
hX4
654
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION; 1918-1918.
TABLE 2, Associations in which 5,000 or more books trade drawn and usedContd.
B. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1917, 7'0 JUNE 30, 1918..
Provinces and
States.
Association.
Books.
vtnces and
ProStates
Association.
Books.
Quebeo
Montreal
M,
Arkansas
Pine Bluff (railroad)....
35,564
Massachusetts .. Boston
6,194
Kentucky
Louisville (railroad)
17,730
New York
Albany
49,980
Missouri
St. Loins, Union Station
6, ezo
Do
Buffalo..
5,806
(railroad):
Do
New York (Twenty-
9, 808
New Jersey...., Camden (railroad). .
12,039
third Street branch)...
New York
New York Grand Cen-
26,017
Do
Nov York (west side
branch).
85,854
tral Terminal (rail-
road).
Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
(central
branch).
8,598
Pennsylvania._ Sunbury (railroad)
7,123
TABLE 8. Associations reporting 40 or more educational lectures and practical talks.
A. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1916, TO JUNE 30, 1917.
Provinces and
States.
4
Association.
Leo-
turee.
Provinces and
Stoics.
.
Association.
Lac-
tures.
alp Alberta
SW British Columbia
Calgary
Vancouver
76
70
New York
New
York
(Harlem
branch).
55
Ontario.. .....
London
177
Do
New York
(Twenty-
48
Do
Toronto
61
third Street branch).
Quebec
Quebec
71
Do
New York (west
side
75
Californbt.
Oakland
41
branch 1.
Colorado
Denver
46
Do
Poughkeepsie
G2
Connecticut
Bridgeport
IG1
Do
Troy
50
Do
Hartford
44
Do
Walden
98
Do
New Raven
218
Do
Waterford.
05
Georgia.
Hawaii a.
Wants
Honolulu
57
96
Ohio
Do
Cincinnati
Cleveland
.Ili
Illinois
Chicago board)
142
Do
Hamilton
140
Do
Chicago central)
103
Pennsylvania
. Chaster..
51
Do.....,. .... Chicago Hyde Park)...
so
Do
New Castle
h9
Do
Chicago
Soars-Roebuck)
57
Do
'Philadelphia (central)...
109
Do
Chicago (west side)
46
Do ..,.
,
Pittsburgh (central)
69
Indians
Evansville
44
Do ..i.
Pittsburgh (East Libor.
56
Indianapolis
150
tyt
Maryland
Baltimore
101
Do
Wiimerding
41
Massachusetts... Boston
75
Rhode Island..
Providence
159
Do
Cambridge
Z10
South Carolina..
Darlington
50
Do
Lawrence
40
Tennessee
Chattanooga
41
Do
Lowell
55
Virginia
Behoolfleld
42
Do
Lynn
Washington
Virginia
112
MI
Dom
Do
Do
Detroit (Adams Avenue)
Ft
Glinrand Rapids.
.103
72
57
Illinois
Indiana.
Chicago, Dcarbovn Sta-
tion (railroad).
Elkhart (TA Iroad)..
t
56
79
Minnesota.
Duluth
.
55
Maine
East Deering (railroad)..
59
Do
Minneapolis
122
Do
Cortland (rat trout).
.
60
Missouri
St. Louis (luduatrial)
Maryland
Baltimore (railroad)
82
Nebraska
Omaha
75
Michigan
Duran
'road)
161
Now Jersey
Do
Bayonne
Camden.
43
as
Missouri
St. Lo
Union Sta.
Lion (railroad).
84
Do
Trenton.
20
New Jersey
canuten (railroad)
108
New York
Brooklyn (eastern dis-
03
New York....
New York, Grand Cen-,
trict.
tral Termlnahrallroad 1
.
ttt
Do
Brooklyn (Oreenpoint
branch).
127
Pennsylvania.... Philadelphia (proad
15
Do
Do
Buffalo
Gloversville
100
113
Indiana
Do
Punmaitiwney
Indianapolis (oolore41)...
62
77
Do
Newburg.
61
Kansas City (colored)...
41
Do
Now York (Bronx Un-
ion branch).
57
VirgInia
Newport News (colored )
74
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN 'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
655
TABLE 3.A33ociations reporting *0 or more educational lectures and practical talks
Continued..
B. FOR PERIOD JULY 1,1017, TO JUNE 30,1918.
Provinaes and
States.
'
Association.
Lee-
titres.
I
Provinces and
Stains.
Association.
ttlrad
Neer Brunswick
Ontario
St. John
Hamilton
87
61
New Hampshire
New Jersey
,
Berlin
Camden
55
06
Do
London
130
New York
Brooklyn (Bush Ter-
54
Do.
Toronto (eentml branch)
1,8
mina)).
Do
Toronto (west end)..
125
Do
Brooklyn (eastern din-
59
California
Los Angeles
133
trier).
Do
San Francisco (Golden
50
Do
Buffalo (central)
84
(late A venue).
Do
New York (Bronx Un-
119
Colorado
Colorado Springs
82
Ion branch).
Connecticut.....
II artford
Do
Now
York
(Harlem
Do
New haven
51
branch)
00
Illinois
Chicago (board)
210
Do
New York (west side
182
Do
Chicago
(Hann -Roo-
106
branch).
buck).
Ohio
Cincinnati
52
Do
Chicago (west side)
CO
Pennsylvania.
Bellefonte
54
Indiana
Indianapolis
174
Do
Germantown.
150
Do
Muncie
56
Do
New Castle... .1 .
...
120
Kans
Salina
59
Do
Philadelphia (Central)...
GE
M
usetts...
Boston
106
Do
Pittsburgh (East Liber-
82
Do
Cambridge
186
ty).
Michigan
Flint.
61
Tennessee
Nashville..
72
Minnesota
Minneapolis (central
126
Texas
Dallas
92
branch).
,
Virginia
Schoolauld
SC
Missouri
St. Louis (industrial).
165
Waslaingto.:
Seattle
122
TABLE .1.Associations reporting 5 or more educatiOnal clubs with 100 or more members.
A. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 191G, TO JUNE 30, 1917.
Association.
C lub s
Members.
Association.
Clubs. Mangers.
Fresno, Calif
112
Brooklyn (central branch). N.Y.
7
238
Oakland, Calif
5
189
Brooklyn (eastern district 1,N.Y
6
106
Denver, 0010
6
3M
Etrooklyn (ireenpoint brand)),
Bridgeport, Ccon
7
140
5
160
New Ifitven, Conn
10
237
Buffalo, N. Y
10
403
Canton, Ill
6
185
Elmira, N. Y
5
198
Freeport, III
11
194
NOW York City (west side,
5
453
Davenport, Iowa..
10
200
Troy, N. 1'
5
281
Bar harbor, Me
5
101
Charlotte, N. (
5
116
Boston, Mass
29
661
Spray, N. C
5
140
Cambridge, Mass,
7
301
Cleveland, Ohio
8
3M
Gloucester, MASS
5
130
FindLay, Ohio
5
160
Salem, Mass
Iletrolt, Mich
7
7
181
950
Hamilton, Ohio
9,
Philadelphia, Pa. (( entrap
6
5
186
141
Jackson, 'Mich
Saginaw, Mich
9
S
104
107
Pit tsburgh,(11illltop brunch), Pa
Williamsport riPa
5
5
121
118
Minneapolls, Minn
'6
157
Wilmerding, Pa
10
170
Winona, Minn
11
295
Provide/Ice, R. I
9
391
Omaha, Nebr
190
Houston, Tex
6
120
Trenton, N. J
Brooklyn(Bedfordbmuch),N.Y
7
8
154
5'26
Appleton, wts
5
124
II. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1917,TO JUNE 30, 1918..
Montreal, Quebec
Hartford, Conn
Chicago, Ill. (North Avenue
Larliabee Boys' Club)
Chicago, IL. (Wilson Avenue;
department)
Freeport, III
Streator, Ill
Boston, Mass
Chelsea, Mass
Salem, Mass
Hetroit, Mich
Berlin, N. H
BroolVyn (Bedford branch),
N Y
8"foric City (east aide
bran), N. Y
12
14
9
9
6
6
17
6
8
9
9
5
8
355
283
157
205
188
138
486
109
148
975
210
100
293
107
New York City
(west
side
branch) N. Y
Troy, N. Y
Charlotte, N. C
Akron, Ohio
Toledo, Ohio
New Castle, Pa
Oil ('By, Pa
Pittsburgh (East Liberty), Pa
Williamsport, Pa
Schooltleld, Va
Spokane, Wash
Appleton, Wis
1111vraakeer Wis
Wauatiu, Wis
St. Thomas, Ontario railroad)
Indianspolia, Ind. (colored)
G6
6
II
7
11
9
5
5
7
6
11
5
10
5
a
8
1,221
217
119
169
270
222
100
142
iiii
1,172
110
150
110
146
236
`
656
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916 -1918.
TABLE 5..Associations reporting class lecture series with 60'or more students.
A. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1916, TO JUNE 30, 1917.
Ask:elation.
Students
.kesociation.
udents.
Los Angeles, Calif
Denver, Colo
Bridgeport Conn
Hartford, Conn
New Hapoven, Conn
...
Indiana
Harlon, Inds' Ind
Disvenpirt, Iowa
Baltimore, Md
Attleboro, Mass
92
157
206
118'
70
128
83
206
72
Trenton, N. I
Brooklyn (Bedford branch) N. Y
Brooklyn (central branch), N. Y
Buffalo (central branch), N. Y
Elmira, N. Y
Rornell, N. ,Y
New York (2 West One hundred and
twenty-fifth Street branch), N. Y
Niagara Falls, N. Y
Poughkeepsie r R. Y
180
3:3
865
230
105
183
50
123
104
Boston, Mao
180
Schenectady, N. Y
so
111
Cincinnati, Ohio
146
PittsfieldMass
, Mass
70
Cleveland, Ohlo
552
Woroater , Mass
214
Dayton, Ohio
170
Detroit, Mich
2,667
Lorain, Ohio.,
275
`Lansing, 1.0.11
101
Steubenville, Ohl
66
Duluth, Lt yes
166
Toledo, Ohio
99
Minneapolis, :vain.
948
Youngstown, Ohlo
5.59
St. Paul, limn
56
Philadelphia (e,est. branch), Pa
70
Winona, Minn
68
Pittsburgh (central branch), Pa
102
St. leseplf,
52
Providence, It. I
414
St. Louis, Mo ,
80
Seattle, Wash
400
Manchester,
B
105
Spokane, Wash
59
Nmden, N.
81
Dubois, 'a. (railroad)
71.7
B. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1917, TO JUNE 30, 1918.
Canon City, Cole
Denver, Colo
Bridgeport, Conn
Hartford, Conn
Beers-Robuck, Chicago, HI
111
Baltimore, Md
Holyoke, Mass
Minneapolis, Minn
, .
Buffalo, N. Y
New York (Harlem branch); N. Y
50
67
70
68
95
339
105
-14/6
60
New York (Twenty-third Street branch).
N. Y
Syracuse, N. 'Y
Utica, N. Y
White Plaint N. Y
Cleveland, Ohio
Dayton, Ohio
Pittsburgh, Pa. (central)
Providence, R. I
Seattle, Wash
465
98
300
127
679
.94
157
297
125
TALE 6.Astoctistiotis reporting over 500 students in evening classes and where such
number is PO per cent or more of the association membership.
A. FOR PERIOD JULY I, 1916, TO JUNE 30, 1917.
State.
Ag8oclatlon.
Students.
l'er cent.
Ontario
California
Do
Colorado.
,..
Connecticut..
Do
District of Columbia
Newell
Illinois
Do
Do
Indiana
-
Kentucky
Marylind
...
Massachusetts
Do
Do
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Nebraska
New York-
Do
'
Do
Do
Do
Do
Ohio
Do
DO
Do.
,.
Do
Ea
hank
Do
'Washington
7-
Tbronto (Broadview branch)
Loa Angeles
San liranclaco
Denver
Bridgeport
Waterbury
Washington
lIonolulu.
Chicago
Chicago Division Street)
Chlolgo SeansRoebuck)
Indiana
Loony
t
Ilaittm
ratan
ganbridge
11, on
Detroit (Adams Avenue)
Minneapolis
St. Louis (industrial)
Omah
Brooklyn (Bedford branch)
Brooklyn (Central branch)
Buffalo.
New York Bronx Union)
New York Twenty-third Street branch).
New York west nits branch)
Cincinnati
Cleveland
DT
o
Youngstown
Philadelphia (Central)
Pittellurgh
Seattle
744
1,214
837
- 812
806.
509
851
618
2,880
777
1,304
913
794
1,137
4,201
1,628
923
2,781
1,671
1,464
705
1,148
2,160
1,037
1,6916
24
5,184
799
1,982
1,010
529
4,910
1,3605 19
20
70
20
29
53
61
45
38
61
29
32
34
63
(I)
37
63
F11
32
31
30
23
23
sa
64
40
38
23
a
71
94
WORK- OF THE YOUNG MEWS CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
657
Thins 6.-Auoci49tions reporting over 500 students {n evening classes and where such
number is 20 per cent or more of the associationmembership-Continued.
B. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1917, TO JUNE 30, 1918.
State.
.ssociatIon.
Students.
Per cent.
Ontario
Toronto (Broadview branch)
2,100
87
Quebec
Montreal tow trel)
530
14
CaWornla
Los Angeles
1,833
46
Do
Sap Francisco'(Golden Oate)
1,064
30
Colorado
Denver
893
32
Connecticut
Bridgeport
603
33
Do
......
Hartford
so7
21
Chicago (central)
4,5(A
81
Do
Chicago (Division Street)
1,504
88
Do
Chicago (Sears-Roebuck)
543
26
Indiana
Indianapolis
932
Kentucky
Louisville
1,087
41
Maryland
Baltimore
1,113
84
Massachusetts
Boston
3,843
02
Do
Cambridge
607
so
Do.
Worcester.,
1,037
77
Michigan
Detroit (Adams Avenue)
8,094
40
Minnesota
Minneapolis
536
82
Nebr mks
Omaha
27
New Hampshire.
Berlin
' New Jersey
Newark
958
,40
32
New York
Brooklyn (Bedford branch)
1,694
Do
Do
Do
Brooklyn (oentral)
Buffalo
hew York Bronx Union branch).
1,183
1,001
787
A 20
+.24
33
Do
New York east side branch'
828
'
48
Do
NeW York Twefity -third Street branch)....
1,614
Do
New York (west side branch)
6,6.5
Ohio
Cincinnati'
660
40
Do
Cleveland
2,
-
Do
Columbus
1,01 71
Do
Dayton
24
Do
Hamilton
558
23
Do
Youngstown
676
27
Oregon
Portland
1,172
29
Pennsylvania
Philadelphia (central)
4.843
88
Do
Pittsburgh (East Liberty)
619
63
Washingtra
Seattle
1,342
72
IllincU
1 Eon t.
S
Louis (railroad)
656
72
TABLE 7.- Associations reporting day work with 50 Or mori students.
A. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1916, TO JUNE 80, 1917.
State.
Association.
Students. E
Receipts.
Cal Hernia.
t
Do
Colorado.,
Illinois
Do
Do
Maryland
Massabuiretts
New York..
Do
Do
Do
Do
Ohio
Do
Pennaliviega
Was
Do
Do
Minds
...
...
.
'....
Los Angeles
San Francisco
Deny
-
Chi
ceptral)
Chicago
ivision Street)
Chicago
ears-Roebuck)
Baltim
13ostm
Brooklyn (Bedford branch)
Brooklyn (antral)
New York (Twenty-third Strath.)
New York (west side branch)
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Shlladelphia
North Yakima
Seattle
8_pokane
Chivas*, Wabash Ave.:a (oolored)
a
.
...
as
86
236
607
131
183
83
1,089
303
133
198
1,931
149
206
297
'
62
332
90
63
123,813
6,948
. 11,590
2,184
1,087
33,437
15,199
1,114
6,054
238
15,642
9,000
334,392
7,258
13,840
1,636
1,302
31,192
9,192
t
234
6,292
302
10,054
'
1,349
171029°-21--Bull. 88-7--42
058
Brr.NNIM.5 MEM or EDBCATIO.X, 193i-1918.)iiiow
Tints 7.Associattions reporting day work with 40 or snore 040i009401406104,
B. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1917, TO JUNE 30,1012.
,
State.
.
Amodotion.
Students. Expense. Reoeipta.
Quebec
Alabama.
Carla.
Colorado
Connecticut
Hawaii.
Illinois,
Do
..
Maryland
liassacbusitts..
Do
/
Nibiu.
....
Ylnishota..
Missouri.
Now York
Do
Do
Do
InmlaCrell
,
Montreal Count
Birmingham (
pco).
140 Angeles
Ban Francisco (Ooldart Oats).
Denver
.,
Hartford
Honolulu
Mims (central)
Chicago (Division Strad)
Baltimore.
Boston
Worcester
Detroit (Adams Avenue)
Minneapolis.
St. Louis.
Brooklyn (central)
Brooklyn
easterndistrict)
New York (east aide)
New York (Tsmty.thlul Buret)._ t .......
New York (west side)
andemati
Cleveland
Columbus
.
Portland
.
Portland
Olontraly. - ,
Chicago Wabash Avenue)
62
90
1,075
.
189
371
54
72
306
$6
00
039
100
636
67
142
236
51
333
131
3,346
134
287
70
497
is4
1300
25,300
5,791.
6 910
150
1,200
9,366
4,362
1,632
0,794
1,971
Z000
2,357
11,186
/196.
3,000
0,880
oso
.. ,
2371--
isms
134,500
5,835
8,80
121
1,877
10,707
1,319
2,000
81,002
2,700
21,000
925
9,338
250
-
7,200
4,0S
00
5,teo
Z1,856
: 5,937
,
8.Boys' summer schools, 1916, with .65 or more students.
A. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1911, TO JUNE 30,1917.
Associanon.
Stu-
dents.
strociation.
A
Btu-
to.
New Brunowiok .
Colorado..
Connecticut
Dist. Columbia
Hawaii
Do
itiv........4
Do
Do.
...
Do
rs=d usette
11:
-1' Do..., .....
. ' Do. ,
Di.
D'3's
Sr. John.
Denver..
Hartford
W
Holtilifflon.
Honolulu (Iapaaese do-
partment). ,
Chicago meal br.)
Chicago
Olio
1.)...
Chicago
°dodo (Wilma Ave.)..
Peoria.
Baltimore.
Bost6n. '
Lowell
Everett
Naklen.
-Melrose.
., .
Somerville
8094110,1
47
i
59 I
84
I0
53
25
43
62
133
-
65
25
25
58
33
29
36
se00
illsouri
New Hompohlro
NowJermy
Do
,
New York
Do
Do
Do
Ohlo
Do
Do
Aonsylvania..
Do
Rhods Island.
Tennis's
Texas
Washington..,
I
Do.
06. Joseph.
00w/beater
Orange
Perth Amboy
Brooklyn (Bedford br.)
(yentas! br.)
proo;kiclork (Bronx
Union hr.).
New York (west slclo
br).
ColuMbus.
Hamilton
Youngstown
Philadelphia
Scranton
Providence
Nashvills.
Dallas.
North Yakima
A'
Seattle
.
KO
31
op
147
700
48
,
67
51
46
65
306
68
63
44
44
116
III
.
!
.
B.- FOR PERIOD MY 121917, TO JUIOR 10,1918.
Nen Itnesoinflok.
Calibrnia.
Do.
Colorado
06anaat5eeit
DM. Colambia'
slime...
..,
'''''S: ..
-
Do
Do
.Do
Do
31011100.
Ilf. John .3
nano
,
Los Angeles. .
Denver... 4
Hattford
W
11:13thottn.
..
Chicago (Dividon
)
Chime
Ind)
Seers-Roebuck)
Wilson Ave.)
.
"
,
Everett
Sommerville
.,450
SS
48
41
. LL
if
60
60
.80es'
36
49
$S
I 14
10
43
Now Taney.
NowYwk
Do
Do
Do
Do
Ohio
,
Do
Do.,..
Pouneybaido
Do
Rhoda Ishnd. .
SouCarolino.
Washington
Droop
'
Brooklyn (Bedford br.)
Brooklyn (oentral)
Buffalo
Now York (Bronx
'Union Ir.).
New York (west sido
be.).
Cleveland
smiltonwn
(oentral).,
ton
ratrastafl
Sank
60
144
60
119
SO
SO
36
53
10
t3
34
70
25
79
94
0
S
di
1 Boys and giris.
.
.
WORK OP THE YOUNG MEN'S ORR182'LL112 1,11110CIATIONS.
TABLE 9,-,8oys' departments, with 100 as wore bore bp class work.
A. FOR PERIOD MIX 1,1013, TO 317112 10, 1913.
-
'
Slate.
Association.
Boys.
1711126
Amociation.
Boys.
e
Ontario. , ..... .. Toronto (Broadvieei br.)
4184
MIssonri
Bt. Joseph
131
0=lo
Montreel(central)
806
NewYork
158
Do
Brooklyn (Bedford br.).. -
101
Denver
Brooklyn( contrail...-.
293
Connecticut - ... Bridgeport
162
Do
New York (Bronx
141
Do
Hartford
276
ion br ).
Hawaii
Honolulu
149
Do
New York (West skis
196
Ulisnis.
Chicago (central)
569
br.).
Do.... ...... Chicago ( Division Bt.)
193
North Cerollea.. Charlotte
161
..
Do
Chicago (Seers-*.*k)
347
Pennsylvania..
Philadelphia (central)...
1,771
Wiens
Indiana
Us
327
Do
Scranton
A-
106
ign _ern=
surcespa
Lo
211
Ave.)...
369661
WIrgtnialahingt"
Newport News (001C00)
111
Dettimorerott(Adams
B. FOR PERIOD JULY 1, 1917, TO JUNE SI, ii18.
Ontario
Quebec
mla.
Colorado
Connecticrut
Dist. Columbia.
illinois
Do
Do
Indians
Kentucky
Maine
Massachusetts
Do
'Michigan
No* Jersey
Toronto (Broadview hr.)
3,060
Montreal
Los Angeles.
Denver
155
Hartford
153
Washington
133
Chicago central)
688
Chicago Division St.)
480
Chicago Seare-Rosbuctic)
196
...
410
188
112
171
128
114
147
123
106
Portland
Baltimore,
Boston.
Somerville
Camden
Detroit (Adams Ave )-
Omaha
New York
Do
Do
Do
kg De
..
North Carelina.
Ohio
..
Do
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Do
Do
..
Do
South Carolina.
Texas
Brooklyn (central br.)...
New York (Brous
138
Brooklyn
168
Union br.).
New York (east Mde I
127
br.).
New York (west aide
147
bazttte
Hamilton
Youoptowa
Portlawl
Phlhedsiphia (central)
Pittston
Pottstown'
Willianuport
Charleston
Dallas
147
114
211
270
1, 533
503
130
896
179
.
117
TABLE 10.-:-Drr et pment of educational work from 1893, when this department of the
interrwttional committee was organized.
IMP
1901
1900
1914
Mutates of lecture' and talks.
1,900
3,041
4,936
13,414
Educational club members
-
8460
4, 618
19, WO
25, 405
Nutaber In class lecture aeries courses
4
750
3,907
12, 335
Number of assceistions with eduoational
.
1
21
so
82
Number of paid teachers
1
GA
901
3,443
2, 858
Total different students, day andevening
12,000
'26,906
46,948
84,577
Ea plOyed boys in (dunes
1,326
7,521
12, 886
Xult4on reoeipts
r
83,000
142,000
sass, Goa -
1783, 274
Income from endowment
48,000
$4, 910
69,087
$13, 424
Number international certtnisess won.
1,633
1,231
1, 901
Students in Numodation day ooursee.
aao
,
3,000
8,213
Students ln bore summer rebook.
75
2,214
2,20
Students outa
building
.416
1
360
5,
19,001
Educational men in Bible study
-
2,607
Number of chapel assemblies.
.
1,838
's
Total expense of 4 features
872,
11111:000r 4 070,070
0,093, 70
,
.
INS
1116
1917
19111
.
.
Number 0 lectures and talks
14, 819
16,500
14,515
11,911
Educational club members.
16, 700
16,187
76,716
17,411
Number in class lecture series
4,543
3,930
9,486
.
6,176
Number of resociation with sd°°Xonal seerstaries
84
84
90
s"
Number of paid teachers
3,309
2,645
3, 4111
3,Z8
To1261:lerent students, Bey ande
83, 771
82, 358
83,121
81,819
Em
bortin dames
12,445
11,724
13,461
15,615
Ttd
recelpta
'8614,014
NA 112
/I, 130, 778
1833, 480
Moms from endowment.
$13,746
$13,744
133,233
$20,531
Number intarnationel certificate. won
...
2,00
2.170
1 080
918
iltadenta la
on dray courses
R031
7:281
7: gre
9,613
Students's'
eamtnar schools.
3,082
1,321
3,00
2,$$
0,60
15, 770
60,453
9,496
neatibirlita stay
3,101
3,872
11,401
It, 90
rumble 0110egal assemblies...,
.
2,554
1,164,,
10,936
7,407
Total axiom stall features.
81,070,00Q
$1,143, 046
81,181,340 mom NT
1 3.]
660
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF 13OCCATION, 1916-1918.
TABLE 11.-Boyi educational roll of honor.
A. DURING PERIOD JULY 1, 1916. TO JUNE 30, 1917.
Associations winning the largest actual
number of certificates among boy mem-
bers
ciatn-
cates.
Associations in which thelargest per cent
"of ,boy members won certificates.
Per cent.
1. Reading, Pa
60
1. Mobile, Ala
23.6
2. Cincinnati, Ohio
33
2. Reeding, IS
19.3
3. Detroit, MIcis
31
3. Cincinnati, Ohio
12. 5
4. Mobile, Ala
26
4. Springfield, Mo
10.4
6. Wilmington, Del
--
24
5. Wilmington, Del
7.3
6. Hamilton, Ohio
Topeka, Kane
4.6
7. Springfield, Mo
IS
7. Detroit, Mich
2.9
8. Topeka, Kane..,
15
8. JiamiltoS Ohio
2.8
9. St. Paul, Minn
12
9. IS Paul, Minn
2.5
10. Canton, Ohio
11
10. Canton, Ohio
1.1
B.
BOYS' EDUCATIONAL ROLL OF HONOR, 1918.
Associations winning the largest actual
number of certificates among boy morn-
hers.
Certifi.
Associations in which the
per cent
of boy members won certifkstas.
per
1. Detroit, Mich
2. Mobile, Ala
3. New 'rock (west side), N. Y
4. 8t. Paul, Minn
6. Scranton, Pa
6. Pittsburgh, Pa
7. Galt, Ontario, Canada..'
8. Burlington, N't
4
9. Easton, ra
...
10. Camden, N. 1
7
4
,......
52
24
19
15
13
11
11
9
9
9
1. Mobile, Ala
2. Burlington, Vt
1. Easton, Pa
4. Detroit, Mich
5. Galt, Ontario, Canada
6. Scranton, Fa
7. St. Paul, Minn
S. New York (west side), N. Y
9. Pittsburgh, 1
10. Camden, N. I
.
15 5
5 9
4.9
4. 4
3.7
3. 7
2 8
2.8
2.6
1.3
TABLE 1 2.-Report of library service for Americanjapeditionary Forces in the United
Kingdom from Aug. 1, 1917 ,To Sept. sa, 1918.
Distributed:
Circulating books
37, 229
Reference books.
1,160
Technical books.,
1,830
Text books
4,33k
PUBLICATIONS.
Printed:
Clark's Hun's Ally
Ripling's To the Fighting
Americana
'
100,000
50,000
Magazines and newspapers 3,000, 000
Hay'sWelcome to England
100,000
Maps...
1,294
Y. M. C. A. Randlxok...
1, 000
Pictures
1,112
Exner's Friend or Enemy.
50,000
c
Book& for resale
595
Armstrong's Nurse and
Enrollment circle
6,100
k
Knight
SO, 000
"Association Men"
2, 500
I4ce; dispatched:
"American Rome News"
114,,500
Books of a general charac-
"Red Triangle Overseas"
2,000
ter
140, 718
"Stars and Stripes "....
25,804
Testaments
128, 500
"Eaglet"
500
TextbOoks .
CS, 795
Pamphlets
'
550,000
Songs
38,880
Military propaganda Pam-
'Magazines
63, 000
:
PhIfts
30, 510
Bibles
80,000
. Books have been donated
Pamphlets
742, 730
15, 075
Reference books
123, 800 .
Yalta of
£621
Maps
111, 000 .
WORK OF THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
661.
FABLE 12. Report of library service for American Expeditionary Form in the United
Kingdom from Aug. 1, 1917, to Sept. 30. 1918Continued. ,
PUBLICATIONScontinued.
PUBLICATIONS --contin ued.
France, dispatched -- Continued.
Books donated Paris
40, 000
Value of same
£4, 000
Social department (United K
dom):
Songs_
2,266
101 Best Songs
8, 063
Service Song Books (with
music).
18, 997
Volumes of Y. M . C. A. songs
239
°Song sheets..
8;87'2
Abridged song books
5, 886
Books of music.
3,565
Religious
work
department
(United
Kingdom),
dis-
patched:
War roll cards.
14, 769
Pamphlets
397,011
Testaments
26,411
Bibles
3, 915
Books
3,364
Gibraltar, dispatched:
General books.
880
Reference books.
25
Technical books
25
Magazines and newspapers..
4,160
Textbooks
25
Maps
12
Pictures
20
Pamphlets....
5, 000
Testaments
1, 500
Bibles
150
Songs.
25
101 Best Songs
250
bng Service books
150
Gibraltar, dispatched--Contiriued.
Y. M. C. A. song books
4
Song sheets
200
Abridged song books..... :
100
War rolls
250
Russia, dispatched:
General books
9, 336
Reference books.
1, 200
Technical books.
72
Textbooks
10, 445
Magazines and newspapers..
19, 782
Maps
25
Pictures
100
Pamphlets
11, 500
Testaments
600
Bibles
350
Songs
101 Beet Songs
Song service books
Y. M. C. A. acing books
Song sheets.
Ahridrd song books....
Switzerland (P. 0.
W.),
dis-
patched:
General books
Testaments
Bibles
Reference bool®
Maps
Technical books
Textbooks
Pamphlets
Songs
German books (U. K )......
200
500
2, 000
24
500
500
5, 480
5, 000
1,100
118,
12
25
1, 489
1,500
650
193
FURNDMIED BY AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION FOR AMERICAN
EXPEDITIONARY
FORCES.
Italy, dispatched:'
,1,361
Cases of books received from United States
Books donated (cOntairltd in above)
99,536
Value of same
1.
t9, 896
Carriage from docks to warehouse
£147
Cases sent to France (59,220 books)
s
_846
n
Cases sent to America Red Cross (3,500 books)
IP
50
Cases sent to Russia 41686 boob)
.
24
I First order was received for 12 bogs.'
a
611100.
1-
It-
682
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Tests 13.--Summary of enrollment of students in the American .. Expeditionary Forme
in England.'
English
25
Trigonometry
35
French
380
Mechanical drawing
.
22
Spanish
13
Agriculture
5
History
141
Chemistry
30
EConomics
38
Navigation
o
1
Geography.
20
Motors
G9
Memory training
34
926
Arithmetic
59
Total
Algebra
M
Enrollments of Americana in Canadian Khaki College, London, to Nov. 18, 1918 (coopera-
tive arrangement).
'
English
1
Salesmanship
30
Spanish
5
Penmanship
1
Economics
2
Shorthand
1
Commercial arithmetic
1
Typewriting
2
Calculus
1
'Business correspondence
4
Surveying
Y
1
Business practice
2
Petrol engines
4
Secretarial practice
1
Electricity and magnetism
3
Commercial law
3
Chemistry
2
Salesmanship
6
Electricity
4l
Dairying
2
Penmanship
1,i.
I.ive stock
2
Shorthand
18
Field husbandry
,
2
Typewriting
2
Bookkeeping
1
Total
134
TABLE 14.Class work for one week in October, 1918, American Expeditionary Forces in
the United Kingdom.
Academic subjects:
Classes in -
Technical subjects:
Classes in
English
$
Algebra
6
History
8
"Geometry
3
French
, $4
Trigonometry
4
Spanish
4
Physics
2
Reading
1
Mechanical drawing
2
Commercial subjects:
Radio
2
Classes in
...-
Chemistry
1
Salesmanship
3
Electricity
4
Bookkeeping
2
Aeronautics
2
Typewriting
3
Gas macs
4
Stenogniphy
2
/ Naxigation
5
Arithmetic
4
Marine engineering
2
-
Penmanship
1
Mechanical engineering....
2
-
Armament
1
Ordnance
,
1
,.These figures do not include abOut 150 beginners in a correspondence Course in the
geography of Europe, it Wing the policy to count as enrolled only those who have
finished at least three lessor*
Owing the month of October more than 100 men attended the "drop -In ".onatendon clan In Free*
at Eagle Hat. Of these 1741400d a card *sprouting their desire to continue the study of French in their
10/4"A 7t ' 1
', ;
, .;,' , ,!'i' ; 1- ..!,
CHAPTER XXIII.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE BOY SCOUTS.
By LORNE W. BARCLAY
Director of the Department of Dioestfon, Boy Scouts of Americo.
Coramers.-The scout movement.-Democratio character of the movement-tionsectarian and nem-
partisan.-racout leaders -The plastic ago.--Grooth and extent of the movement.--Scouting and
education.-The scout program. -- Scouting and the public schools.-Sosating courses In colleges and
universitles.-The department of education.-4-Scont handbooks, atc,-The library deportment.-13cout-
Mg and the movies.-Scouting and war service.-Socuting and juvenile dellnquency.--Scouting and
salter mating.
THE SCOUT MOVEMENT.
The scout movement makes no claim to supersede the work of
home or school or church. On the contrary, it aims to supplement
these institutions and to cooperate with them in every practicable
way
a sane, all-around development of American youth.
Scouting
has been described as the Process of making real boys into real men
by a real program that works.
This program is adapted to the boy's
leisure hours, but its principles are the kind that permeate every
phase of his life, becoming part and parcel of himself.
Character
development is the keynote of scouting. By precept and practice
it instills ideals of courage and honor, cheerfulness and kindness,
loyalty and obedience, cleanliness of mind and body, faithfulness to
duty, devotion to country, reverence to God.
By his oath the scout
pledges himself to "help other people at all times," to keep himself
"physically strong, mentally awake, morally straight."
He is a better son and brother, a more alert student, a heartier
adherent to the church of his affiliation because he is folio afood scout.
Later on he will be a more responsible and valuable American citizen , .
for his scout training now.
DEMOCRATIC CHARACTER OF THE MOVEMENT.
Scouting kngws no bounds of class, or creed, or race.,
It speaks the
universal language of world boyhood.
]4 is the grsat melting pot
of American youth.
It aims not to run every boy into one groove,
but to help every boy to devOop into the fullest manhood of which
he is capable, an individual in the truest sense, with recognized
responsibility to himself and society.
,,;
NONSECTARIAN AND NONPARTISAN.
The scout movement is, nonsectarian and attempts ,no fonnaI:
religious instruction.
Nevertheless, its ideals are in substatitAl:
accord with those of the modern church, in their emphusii uponlii`
71,
883
664
BIENNIAL SURVEY 07 EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
service of God, the brotherhood of man. Though having no sectarian
bias, the movement numbered among its scoutiasters in 1917, 1,394
Sunday school teachers, 964 Y. M. C. A. workers, and 103 ministers;
4 7,319 troops were on record in 1917 as organized under the jurisdiction
of religious institutions.
Thus the cordial mutual relation between
the church and the Boy Scouts of America is attested.
From the beginning the Boy Scouts of America was conceived and
has since been developed 'on the broadest possible lilies.
The move-
ment has kept itself free from all party or political- predilections,
though holding itself ready at all times to cooperate cheerfully with
all institutions and causes dedicated to community and national
welfare.
Its sponsors are men representing the widest variety of
interests, viewpoints, and professions.
SCOUT LEADERS.
Scoutmasters and their assistants are chosen with great care, for the
Movement recognizes the importance of the quality of leadership
offered, and that the success or failure of the scout program. in a given
'troop must depend to a. considerable degree upon this leadership.
A scoutmaster must be at least21 years of age, of proved moral
worth and patriotism. He must be an American citizen (or must have
taken legal steps to become such) and must be willing to subscribe
to the Scout Oath and Law.
Ile must have some experience in boy
work and is preferably an "outdoor man," with a fund of nature lore
and camperaft at his disposal.
Above all, ho must be a man of strong
personality, with power to command the respect and liking of his
boys.
He must be the kind of man who practices good scouting as
well as preaches it..
THE PLASTIC AGE.
Twelve years is the
inimura ago requirement for scout* Fifteen
and a half is the average cout age.
Boys of 18 or over are encouraged
to stay in the movem
t as assistant scoutmasters, or as associate
or veteran scouts.
The fact remains, however, that the boy in the
early teens is the one with whpm the scoutmaster has largely to deal.
This means that the boy is in the scoutmaster's hands, in very close
personal relationship at the most impressionable and plastic) period
of his developinent, when he is most susceptible to influences, good
and bad, when the imagination is most open to appeal, when h'efo
worship is the very breath of life.
GROIVIE AND EXTENT OF THE MOVEMENT.
Scouting was started in the United States in 1910.
In the eight
years since a far-sighted group of men met to consider ways and
means by which the scout movement could be adapted to-meet the
needs of American boys progress of the movement has been little
short of phenomenal.'
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF BOY SCOUTS.
665
Thereis to- dap not a single State, and scarcely a county, in this
country in which the movement is not firmly established.
In
crowded cities, in the small village, in isolated rural communities,
scouting is solving the ever present and ever complex boy problem,
and solving it effectively-.
On September 6, 1918, 343,248scouts were
registered at national headquarters, an increase of over 82,000 since
the 1st of January of the same year 'and of nearly 100,000 since the
same date of the previous year.
War time made heavy inroads on scout leadership, but oven so. in
September, 1918, there were 89,640 adult scout leaders on record,
which illeans. that over 89,000 American men believe sufficiently
in scouting and the scout program to give it their personal sponsorship,
time, interest, and leadership.
SCOUTING AS EDUCATION.
Dean Russell, of Columbia University, claims that the movement
is the "most significant educational contribution of our time," with
a "program that appeals to a boy's instincts and a method adapted
to a_ boy's nature."
The scout method is the laboratory method. It is learning by
doing.
It gives the boy a host of interesting worth-while things
to do at the time when he is most restless and pines most for activity.
Moreover, it gives him something he likes
attractive.
It works along the line of normal boy interests and
activities.
It interprets and gives life and meaning to what might
otherwise be dry-as-dust book stuff.
It is an eye opener in a hundred
directions.
Scouting is literally education.
It does not aim to plaster some
thing on from outside.
It draws out and cultivates what is already
latent within the boy.
It provides an outleiligd his exuberant
energy.
It gives direction to his randoi,
anis
crude abilities.
It shows him the why and how of thin. -.
it makes use of his love
of adventure, his chivalry, his passion for outdoors.
It teaches him
to use his eyes and ears and hands and feet to the best advantage.
Above all, it teaches him to use his head.
A scout learns to take care of himself and the other fellow. He
knows what to do in case of accident and how to prevent accident.
He knows how to build fires in the open,-even iu wet weather and
without matches.
He knows how to pitch a tent and how to make
himself comfortable under the oped sky.
He knows how to find his
way by night or day in the woods witholascompass. He understands
fire fighting and fire prevention. He knows the laws of health and
obeys them, follows,"safety-first" rules himself, and looks after,the
other fellow who doesn't.
He practices signaling and craftsmanship.
He studies nature, animate and inanimate.
He ties knots; that hold.
His fires burn.
His stews ate edible. He learns to do things not
666
BIENNIAL SURVEY Olf EDUCATION*, 19i6-191.8.
"somewhere near right" but just right.
The emphasis is on thor-
oughness; efficiency: out-and-out trained skill.
The scout is deft,
quick-witted, level-headed, resourceful.
In short, he is " prepared."
There 'are no "don'ts" in scouting.
It is all "do."
Perhaps that
is the secret, at least one of the secrets, of its success as an educational
method. And all the while he is having a real boy good time, hardly
aware ho is being taught at all. Scouting is recreation plus education.
As a school principal once said, "Scouting has done what no schemr
has ever done beforemade the by want to learn."
THE SCOUT PEOGRAM.
ITS ADAPTABILITY.
One of the chief excellencies of the scout program is its adaptability.
It was not devised for a particular type of boya city boy, a country
boy, a boy with a full purse, a boy with empty pockets, a boy with
wise parents, a boy whose home is the street, or the reformatorybut
all kinds of boy, art5r.kind of boy, the scout program fits, if rightly
applied by a true leader and lover of boys.
ITS PROGRESSIVE QUALITY.
The scout- program is progressive and provides its own rewards
and incentives for advancement.
The scout is always trying to beat
his own record.
There is r
standing still.
There is always some-
thing just ahead to conquer and achieve.
Having passed the tender-
foot stages, the boy goes on to master the second-class scout require-
ments and after these to the more complicated and difficult attain-,
nts of the first-class scout.
MERIT BADGE POSSIBILITIES.
The first-class scout has by no means reached the summits of
scouting.
The Merit Badge possibilities for fyrthero development
are .practically limitless.
They are the electives of scouting, so to
speak.
They offer 58 different subjects for intensive study, covering
such widely diversified boy interests as photography, beekeeping,
tafalerrny, signaling, astronomy, scuplture. The plan of the Merit
Badges is not meant to develop specialists, but to provide an oppor-
tunit?for every boy to follow up his hobbies and try out his natural
gifts,and aptitudes.
There is something here for boys of every bent
of mind.
If along the line of any oithese subjects the boy finds his
destined vocation so much the bbtter.
What is perhaps more likely
to happen is that the Merit Badge progriun will have opened the
boy's eyes to an almost endless variety of interesting possibilities
for side studios and avocations.
Merit Badges studies are open.
gateways to wide fields, which the scout may explore at will.
RDITOATIONAL WORK OF BOY 13001:7TS.
Merit Badge awards (comparative lade).
667
For
1917
1916
1915
1914
1913
1912
1911
SwIrmhing
Personal health
Public health.
Ftremanahip
First aid
Craftsmanship
Carpentry
First aid to animals
Pioneering
Camping
Safety first
..
Handicraft
Pathfinding
Cooking
Life-saving
Cycling
CIA03
Scholarship
Athletics
Electricity
Signaling
Bird study
Machinery
Physical development
Automohiling
GardenIng
Interpreting
Music
Bugling
Pbultry farming
Masonry
Conservation
Marksmanship
Chemistry
,
Forestry
Art
Painting
llorseananship
BlalmmithIng
e
Business
Photography
Surveying
Mining
Printing
Agritulture
Architecture
Dairying
Astronomy
Plumbing
Seamanship
Aviation
Bee farming
Leather working
Stalking
Angling
Taxidermy
Sculpture
Archery
invention
if
3
Total
i
i
1
ii
(
'
.
e
a
,
,
Pik%
tjr.
1,898
1,871
1,831
1,735
1,707
1,236
1,119
1,901
906
919
908
873
815
811
791
756
735
699
617
599
487
434
326
311
299
3119
22Et
188
179
173
168
164
158
158
153
122
113
105
91
92
78
72
.
62
38
38
36
83
23
23
19
19
16
13
10
6
3
wsocAs
1,143
1,158
1,08)
1,021
1,018
1916
649
55(
488
, 392
151
426
616
480
632
392
390
398
297
259
27!
3181
215
193
124
171
130
129
116
89
15
139
106
69
102
75
49
42
50
71
14
36
77
33
81
20
8
25
19
25
18
19
17
6
8
2
498
871
836
777
666
596
440
333
359
374
443
355
418
379
394
350
333
246
220
229
162
177
184
103
141
141
125
83
68
00
96
88
4.68-
105
93
66
34I
103
23
51
29
26
30
21
15
32
20
117
11
89
14
4
8
7
10
1'1
610
910
769
660
470
474
221
294
202
307
'
449
.
250
361
559
329
307
197
135
126
131
36
186
a
94
227
112
118
87
94
102
100
75
123
121
156
.199
83
23
156
46
90
05
33
7
65
21
186
75
'
47
16
214
66
3
3
2
36
2
8
.
441
028
576
202
165
278
76
102
.
81
161
..
135
121
163
234
166
179
10
64
58
93
4
73
47
126
62
58
166
GI
19
31
34
62
151
74
45
50
6
82
15
54
26
24
5
21
9
96
8
819
02
'
15
4
1
7
10
1
177
236
225
86
69
75
(11
23
51
53
43
44
72
55
50
38
23
22
2
25
16
56
27
27
13
23
14
15
12
23
21
Si
10
27
969li
56
7
44' 1
38
6
. 11
4
as
1
....,....
1
1
. ....
.... ....
.....
.....
.....
... .....
10
15
" 9
9
2
1
1
.
1
1
2
3
6
3
1
3
3
2
.
2
.
1
2
1
....-
5
16,e60
11,976
10,490
6,521.
19S6,
is
The table'shows the'inerease.of Merit Badges awarded duringnix
years of scouting.
It it !altercating to note that after swimming, a larger number of
scouts qualified foi Merit Badges in personal and public health than
in any other subject offered: The requirements inthese tsb*subjects
are here given as an illustration of the thoroughness and 'Cepa of the
work demanded.
.
..,
To obtiiin a Merit -Badge for personal health, a scout must:
'
'I. Write a statement on the CU* of the teeth; find aka* thit his teeth are in good
condition u a result of proper clue.
.
2. State a principle to govern in eating; and shoo in the order of their importance
five rules to govern the care of his health.
17
668
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCA7(0N, 1916-1918.
3. Present satisfactory evidence that he his nbt 1. en absent from school or work
for a period pf at least six months as a' result of his failure to obeere these rules.
4. Tall the difference in effect of a cold aild a hot hath.7
5. Describe the effects of alcohol and toracco on the growing boy'.
6. Tell howIto care for the feet on a march.
7. Describe a good healthful game and state its merits.
8. Describe the effects of walking as an exercise.
9. Tell the dkngers of specialization and overtraining in the various forme of ath-
letics, andthe advantages of an all-round development.
.
T obtain a Merit Badge for public health, a scout must:
1. State the chief causes and modes of transmission of each of the following diseases:
Tu
rculoeis, typhoid, malaria.
2. Draw a diagram showing how the house fly carries disease.
3. Tell what should be done to a house which as been occupied by a person who
has had a contagious disease.
4. Describe the method used in his community in disposing of garbage.
5. Tell how a city should protqct its milk, meat, and exposed foods.
State what.
are the laws in his community covering this subject, and to what extent they are
being enforced.
6. Tell how to plan the sanitary care of a camp.
7. State the reason why school children should undergo a medical examination.
g. Tell how he may cooperate with the health authorities in preventing disease.
9. Produce satisfactory evidence that he has rendered service in some effort recora-
mended by the puha health authorities in the interest of public health.
When one considers that in one year nearly 2,000 scouts qualified
for Merit Badges in each of these important subjects, the cumulative
effect upp the general health, hygiene, and sanitation of the Nation
at large, can hardly be overestimated.
This is but one of many
phases of scouting education but a vastly significant one.
It is notici3able that firemanship and first aid follow,next in porm-
larity, both of them subjects the intelligent study and practice of
which are of "incalculable service in the prevention of and coping
with emergencies, education of the most practical and invaluable
port.
lit'
ADVANCED SCOUTING.
A first-class scout who passes, to the satisfaction of the local Court
of Honor, Merit Badge tests in first aid, physical development or
athletics, personal health, public health and life saving becomes a
life scout. A life scout who passes five additional Merit Badge tests
becomes a star scout. A first-class scout who passes the tests in first
aid; life saving, personal health; public health, cooking; camping,
. civics, bird study, pathfinding, pioneering, athletics or physical de-
velopraent with 10 additional teats becomes an @agle scout.
These requirements are sufficiently rigorous aAd demand a con-
siderable amount of specialized training as well as perseverance, deter:
minntion, and enthusiaini.
That boys count thellainsaworth the
pains the facts prove.
In 1917, 5219 scouts qualified as life scouts,
. 508 as star scouts; and 219 as eagle scouts,
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF BOY SCOUTS.
669
SCOUTING AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
In 1917, 2,237 troops oPtoy Scouts were organized in connection
with schools, and 1,557 scoutmasters were also school-teachers, sta-
tistics that show the entire compatibility of scouting with other edu-
cational interests.
-
All over the country schools ate following Dr. Eliot's hint that the
"Boy Scout movement is setting,,an example that our whole public-
school system ought to follow."
In the high school of Austin, Tex., the Boy Scouts' Handbook is
used as a textbook, and scouting may be credited toward graduation,
as per specific and detailed conditions set forth in the officiat course
of study.
The Stat4 University of Texas offers annually three schol-
arships to Boy Scouts who have attained dhe rank of eagle scout.
This is a type of close correlation of scouting with the public-school
system, which is on the increase, and which is most desirable from
the standpoint both of the school and of the Boy Scout movement.
Toledo, Ohio, and Chicago, Ill., are among the cities wherein boards
of education have by formal resolution, indorsed scouting and recom-
mended its incorporation into the school program.
In Haitford, Conn., the pr
lem of coordination between the scout
movement and the public sc ools was complicated by the system
under which the schools are
ated.
This system places a com-
mittee of three in charge of eac
school, so thakbesides winning the
approval of the board of education, the movement'had to meet and
overcome a different set of objections or prejudices with each school,
and yet 'scouting is established in 7l per cent of the public schools in
Hartford.
Portland, Oreg., is another city in which scouting is strongly
entrenched as an extra school program, the troops meeting in the
school buildings, without charge by the board of education for
heat, light or janitor service.
School swimming tasks have been
turned over to the .scouts certain evenings of the week, as a result
of which 200 scouts were taught to swim.
Scouts have voluntarily
.taken charge of playgrounds, have kept order in the halls of the
,schools, taken charge of fire drills, and of the raising and lower
of flags on school buildings, have given supervision in lavatoiies1/4
. and made themselves generally hdlpful. On the other hand, the,
lOcal Boy Scout organization has actively cooEterated with theschools
to raise the standard of scholarship, by giving a gold and enameled
button to each scout who attained an average of 85lper cent in
school studies, or to each scout who imp?oved upon his preyious
month's record, no matter how poor the record.
This button could
only be retained from month to month, by meeting the Conditions
named &bole.. It at the end of , the. school year it was still
scout's possession he became the hmanant owner of the emblem.
670
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, I916 --1918.-
The fact that but one button was forfeited indicates the stimulative
value of this cooperation.
The limitations of this report preclude a more extended statement.
of this development of scouting, but the geographical distribution
of the cases cited suggests that the incorporation of scouting in the
public schools is not limited to a particular section, but is a very
general development.
The following points characterize most troops organized in con-
nection with public schools:
1. Scduting is voluntary on the part of thi4, scout leader and the boy.
2. Scouting is a supplvleatary activity to the regular scll program, the church,
and the home.
0
3. The program of scouting is 60 planned by the scoutmaster as to cover as much
of the boy's leisure time as possible, especially during the eriod when the scout
is Acting under the direction., of the leader, or when ho is practicing 3leouting on his
own initiative.
.
4. The play spirit should characterize scouting.
'
5. The formalism of school programs should not be imposed upon scouting.
In its
flexibility, freedom of choice, and adaptability to individual needs, preferences,
and abilities rests much of the appeal of the scout'
irogram.
.
6. Scouting comprises a set of activities in whic t le boy is anxious to participate,
and which have behind them the'principles of the Sc it 9ath and Law.
7. In the leadership of the troop, character building as the.end of scouting must
be ever kept in mind.
..
SCOUTING COURSES IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES.
Courses in voutcraft and recreational leadership are offered in
many univertities and colleges, including the Universities of Califor-
nia, Virginia, Wisconsin, Boston, Columbia, and Now York, Reed
and Rutgers Colleges and many other schools.
These courses are
especially desitnet for the training of scout leaders and others
interested in the movement and are planned in cooperation with the
National Headquarters Department of Education. They are par-
ticularly significant in that they prove that the ;tout program and
method are regarded by authorities as an -educational asset.
Boston University offers two 4500 scholarships (1918-10) to
student's whose major interest is the field of leisure time and voca-
tional occupations for boys of scout ago.
THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. .
Since 1916. the Boy Scouts of America has maintained a department,
of education whose province it is to promote tl ll. interests of scouting
in schools and\ universities, to offer leadership and guidance to scout
officials in arranging fdr scout training courses under local councils,
to hold conferences throughout the country in matters connected
with the educational aspetts ot'scouting.
The establishmeht of this
department has helped greatly to rouse popular interest in the
movement and to interpret scouting as a community asset.
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF BOY SCOUTS.
671
SCOUT HANDBOOKS. ORGANS, AND OTHER LITERATURE.
THE BOY'S HANDBOOK.
Since the f
ding of the scout movement the Boy ScoutHandbook
has been
creas
It is already in its seventeenth
gly in demand.
printing.
Two e itions of 100,000 each were required in 1917. It
is said to be themost popular boys' book in the world and we are
told it is not only boys who find its pages worth while, for it is in
great demand among the soldiers of our new army, who are given
preliminary training similar to that required of scouts.
The hand-
book is the official interpretation 2if scouting.
SCOUTING AND BOYS' LIFE.
Scouting, the official organ al the movement for scout officials,
and Boys' Life, the official scout magazine for boys, also play an
important part in interpreting and disseminating scouting.
Boys' Life has an extensive circulation and aims to give boys in-
spiring and entertaining fiction of the rightsort, as well as biography,
current history, nature lore, and other, orth-whilematter attractively
prevented.
A new department conducted by the chief scout execu-
tive, "What Every Scout Wants to Know," deals particularly with
the War program of the Boy Scouts of America.
Besides these regular publications the editorial, educational; and
publicity departments are constantly issuing new pamphlets and
articles interpreting the scout movement from educational and other
points of view, The war work of the Boy Scouts of America has
been so extensive this last year that it has called for a whole set of
literature by itself, as well as takingoa large proportion of space in
Boys' Life and Scouting.
THE LIBRARY DEPARTMENT.
No survey of the educational work attempted by the Boy Scouts
of America, would be complete without reference to the library
department, which is performing an important function in giving
leadership to schools and libraries, by making available lists 'of
really worth while boys' books and helping to weed out the cheap
and unwholesome so-called "literature" which falls into ychilikful
and undiscriminatitig hands and sows evil seed.
Every boy's library, the selected list of boys' books which are
published in Scout Edition under the supervision of a group of our
country's leading librarians, continues in popularity with the boys
themselves and has met with so much approbation from libraries
that the department is greatly 'encourSged as to the value of what it
is endeavoring to accomplish in gi
.boys the right sort of reading
niattiar
,,
672
BIENNIAL SURVEY OP EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
SCOUTING AND THE MOVIES.
Another phase of the work of the library department more recently
tlevelopedis its service as literary adviser to a motion-picture company.
As 'a result of this collaboration a score or more of films have been
put into circulation, notably the "Knights of the Square Table," by
Chief Sea Scout James A. Wilder, also of Pine Tree fame, and "The
Star-Spangled Banner" and the "Unbeliever" (The Three Things),
both by Mary Raymond Shipman Andrews.
All three of these plays
are inspiring, educational, and patriotic, tending to.spread ideals of
the highest type, as well as containing the human element and a
wealth of laughter and tears.
SCOUTING AND WAR SERVICE.
When o4r country entered the vorld war' the full strength of the
Boy Scouts of America vas immediately made available "as a poten-
tial asset to the country for cooperative effort."
The results even
exceeded the high expectations of those who had abundant faith in
the efficacy of . movement as a community and national factor.
With ever-increasing calls for service the Boy Scouts of 'America
have met every demand with credit to themselves and the organiza-
tion and have come to be recognized as an important adjunct to the
national program of War activities.
Immediately upon our entrance into the war a scout coast-guard
service was organized and made available for use by the Navy De-
partment sholild occasion warrant.
Important work was also done
in locating wireless outfits and rendering other services, details of
which may not yet be given, in cooperation with the Naval Intelli-
gence Bureau.
Under the direction and ut the invitation of the War Department
various services have been rendered. A nation-wide canvass of
standing black walnut timber was conducted by scouts for the benefit,
respectively, of the Ordnance Department and Bureau of Aircraft
Production in the manufacture of gunstocks and propellers.
The
timber was reported to the Forest Service, which tabulated the
results of the census and made it available for the needs Of the War
Department.
_
.
In cooperation with the American Red Cross and under the direc-
tion of the Gas Defense Division of the Chemical Warfare Service
effective work was done by scouts in collecting fruit pits and nuts
for Government usein manufacturing gas masks.
Hundreds of tons
of the material were collected and in many towns scouts had entire
charge of the work, collecting, bagging, checking up, and shipping.
-Working under the Committee on Public Information and at the
direct request of the President, Boy Scouts have distributed patriotic
literature and helped keep the public informed as to various aspects
11,
EDUCATIONAL WORK Of BOY SCOITTS.
673
of our war situation.
They also did important distribution and prop-
aganda work under the auspices, respectively, of the Food And Fuel
Administrations.
During the summer of 1918 a farm labor canvass for the State of
Pennsylvania was conducted by scouts, working under the United
States Public Service Reserve, and in many places scouts have made
a census and secured lists of available boarding and lodging houses
for munition factory and shipyard workers.
touts have actively cooperated with all the gfeat patriotic agen-
cies, such as the American Red Cross, Y. M. G. A., Knights of Colum-
bus, War Camp ComRmity Service, etc.
They have been ready to
answer every call and Wave, done effective work as messengers, guides,
clerks, orderlies, ushers, intelligence officers, first-aid instructors and
model "patients," canteen workers, cooks, collectors of salvage
material, books and magazines.
They have, in short, serial in hun-
dreds of capacities, making themselves generally useful in community
and national work.
They are enrolled by thousands, as Victory
Boys, pledged to "earn and give" in order to insure the well-being
and happiness of our men in uniform.
Perhaps the most conspicuous service rendered by the organiza-
tion is the work done for the Treasury4Department in connection
with the liberty loan and war-stamps campaigns.
In the first three loan campaigns, serving as "gleaners /after the
reapers," scouts sold 1 out of every 23 bonds, sold throughout the
whole country, and this in addition to an immense amount of mis-
cellaneous service rendered to local committees, banks, etc.
Final
statistics are not yet available as to results of scout participation in
the fourth campaign, but returns now in justify the belief that an
even higher record of achievement was made.
Using the special red post card printed for their use by the GOvern-
ment, scouts have sold war savings and thrift stamps amounting
at the present time to approximately $40,000,000. It is expected
that this sum will reach the $100,000,000 mark by January 1.
When Mr. Hoover made his plea from overseas to the American
people for intensive food production and rigid conservation measures,
scouts were among the first to heed the word.
Thousands of war
gardens were immediately started.
In many cases as Many as two
and three hundred acres were under cultivation by Boy Scouts.
This work gallantly begutiin the spring of 1917, under the slogan
"Eve: y Scout to Feed a Soldier," went on unabated during-the 18
months of our Participation in the war and will no doubt go on
through 1919, since the need for food production will be greater and
not less as the months go on.
Scouts have spread war-garden and
food-consetvation propaganda, operated hundreds of thousands of
war gardens, worked on farms; in farm camps, in orchard and berry
171029° -21- gull. 88- ---48
674
BIENNUL SURVEY OF WUCATION, 1810-4018.
field, and canning factory, literally adding tons of food produce to
our country's resources.
Space does not permit a detailed discussion of work done by scouts
in this connection.
The story would X11 a book in itself. ;A few in-
stances must suffice.
In 1917 Boy Scouts operated a Government-owneetract of 175
acres and raised a corn and market vegetable crop worth some
310,000. The land Was in a wild statea tangle of wood and shrubbery
when the boys attacked it.
They cut down trees, cleared the brush,
pulled the stumps and roots, prepared'the soil, planted, cared for, and
harvested the crop themselves and all the work done was purely
voluntary, devoted to soldier feeding, not to gain.
In Portsineuth, Ohio,'six medals were offered by the city for the
six best gardens, and when the announcement of awards was made
it was found that, competing with 2,000 gardeners, Boy Scouts had
carried off all the six prizes.
During a shortage of labor last year, when an exceedingly valuable
potato crop was in danger of going to waste along the Eastern Shore,
scouts from Washington, Baltimore, and the vicinity came to the
rescue.
They were housed in camps, each camp under the charge of a
scoutmaster and moving from farm to farm until the work was
finished.
A scout is prepared.
- During the past
Boy
four cooks, four scoutmasters; and a scout executive, undertook and
successfully carried out a peach-picking summer caiPip.
The peaches
were picked, packed, and shipped, amounting to 76 carloads in all,
and the whole job wits done by boys under 18, trained, disciplined,,.
under competent leadership, willing and able to work in good earnest
in a good cause.
These stories might be duplicated a dozen times, told in terms of
strawberries, cherries, corn, apples, and what not.
In many cases
scouts have gone extimsiVtly into the canning and drying industry,
often making their own equipment for the purpose.
In New York
City particularly valuable service: was rendered in cooperation with
the city kitchen%
Scouts helped collect waste from the markets,
piers, 'and terminals, and sorted it for use in the canning and dehy-
drating work done by the women operating the kitchen.
These manifold services rendered, the Nation by scouts daring the
past strenuous months have been a real contribution to our war-
winning,progrant, but what the work has meant to the boys them-
selves is' of even greater significance.
The lessons of thri4 and self-
denial and hard work, of comradeship and loyalty, clean team play,
patriotism, and unselfish service have not been learned in vain. Ma
°binary:means more to a Bey Scout because be iota worked for it,
Oven:te, it,' served it with might and Main. The nowt movement
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF BOY SCOUTS.
675
is dedicated to good citizenship making, and in their splendid cooper-
ation with the Nation in its time of stress and strain Boy Scouts have
.made preparation for future usefulness as American citizens.
SCOUTING AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY.
The present crisis brings with it the fear that juvenile delinquency
may increase here in America, as it has done in the warring nations
of Europe, unless effective measures are taken to prevent the evil.
Scouting is an effective antidote for the poisons of undisciplined
lawlessness.
Scouting will supply the leadership made necessary
by the departure for war of natural guardians 9f youth.
Judge Porterfield, of the Kansas City Juvenile Court, says:
If every boy in the city would join the Boy Scouts, thegangs would disappear, the
juvenile court would be a stranger to the youth, and we would rear a gerration of men
that would not require police protection.
I have never had a Boy Scout in my court,
and there are 1,200 of them in Kansas City.
Dean Russell, of Columbia University, says:
One lesson of the present European war is that American boys must be trained in
patriotism and in those homely virtues which would make for civic order and social
stability.
For this purpose, I know of no means so effective as those employed by the
Boy Scouts.
I hope to see the time when every American schoolboy will look'forward
to becoming a good scout and will be trained to incorporate the ideas of theBoy Scout
into his life as an American citizen.
Scouting is not a reformatory movement.
It was devised for the
normal boy, neither very good nor very bad.
Nevertheless, it is
a very effective Instrument for "straightening out crooked sticks."
One has only to go to the Glen MillsSts.tion (Pa.) Reformatoiy,
where scouting is doing a splendid work of regeneration, to discover
this.
One jtiveniie offender committed to the reformatory and there
developed into a first-class scout said recently that he liked being a
scout "'eau's() it gives a fellow a chance to learn something all the
time and help the other fellow."
Ile had the whole spirit of the,
movement crystallized in his mind. That is what scouting can do,
believing as it does thathliere aro no bad boys, but some misdirected
boys.
SCOUTING AND SOLDIER MAKING.
The Bos, Scout movement has never believed it was a part of its
province to develop amateur soldiers.
It encouragesolrill only as a
means, not an end, in the interests of quick mobilization, precision of
movement, proper posture, and diticipline.
Its program does not
include technical military training.
That, it believes, can easily be
added later if necessity, built upon the foundation of good health,
good habits, efficiency, resourcefulness, loyalty, obedience, awl trust-
worthiness. The scout is trained to responsibility.
He knows how
to take care of himself and others. He is trained to think quickly
876
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
and act quickly in emergepcy.
Therefore, he makes a good soldier,
if he is called to fight, just as he makes a good citizen if his duty
lies along the ways of peace.
The military training commission of the State of New York accepts
scout training as a satisfactory qquivalent for the compulsory military
training given other boys not members of the organization.
Maj. Gen. Hugh L. Scott says:
The necefeary elementary instruction that every young American should have in
order to be prepared to play his part in the national defense can'be obtained by his
work in the Boy Scouts of America.
An English officer once wrote. to Lieut. Gen. Sir Robert Baden -
Powell, the founder of the scout movement:
say unhesitatingly as an officer on active service that if you offered me to-day the
choice between a trained and efficient cadet and a trained and efficient scout as a
recruit to my company, I would take the scout any day.
Indeed, I -vould prefer one
scout to two cadets, because wheMas the scout could be taught platoon and company
drill in no time, the cadet could not be taught all that scouting means under several
months.
Thousands of former scouts and scout officials served under Gen.
Pershing and rendered fine account of themselves, living up to scout
ideals of courage, loyalty, and gobd faith, doing their duty to God
and countryos pledged by their well-kept oath.
They were not espe-
cially trained to be soldiers before they entered, the Army, but they
were especially trained to be mon, which is an ()vim better thing.
4
CHAPTER XXIV.
GIRL SCOUTS AS AN EDUCATIONAL FORCE..
By Juurrns Low,
sPresIdent, Girl Scout*.
So closely is learning interwoven with doing that to the Girl Scout
herself all the scout activities are "just play." To the obserwint edu-
cator, the fundamentals of citizenship, good health, and community
spirit are implanted threiugh the natural ambition of the Girl Scout
to strive for proficiency badges and scout honors.
Subtler, but by
no means less important, is the morale established by the Girl Scout
promise and laws.
The tests for scout rank and the system of merit
and proficiency badges are planned with the four essentials for whole-
some living in mindheadwork, handwork, health, and helpfdess.
The declared purpose of the Girl Scout organization is " to promote
the virtues of womanhood by training girls to recognize their obliga-
tions to God and country, to prepare for duties devolving upon
women in the home in society and the State, and to guide them in
ways conducive to
ersonal honor and the public good"; in other
words, to train girls for citizenship in the broadestsense. This is the
undeclared desire in every adolescent girl's heart.
Girl Scout troops
are her laboratory courses in the school of living.
Thus, the educa-
tional, program of Girl Scouts supplements and strengthens the edu-
cational efforts of both the home and the school.
The average home is evolved by the parents for their own comfort
and convenience. 'The schoolroom atmosphere and environment are
created by the personality of the teacher.
The adolescent girl longs
for a place of her very own, where she can be herself, and where she
can do the things she wants to do.
The Girl Scout troop fulfills this
need, because it is the girl's own creation, founded and managed by
her in cooperation with comrades of her own age.
The scope of Girl Scout work is national; troops Are organized
in every State except Utah, and they are active in the Territory of
Hawaii.
Girl Scout troops are affiliated with the work of schools,
churches, settlement hoUses, civic councils, community welfare or-
ganizations, women's clubs, etc., but the Girl Scouts'. organizations
are nonsectarian and nonpolitical.
A girl may belong to other
organizations at the same time.
On March 1, 1810, 41,225 girls between the ages of 10 and 18 were .
enrolled as ,Girl Scouts in the United States.
Registrations were s
made at the rate of about 150 per day since January 1, 1919.
This
refers to the number of girls who have passed their .enderfoot
We," There is also a great number of girls preparing for the ten-
477
f. -
678
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
derfoot examinations who are striving to reach the scout ideal.
Sta-
tistics of October; 1917, show an enrollment at that time of about
9,000.
The movement started with a small group of girls in Sayan-
nah, Ga., in March, 1912.
The Girl Scoots were incorporated as a
. national organization on June 10, 1915.
The number of second-class
and first-class scouts has not been compiled, but the accomplish-
ments of the organization indicate that large numbers have qualified
for higher rank.
The form of the laws, promise, and the tests for scout rank were
revised by the National Cotincil in January, 1919. At the opening
of every Girl Scout troop meeting, there is a simple ceremony. After
the scouts salute the flag of the United States and pledge th
allegiance, the captain gives the crisp command:
"Scouts, give your promise."
They reply as follows:
"On my: honor, I will try to be true to God and my country; to
help others at all times; to obey the Scout laws."
"Scouts, repeat the laws," is the next command.
The saints answer:
.
"A Girl Scout is trustworthy; a Girl Scout is loyal; a Girl Scout
is helpful; a Girl Scout is kind ; a Girl Scout is clean ; a Girl Scout
is courteous; a Girl Scout is persevering; a Girl Scout is obedient;
a Girl Scout is cheerful; a Girl Scout is thrifty."
"Scouts, give the motto," is the final order.
The girls answer, "Be prepared."
There are three classes of scoutstendkrfoot scouts, at least 10
years old; second-class scouts; first-class sCouts, up to 18 years of age.
No girl may wear the Girl Scout pin, insignia, or uniform until
she is formally accepted as a tenderfoot scout. To arrive at this dis-
tinction she must be at least 10 years old and she must pass the fol-
lowing test to the satisfaction of the Girl Scout officer in charge:
For headwork she must first of all know the Scout promise and laws, and
the Girl Scout motto, "Be prepared," and the Glrl Scout slogan, " Do a good
turn daily "; she must also know by heart the first and last verses of " The
Star-Spangled Banner" and the full name of the President of the United
States, the governor of her State, and the head of her, city or town gov-
ernment.
For Handwork she must be able to tie four sailor knots hi approved hultdon
the reef, bowline, clove hitch, and sheepshank.
For health knowledge she learns the simple setting-up exercises and tender-
foot drill.
For helpfulness she promises to try to do a good turn daily to her troop, her
school, her home, or her community.
The testa which must be passed for rank as i second-class scout
'cariron to more advanced stages the development of headwork,
hind-Work:hygienes.and, general helpfulnessi begun in tenderfoot
scouthood.
GIRL SCOUTS AS AN EDUCATIONAL FORCE.
679
The second-class scout, for * eadwork, learns the history and mean-
ing Of the flag; knows her own measurements and how to record
them; can recognize six animals, six birds, six flowers, six trees, and
describe them so that another person may recognize them on sight;
she learns the 16 points of the compass; how to prevent fire and how
to stop it if fire starts; she is capable of using both the general-
service code and the semaphore code. The second -class scout trains
her powers of observation by playing games that require quick eye
and dependable memory, such as noting at a glance the contents of
a shop window, the apperance of passers-by in the street, or the game
of tracking and stalking in the open.
For handwork, the second-
class scout learns to lay and light a fire in a stove, in a gas stove, or
in the open, using not more than two matches.
Having made her
tire. she learns to cook simple dishes, such as cereals, vegetables,
meats, fish, or eggs.
She learns to set a table properly for two
courses.
She learns to make and air a bed properly, arfd she learns
to make a bed for an invalid. The second-class scout also learns to
sew a seam, hem, darn, either knit or crochet, and she must present
a garment made by herself which demonstrates her skill as a needle-
d'ornan.
She must also press out a scout uniform.
For health
knowledge, the second-class scout demonstrates her ability to stop
bleeding, to remove grit from the eye, to treat ivy poisoning, to
bandage a sprained ankle, to remove a splinter, and she must,know
the scout laws of health. For helpfulness, she is required to apply
what she learns for the benefit of others, in service rendered to the
troop, school, home, church, or community.
Thrift is encouraged in
the second -class scout test, inasmuch as the girl is required to earn
or save enough to purchase some preset's] or troop equipment.
Scouts of the second class take pride in drilling with snap and
precision.
The first-class scout is almost a grown-up woman, capable of bear-
ing the responsibilities that will come to her in her own home and in
the community. The tests require that she be trained to higher
efficiency in headwork, handwork, health knowledge, and helpful-
ness.
It is the ambition of every girl Scout to reach the rank of
afirst-class scout, when she may Ark for the highelit honor
all,
the Golden Eaglet badge, for which the requirements have
een
raised from 14 points for proficiency bade% to 21 points.
Twenty-
six scouts in the United States have won the Golden Eaglet uhder
14fpoint ruling.
adwork; her judgnient is called. into play to make a roug%
sketch o the district around the troop meeting place; she isrequired
to judge height, weight, numbers, and distance, according to the
rules lit the Girl Scout Handoobk.
.
The
-class scout can demonstrate how to find the points of
the am ass by' the stVind stars; She can send and receile miksiages
680
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19I8 -1918.
in general Service code and in semaphore code at 30 letters per
minute.
The first-class scout test requires that she be skilled in
handoraft and housewifery, demonstrating her knowledge of home
nursing, first aid (Red' Cross standards), child care, housekeeping.
and that she also earn at least one of the following proficiency
badgeslaundress, cook, needlewoman, or gardener.
She must also do one or more of the following things: Take an
overnight hike in the open, carrying all equipment and rations, or
be one of four to construct a practicable lean-to, or be-able to do
the outer edge on skates, skate backward, and stop suddenly, or
show her acquaintance from personal observation of the habits of
four animals or birds, or organize a daytime hike for younger girls.
arrithging the food, transportation, occupations, etc.
For health knowledge, in addition to earning the first-aid badge.
she must earn one other merit badge.
For helpfulness she must
present a tenderfoot scout trained by herself, present to the scout
officers proof of some definite service to her community.
For thrift
she must earn at least $1 and start a savings account.
Second-class
scouts may earn all merit badges eXtept the Golden Eaglet, which
may be awarded to first - class scouts.
The value of Girl Scout training is shown In the war work they
accomplished in connection with the Red Cross, the War Garden
Thrift campaigns, the Americanization work, and the labor replace-
ment word by which these young girls released older women from
home duties fjtr war work of various kinds.
None of these activities
were new to
Girl Scouts, for there are scout merit badges to be
won for first aid, artist, athletics, automobile driving, aviation, bird
study, seam
hip, child care,. clerk, civics, cook, invalid 'cookery,
cyclist, dairy, electricity, farmer, gardener, personal health, laun-
dress, marksamnship, music, naturalist, needlewomen, horsemanship,
home nursing, housekeeper, interpreter, pathfinder, Pioneer, plotogi
raphy, scribe, signaling, swimmer, telegraphy.
All second-class
scouts 'may compete for any or all of them; mostSecond-clan scouts
are working for sonio of them.
AU these activities are voluntary, and progress in scout rank comes
solely from the girl's own. initiative.
The result is the development
of the undefinable something in Girl Scouts, which we call the scout-
1,1.spirit, the esprit,de.corpsi and an insistence on fair play, generous
-Ming, team work, coupled with individual development, which can
Ail
summed up in the one word
character." ,Girl Scouts of
to -day are theNieMea of to=morrow.
. Even as .young girls they are
,eager to,do their share of the world's work.
The e-record of the Girl Scouts of Washington, D. C during the
.e idemie was typical. of how Girl Scouts meet emergencies
Conditions wer,oesppcially bad in Washington, and
GIRL SCOUTS AS AN EDUCATIONAL FORCE.,
through their initiative qnd skilled labor the Girl Scouts were able
to save many lives.
They made soups and broths and speCial dishes,
which were delivered- oh doctor's prescriptiotti to more than 500
patients daily dyring the weeks of the epidemic.
At the request of
the commissioner of public playgrounds in Washington, they pre-
pared 5 gallons of soup daily-for the.luncheons of the poor children
under his care, helping to prevent illness through supplying proper
nourishment.
Girl ,Scouts throughout the United States kept tliGi,r knitting
needles busy and knitted into Red Cross garments more than 2,50
pounds of wool. Thousands of surgical dressings, were made for the
Army hospitals.
In Minneapolis Girl Scouts picked oakum in the
Red Cross workrooms for thousands of the pads needed for the hs-
pitals in the war zone.
During 1918, while the United States was actively at war, all of
our people had an opportunity to pat forth all their force for the
Nation's good. Those who were best trained were the most useful.
For the Department of Agriculture and the War,Gartlen Commis:
sions, the Girl Scouts took up their spadjes and hoes and cultivated
acres of war gardens, at a profit,, too, as is shown by the records
from New :York City scouts and others, who . cleared an average
profit of about two cents per square foot over all expenses.
After
their crops matured, the Girl Scouts went to. work for the Food
Administration and canned vegetables, fruits, jellies, jams, and
pickles.
In the munition works and the aeroplane factories Girl Scouts,
trained to obedience; trustworthiness, and perseverance, made them-
selves useful. Girl Scouts were employed as messengers by Govern-
'
ment departments.
Others kept house and cared for younger chil-
dren so that older folk could do other work needed for the war.
Girl Scout troops sold Liberty bonds amounting to $3,151,100 in
the third loan campaign, and.they doubled that amount selling fourth
loan bonds to the amount of $6,623,550.
Troops also bought bonds
from their own treasuries, helped the Women's Liberty Loan Com-
mittees by pasting posters and by acting as messengers. Girl Scouts
also saved and earned money to buy $5,305 worth of Thrift and War
Savings Stampsthis is the minimum amount, because not all troops
report their local activities to headquarters.
So* far, troops have re-
potted the sale to other people of $12,370 worth of Thrift Stamps.
During the war we realized more keenly the number of foreign -
born people in.our midst, who, while not actively against us; 'were not
actively " for us," because they did not know much about America or
the langUage, customs, thoughts, and iddlis of American&
Most `of
the foreign people have. children, and, like all parents, their 'first
thought and consideration is for the welfare of theii children. If
681
fi82
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-018.
America proves kind to their children, therwill cheerfully live and
die for America.
Girl Scouts found a very special patriotic sera'poc
in teaching through Girl Scout troop work the ideals of American
citizgLiship to the children of foreign parents.
Older scouts took
grear pride in starting troops in foreign settlements, training the
tenderfoot scouts and teaching them about American citizenship.
Special commendation was given by the America First Committee to
New York City for their work in teaching English to foreign women
and girls.
At the present moment the most effective public-service work that
Girl Scout troops are doing is this Americanization work.
Not only
in big cities but wherever there is a mill, a factory, or a mine, where
foreign laborers live apart from the life of the American community
around them, Girl Scouts are finding that they can be of service in
bridging over the gulf of ignorance and misundersfantling.
The real test of an educational system is in how well the students
use the knowledge acquired.
The fgllowing three instances of how
scouts are;
rning back to the comOinity the benefits derived from
their home, their school, and their scout training deserve thoughtful
consideration:
In New Bedford, Mass., foreign labor in the mills threatened to
fall a prey to the epidemic of Bolshevism and industrial unrest.
The
city government, cooperating with the chamber of commerce, the
school department, the Y. M. C. A., fraternal societies, and manu-
facturers' associations launched an aggressive campaign of Ameri-
canization.
Girl Scout troops and Boy Scout troops were used to
give the patriotic instruction to foreign workers in each mill.
'
In Cincinnati, Ohio, at the American House, where every oppor-
tunity is given to foreign men And women to become acquainted with
American customs, habits, ideals, and the language we speak, Girl
Scout troops have been formed to give patriotic instruction to foreign
women and girls.
These troops are officered by foreign-born girl;
who want to repay in some measure the benefits they have received
from American institutions.
he lieutenants of these troops are Girl
ScoutS of high-school age lilitwant to pass on the scout training to
others.
In New York City the local American First Committee fortna,lly
commended the service re$ered by Girl Scouts in teaching English,.
tb foreign women and girls.
It is by furnishing wholesome outdoor and boloor activities under
influences that tendto build sturdy chafacter as well as sturdy bodies
4 that Gfrl.Scouts are 'valuable in the educational work of the Nation,,
\which we depend upon to develop the girls of to-day into sane, re-
sponsible women who will be capable of bearing intelligently the
personal and*, social responsibilities that will come to them- only a
,few years hence.
CHAPTER X V.
EDUCATION. IN THE TERRITORIES AND DEPENDEN-
CIES.
Churrszera.EtIneatIontn Porto Rteo--EducatIon In the Canal Zone --Tile Virgin lelnads
liawall--,The Ph111pptne publIcsehool BystemEducation In Alaska.
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
By PAUL G. MILLER,
Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico.
The work. of the public schools has been greatly handicapped
during' the past year through conditions brought abobt by the
World War. The department ha Lost many Of its most efficient men,
who went into the military service. Due not only to war conditions,
but also to the prevailing low salaries, frequent changes in the teach-
ing corps 'lave taktu place, with the resulting loss of efficiency.
The rural ttaching Torce alone underwent 730 changes, whereas in
the city of San Juan there were no less than 110.
In spite of these obstacles the work of the 'schools has been char-
,.
.acterized particularly by the variousi.activities carried o
by super-
visors, teachers, and pupils toward promoting the sucess of the
United States and its allies in the World War. The war activities of
the schools will ever stand out conspicuously as witnesses of the
loyalty and patriotism of-all. In this respect the work may be justly
counted as a year of achievement and accomplishment unparalleled,
in the history of Porto Rico.
Special attention has been deyoted to increasing the food supply
through school and home gardens, both rural and urban.
For the Promotion of community and war propaganda, and es-
, pecially for agricultural development, committees were organized
which conducted public gatheringa Parent associations, also, held
public meetings;
hers visited rural homes; and in cooperation
with the food conimi ion rural conference0 were' held. These activi-
ties will be,olaborated
der their respective heads.
The chapten school committeeld the Porto Rico chapter, Aattrican
National Red Cross, effected local organizations of the Junior Bed
Cross in every municipality. In response to,s special, appeal insde
683
684
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-4918.
by the commissioner, 2,587 teachers out of a total of 2,649 in the
service at the close of the year made a special, contribution to the
second war fund, which, together with amounts given by the office
staff of the department, the supervisory force, employees of the uni,
versity, - and certain employees of school boards amounted to
$6,665.89.
Porto Rico has an estimated popUlation of 1,223,981, of whom
427,666 are of legal school age, i. e., between 5 and 18 years, and
L215,819 of compulsory school age, i. e., between 8 and 14 years. The
total enrollment in all public schools, excluding duplicates, was
142,846.
Of these, 84,570 were. enrolled in rural schools;' 50,060 in
elementary urban schools; 3,346 in secondary schools; 3.613 in night
.schools; and 1,237 in the University of Porto Rico. Of the. 141,589
pupils enrolled in schools under the department, 80,063 were males
and 61,526 females; 113,462 NiveiT white and 28,127 colored. In addi-
tion to the pupils enrolled in public schools, 7,248 children attended
private schools.
The total enrollment was 33.1 per...cent Of the total population of
,
school age and 6.5.6 per cent of the population of compulsory school
age.
The average number belonging hi all schools was 115,689;
average daily attendance 106,441, or 92 per cent.
Of the 141,58
pupils enrolled, 2.4 per cent were found iri secondary schools, 35.3
per cent in elementary urban schools, 59.8 per cent in rural schools,
and 2.5 per cent in night schools.
These pupils were taught by 2,715 teachers, of whom 909 were
men and 1,'806 were women; 174 were teachers from the United
States proper and 2,541 were native Porto Ricans; of the total
number, 2,2.40 were white and 485 colored.
Of 'the elemettary pupils, 62.7 per cent were promoted to the next
higher grade, as against 60.1 per cent the preceding year.
These
figures are based upon the total enrollment. Using the average num-
ber belonging as a basis for calculating promotions, 81.8 per cent of
the elementary urban .pupils were promoted and 72.8 of the rural
pupils, giving an average of 76.2 per cent for all elementary schools.
Eighth-grade diplomas were awarded to ,2,035 pupils, and A47
high - school pupils received diplomas.
There were .42 new graded teachers added to the profession by
means of licenses granted upon the basis of normal diplomas issued
by the University of Porto Rico; 80rural licenses were granted to
persons who had completed the special two-year course for rural
teichers, in the normal department of the University of Porto Rico;
and four rural licenses were granted to persons who had-Obtained the
diploma in agricultural science isimedbby the College of Agriculture
and Mechanic Arta.
IMCATION IN PORTO RICO.
685
Summer schools for the training of rural teachers were held at Rio
Piedras and Mayaguez, at the close of which 74 rural licenses were
issued. Special examinations for the licensing of rural teachers were
held also in October end November, resulting in the granting of 240,
More rural licenses.
This number, however, was not sufficient to
supply the schools of the island, and it became necessary.to issue
169 provisional licenses before the close of the year.
The schools of Porto Rico were conducted in 1.712 separate school
buildings, representing 2,845 classrooms.
Of these buildings. 540
e public property and 1,172 are rented; 316 are situated in urban
centers and 1.39t
in rural barrios.
As to their character, school
ouildings range froin the straw-covered shag in remote rural barrios
to thoroughly modern concrete structures inthe larger towns and'
cities. During the past. two Years 88 new sites for school buildings
have been acquired, 29 in urbancenters and 68 in rural districts: 58
school buildings. 17 urban with 141 rooms; and 41 rural with 49
rooms, have been erected during the same period.
The.total assessed valuation of proparty is $243,736,262, or $199.01
per capita of population.
1/4
.
.
-The expenditure for educational purposes last year was $1,634,-
313.99 from insular appropriation and other funds and $730,947 from
school-board funds, making a total of $2,365,260.9.
The total perciipita expenditure per pupil was $12.63 for elemen-
tary education and $41.92 for secondary instruction. The per capita
expenditure per inhabitant was $1.93.
SCHOOL ALLOTMENT-:URBAN VERSUS RURAL SCHOOLS.
-Of all the children of school age in Porto Rico, 344,615 live in
the rural barrios.
Of this number, 84.570, or 24.5 per cent, were
enrolled in the rural schools during the past year, whereas of the
91,604 children of school age living in the urban centers, 53,406, or
58.3 per cent, were attenaiiigschool.
This takes no acc2unt of a total
of 3,613 enrolled in the night schools.
%T.
he -above summary goes to show that in the urban centers over
one -half of the population of school age is attending school, while
in the rural districts this holds true for-but one-fourth of the popl-
lation. In other -words, in order to enroll the entire pOpulationof
school age, the number of urban schools would have to be, multiplied
by 2 and the number of rural schools by' t.
Such an increase is
totallyout of question for the present in view of the economic status
of the island. The fact that but one-fourth of the rural Poptilatioir
'of school age is at present enrolled in the rural schools by no means
signifies that the remaining three-fourths are deprivedof an oppor-
tunitY to attend school. The reverse is nearer the truth.
Probably
686'
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF BDUOATION4 1018-1918.
no leas than three-fourths of the rural population attend school for a
limited number of years, while perhaps less than one-fourth fail to
avail themselves of the opportunities that are at hand.
F'urtharpaore,
the period of school attendance in the Tropics is necessarily shorter
than in a northern climate. Not a few of our young men and women
marry and assume family cares before they have attained the oaaxi-
miirn school age:
Any attempt, therefore, to enroll the total popula-
tion of school age is, and will ever be, impossible of attainment in
Porto Rico.
The relative needs of the urban and rural populations have always
been calculated on the figures given by the island census without
regard to actual conditions, and the tendency as a result has inva-
riably been to favor the rural population at the cost of the urban
centers.
This is shown by contrasting the provision for common
schools in the budget of 1913-14 with that of th('budget for 1917-18.
Urban and rural teachers provided for.
Teachers.
Year
1913-14.
Year
1917-4
Increase.
Pcr cent.
Total orban teachers provided (Or..
985
997
1.2
Total ruralteachert provided for
1,141
1,860
45 4
The'results of this policy have been that, whereas in many munici-
palities rural teachers are unable to fill their schools to their normal
capacity, in many of the urbihi centers, notably in such towns as
San Juan, Ponce, Caguas, Bayamon, and Aguadilla, hundreds of
children who .eismor for admission at the opening of each school
year have to be to led away. .The absolute shortage of urban schools
has been more especially felt of late...years as a result of the city.
growth and the abolition:.of the double-enrollment plan.
RURAL EDUCATION.
The number of rural schools opened was 1,440. nit takes no
account of the rural schools opened in the semiurban, zone and in
some of the urban centers, as these schools follow the graded course
of study and are considered part of the urban- school system.
The
withdrawal of teachers; both urban and rural, to go into military
service and into other work, has been one of the most porpleTlig
features. An unusual number of graded ancr.rural teachers ro-
signed, and as vacancies in the corps of graded teachers are gener-
ally filled by the promotiomi of, rural, teachers who hola the graded.
Homage, the rural schools were the ones particularly affected.. A total
of 780 changer took place in the rural schools last year. This means
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
687
that approximately one-half of the, rural schools have had more
than one teacher during the year.
The numerous changes made the work of the supervisory force
and of the department particularly difficult.
To train' a total of
730 new teachers, practically half the rural teaching force, to a
satisfactory standard of efficiency is a problem to tax the industry,
patience, and skill of the best supervisory force. The ,policy of the
department under such circumstances has necessarily been to em-
phasize constructive .supervision.
Professional study and reading
courses have been established ; frequent teachers' meetings and .dem-
onstration classes have been held in all the districts; and every-
where much of the supervisors' tune has had to be devoted to the
strengthening of this unduly large proportion of new rural teachers.
For the purpose of further awakening public interest and of
extending the usefulness of the rural schools, the rural uplift cam-
paign initiated three years ago was given continued emphasis.
All
,
supervisors of schools gave particular attention to.rural school or-
ganization; paid longer and more thorough visits to rural sch,00ls,
held frequent conferences for rural teachers, and ultimately 6hecked
promotionS in all rural schools grade by grade by making a personal
examination of every pupil recommended for ,promotion. A much
greater proportion of rural teachers lived in the barrios where their
schools were locitted, and such teachers became a vital factor in
neighborhood life.
Teachers living in the barrios not only gave to
the patrons of the districts an example .of sanitary and wholesome
living, but they often made the, schoolhouse a social center, where
parents' meetings, evening schools, and lectures &re held. Where
agriculture was stressed, teachers became the natural leaders of the
food-supply propaganda, which has increased the available local
food 'supply considerably.
Libraries were opened for country dis-
tricts, and teachers paid many visits to the parents in their homes.
The department -has directly aided many of the supervisors by
sending speakers to parents' meetings, which, as a rule, were held on
Sundays.
Supervisors report that the attendance at these Sunday
meetings reached as high a figure as 400 persons.
To-day the-peas-
ant of Porto Rico has come to realize that the rural schools belong to
him as rmich as to the landowner or rich planter of his district.
To carry ont this rural campaign has required much sacrifice on the
part of the supervisorsland rural teachers.
To teachers accustomed
to the comforts of cityhfe, the isolated life of the country has entailed
no small hardship, but results have compensated them for such unself-
ish sertice. Many supervisors who have stressed the rural campaign
hive given up almost all their Sundays to this work.
While such
labor'is onerous, it is only by such devotion to the cause that the ulti-
mate redemption of the illiterate peasant will he achieved.-
688
BIENI(IAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Out of 1,440 rural schools, 1,262, or 87 per cent, were on the double-
enrollment plan; i. e., they have one group of pupils, up to a maxi-
mum of 40, during the three hours of the morning session and another
similar group in the afternoon for the same length of time.
This
arrangement allows the pupils to take their noonday meal at home,
and also makes it possible for the older ones among them to help their
parents at home and on the farm during part of the day.
This is a
very important Consideration during the coffee-picking season, from
September to December, when the entire population of some of the
districts, old and young, is employed in the coffee harvest.
This
double-enrollment plan, while it has its serious disadvantages, in-
sures a better enrollment and attendance.
The total number of pupils enrolled in the rural schools during the
year was 84.570; and of this total, 48,821, or 58 per cent, were pro-
moted. This low percentage of promotion is largely accounted for
by the frequent changes in the teaching force and the closing of many
schools for want of teachers.
CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOLS.
A familiarity with the rural-school situation leads to the inevitable
conclusion that the need is for better schools, rather than for more
schools.
The emphasis must be placed on better buildings, better
equipment, on a fuller and necessarily longer course of study, with
special provisions for the teaching of home economics, manual train-
ing, agriculture, and 'other industrial subjects.
This will demand
better teachers and, its a logical accompaniment, higher salaries. The
consolidated rural .school brings together three, four, or more rural
schools within one building or common center, in contrast with the
present isolated school plan, whereby an underpaid and often poorly
prepared and immature teacher has to straggle as best he can with
three, four, or more grades under his sole charge and with a large
enrollment on the half-day plan.
Such consolidated rural schools
should eventually become th% community centers of their barrios;
and rural libraries, noonday lurfches for the underfed pupils, medical
inspection, and entertainments are some of the community improve-
ments that would be brought within the scope of practical, successful
achievement.
GRADED SCHOOLS..
The work of the graded schools has been carried on along, very
much the same general lines as in former years. The more important
changes have been the following:
1...The teaching of English on a strictly oral basis, which last year
was introduced in the first grade of the urban schools, has been ex-
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
689
tended to the second grade of the urban and to the second and third
grades. of the rural schools as well. In addition to the First Grade
Manual in Oral -English, which was published last year, a manual
for the second grade has now been put into the hands of all primary
teachers. A Third Grade Manual has also been under,preparation
and has been given a thorough preliminary test in some districts.
The shifting from reading to conversation as a medium for the
feaching of English in the primary grades meets the needs of pupils
and leads them along a natural and. easy road to the stage where
they are enabled to carry on the bulk of their studies in the English
language, as is required of them in the intermediate and grammar
grades.
It brings the Porto Rican child in this particular respect
one step nearer to the level of the American child who hears and talks
English four or five years before he is required to read it.
2. The policy of the department to provide pupils with books
specially designed for them was further advanced last year by the
introduction of a specially prepared textbook in arithmetic for the
use of third and 'fourth grade pupils.
The text is in Spanish. It
supplements and carries forward the beginning made last year when
a special manual for the teaching crf arithmetic in the first and sec.:
and grades was prepared and issued to the teachers.
.
3. A special pamphlet on moral and civic training has also been
prepared and issued. Formal instruction in this subject has now been
made a brief but regular feature of the daily program of our schools.
The need for sifinething of this sort was realized a long time ago.
The past history of the island, the limited. experience of the people
in self-government, the illiteracy which still prevails in the country
districts, and-the relatively few agencies, outside of the public schools,
making for the enlightenment and the upbuilding of the people along
moral and social lines, brought the need for such a course into plain
evidence.
The improvement which has taken place in the primary grades as a
result of the introduction of a better coordinated system of teaching
such elementary subjects as Spanish, English, writing, and arith-
metic, in closer harmony with the needs and the life experience of
Porto Rican children, has everywhere been a remarkable one. Better
general results are evident, and this appears in the percentage of
promotions from these lower grades.
This improvement is further due to the introduction and use of
specially prepared textbooks in which the standpoint of the Porto
Rican child, his experience, and his needs ae given due considera-
tion. The department plant to extend gradually the piilicy of using
specially prepared books and to exclude those which 'do-not provide
for the special requirements of the Porto Rican child.
171026 °-21Ba11. 88- -44
690
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
HIGH AND CONTINUATION SCHOOLS.
Secondary school work was carried on in 11 high and 26 continua.
tion schools, not including the University High School at Rio Pie-
dras, nor the preparatory department of the College of Agricultuv
and Mechanic Arts, Mayaguez. In addition to the 11 regular four-
year high schools, ninth grade, work was taught in 26, and tenth
grade work in 11 municipalities.
The total enrollment in secondary schools was 3,346, of which num-
ber 1,584 were boys and 1,732 were girls.
These fiAres show an in-
crease in the enrollment over that of any previous year, but a rela-
tive decrease in the number of boys enrolled as compared with the
preceding year. The enrollment was distributed as follows: Twelfth
grade, 882; eleventh grade. 601; tenth grade,'898 ; ninth grade, 1,465.
The total number of graduates from the 11 department high
schools was 847; from the general course, 310; from the commercial
course, 37.
The University of Porto Rico issued 71 secondary
diplomas.
Difficulty in securing texts and supplies because of delays in trans-
portation, the shifting of teachers because of vacancies brought about
by war conditions, and the decrease of enrollment due to economic
conditions, made the year a trying one to teachers, principals, and
supervisors.
Notwithstanding these adverse conditions, the quality
of work done was generally satisfactory, and no eases of infraction
of discipline marred the year's work..
The Central High School at San Juan continued, to occupy
building entirely unsuited for a school.
Lack of teaching force and
schoolroom capacity made it necessary to refuse adthission to many
applicants, and as a consequence ninth grades were organized at
other school centers in San Juan ; but even by the organization of
these extra ninth grades many ambitious young people could not
secure admission.
WAR WORK OF THE SCHOOLS.
The all-prevailing activity of the schools during the year was the
work of teachers and pupilsin connection with the World War. The
complete mobilization of the vital forces and material resources of
the Nation for the successful prosecution of the war which had been
effected throughout the United States had likewise been put into
operation here.
Porto Rico, which had but recently been granted
the privklege of American citizenship, could not remain indifferent
to the conflict in which the Nation had become involved.
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
691
THE FOOD QUESTION.
Although in its commercial relations with the mainland Porto
Rico during the fiscal year ending June 30. 1917. had a balance in its
favor of 27 million dollars, largely as a result of its constantly grow-
ing exports of sugar, tobactoj and fruitthe exports under these
three heads alone totaling $70,468.907it nevertheless depended upon
the United States for a varylarge proportion of its food supply.
The war brought into striking relief all the disadvantages and
dangers of Porto Rico's dependence upon the distant markets of the
United States for her daily food supply and the need of taking im-
mediate measures to place herself on a relative basis of self-support.
It is owing to this that the appeal of the United States Food Com-
missioner, to save food and to add to the sources of its supply, car-
ried special weight in the case of Porto Rico. The !Tresl fell on soil
already prepared. To the incentive of patriotism there was added
the all-compelling force of She instinct of self-prcservation.
COOPERATION WITH THE PORTO RICO FOOD COMMISSION.
In the matter of promoting the agricultural interests.'the depart-
ment worked in cooperation and harmony with the local food coin-
.
mission. A total of 35 supervisors of agriculture were employed
during the year.
Twenty-five of these were special agents of the
food commission and were paid out of its special funds. The re-
maining 10 were paid out of the funds of the department.
All,
however, were in equally close relations with the department, and
all worked through and with the supervisors and teachers of the
putlic schools for the improvement of the food situation. Teachers
everywhere, those in the country districts especially, served as dis-
tributing agents for the pamphlets and circulars issued by the food
commission. Rural teachers acted as the local representatives of the
commission, collected the necessary inforniation, and made regular
reports of the food situation of their respective barrios.
FOOD CONSERVATION WEEK.
All the wheat flour consumed in Porto Rico, a total Of 310,516
barrels for the fiscal year 1916-17, was imported from the United
States. Wheat being the conietstone of the national food conserva-
tion campaign, it behooved Porto Rico to do its share in the conser-
vation of this food pikiduct. As wheat does not grow in the Tropics,
Porto Rico could only help by limiting its consumption of white
bread. A further appeal was made by the food, commission for
economy in the consumption of such other imported foodstuffs as
692
BIANNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
were needed by the people of the allied countries. To bring about
this result an island-wide campaign of education and propaganda
became necessary. A direct appeal had to be made to the patriotism
and good will of every inhabitant. A large part of this work natu-
rally devolved upon the rural schools.
During " Food conservation week" a campaign was conducted by
public-school teachers in every town and barrio of the island.
The
number of 'public meetings held during that week exceeded 2,000.
Both urban and rural teachers made a house-to-house canvas to ex-
plain the meaning of the pledge card and to secure signatures.
A grand total of 122,82G pledge cards were signed 'through the
'efforts of the schools.
AGRICULTURAL AND PATRIOTIC PROPAGANDA.
The following summary will show the nature and extent of the
campaign carried on by the schools:
1. Numher of agricultural committees (Comites de Foment() Escolttr
y Agricola) organized
1,177
2. Number of public meetings hell by these committees
2,880
8. Number of parents' associations
831
4. Number of public meetings held by these associatinsts
1,'297
5. Number of rural conferences
°_.157
6. Number of rural homes visited by teachers
(10, 038
These thousands of home visits awl public meetings have made a
deep and lasting impression on the people.
The necessity of food
economy, of increased food production, of improved methods of cul-
tivation, and of planting a greater variety of products has been
preached to the remotest rural barrio of the island.
Patriotic propaganda has also been stressed. A campaign of edu-
cation to explain the cause and the aims of the war, its relation to
the people of the United States and of Porto Rico, the duty of every
citizen to contribute to the successful outcome of the conflict the full-
est measure. of his powers and resources, has been conducted from
one corner of the island to the other.
WAR LITERATURE AND PATRIOTIC INSTRUCTION.
Teachers have found ample material, both for their daily classes
and for their conferences with the people of their respective commu-
nities,-in the literature that has been supplied them by the depart-
ment and by the insular -food commission. A number of pamphlets
from various patriotic organizations in the United States were also
mailed to.the teachers. In addition the department procured a full
supply of the monthly bulletins issued by the Colanissioner of Edu-
cation of the United States,entitled "Lessons PCommunity
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
693
National Life," and incorporated these in the regular course of study
in English and civics for all the upper grades of the common schools
and for the continuation and high schools.
"Democracy To-day,"
a collection of President Wilson's principal war addresses, as well
as speeches by other statesmen, properly edited for class work, was
used as a text in high-school work. Spanish copies of "How the War
Came to America," published by the Committee on Public Informa-
tion, were distributed to all teachers and school board members in
order to enable them tp become thoroughly posted on the issues on
.which the Nation entered the war.
The result has been that many of the teachers and not a few of
the older pupils have become efficient propagandists, ready `and able
to take part in the molding of public opinion along patriotic lines.
AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEES.
In order to popularize the movement for food conservation and
41.1,,
for increased food pioduction, a local committee officially known as
" Comite de Fomen
Escolar y Agricola" wa formed in every
barrio.
Each wa compoged of five influential citizens, preferably
fanners of the more intelligent and progressive class.
These com-
mittees met periodically in the schoolhouse and planned their work
in close cooperation with the rural teacher and with the agricul-
tural agent of the district.
Each committee held public meetings
for purposes of propaganda among the inhabitants of the barrio.
The local teacher and a number of prominent people from the near-by
town took an active part in the meetings. The supervisor or schools
and the agricultural agent of the district also took part whenever
their other duties permitted. A total of 1,177 of these committees
.were organized during the year, and they held a total of 2,380 public
meetings.
PARENTS' ASSOCIATIONS.
The organization of parents' associations dates back three years.
While a certain number of these associations were this year merged
into the agricultural committees and in a way absorbed by them,
many carried on their independent activities.
A .total of 831 such
associations hold 1,297 public meetings. Wale
subjects dis-
cussed had a special relation to the life of tire school in its more
limited educational or professional aspect, questions of general in-
terest and especially those related to the World War did not fail to,
receive their due share of attention.
RURAL CONFERENCES.
In addition to the meetings held under the auspices of agricul-
tural committees and paients' associations, all more or less local. in
694
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-191S.
character, conferences of a more general nature have been held un-
der the immediate direction of the supervisors of schools in all the
towns and main barrios.
Special speakers were secured for these
conferences, gth -the. insular food commission and the department
of education sending representutives.
The local municipal authori-
ties, professional men, and many public-spirited citizens throughout
the island gave their services as speakers.
At the close of the year
the commissioner of education sent a personal letter of thanks and
appreciation to each of these. A total of 2,157 of these general con-
ferences were held during the year.
Universal enthusiasm has been aroused by this island-wide propa-
ganda.
This is the first time in the history of Porto Rico that 4
cittnpaign of education has been undertaken in behalf of the popula-
tion at large.
These meetings haVe served us popular forums in
Which .questions of public intdre.st have been brought to the :Wen,
tion of a people the majority of whom are still illiterate and eho
can not be reached by means of the daily press or any other agency
except direct contact.
Porto Ricans have come to realize the mean-
ing of the great war, their responsibilities and their opportunity of
,*demonstrating heir loyalty to the Nation and to the cause for which
it fights.
The success obtained in increased Mod production is most gratify-
ing.
Above all, the home garden movement holds special promise
for the futuie.
During the past year there were established 1,312 rural and 83
urban-school gardens used for instructional purposis. Only 103
rural schools did-not have school gardens, generally for lack of land.
The schools fostered the cultivation of 5,548 urban home gardens
and 21,145 in the country.
The large farm and_. plantation owners have come to realize the
need for a grit- r variety of products. Theyl now plant large acre-
ages in corn, beans, potatoes, onions, and yautfas, whereas in the past
they limited their activities to a few standard products, to cane,
coffee, tobacco, and thP like. Better methods of cultivationAave been
advocated and their importance is better understood.
ain. sec-
tions of the island not only raise enough vegetables for their own
needs but pow produce a relative surplus for other markets.
Twenty-five agricultural exhibits held in various towns toward the
ckse of the school year have attracted deserved attention, both for
the quality and for the quantity of the products exhibited.
Some
of these exhibits compare very favorably with those held in the
United States.
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
695
WORK IN ROME ECONOMICS.
The course of study in home economics, including both cooking
and sawing, comprised four years of work, extending from the
seventh through the tenth. , This work was conducted in 42 munici-
palities.
A two weeks' summer school for teachers of home economics was
held in August to sturslyThe new conditions and the new work for
the ensuing school year.
Owing to changed living conditions, due to the war, the course
of study in practical cooking was changed entirely.
Since it was
feared that communication with the mainland might-be cut off,
special bulletins were prepared
to instruct
students
and
their
families in a diet that would make use of local food products.
An
effort was also made in these bulletins to increase local production
of the necessary .carbohydrates, protleids, and fats.
Recipes for the preparation of pie and bread were entirely omitted,
quick breads and local substitutes taking their places.
In all other
recipes calling for wheat flour, starch extracted from native vege-
tables such as yautfa and batata was substituted. A simple home
'process was explained whereby the large percentage of starch con-
tained in these vegetables could easily be extracted. Children learned
to make use of this starch for thickening sauces, soups, and gravies,
the starch serving as an excellent substitute for flour and the corn
starch ordinarily used.
Lard and butter were omitted from all
recipes, and coconut. fat, coconut milk, or coconut butter., substi-
tuted.
Coconut fat was extracted and bottled in the classroom.
Frying was eliminated and baking substituted.
In place of bread
there were substituted baked or boiled yautfa, baked or boiled batata,
,
baked platanos, casabe, sorullos, arepas, goflo, hillacas, and corn
bread.
Slices of boiled yautfa and boiled batata4isplaced bread jn
making sandwiches, for which as a filling peanut butter, shredded
coconut, or a combination of these was used.
While the students of home economics were aught a ydar ago the
possible use of local food products in the event of a food shortage,
the sinking of the Carolina brought home to the people the abso-
lute practicality of such teaching, and increased interest in both
students- and outsiders developed with very gratifying success.
As
the result of a year's teaching along these llnes, the number of home
gardens increased materially. In, nearly every town, every student of
home economics had a garden. Gardens were planted and studied by
girls as a war measure so that women might learn to produce as well
as to prepare food.
An exhibit of the year's work was held in each town at the close
of school. Collections of starch, wheat bread substitutes, indlistrivi
696
.
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, I916-1918.
cards, and sewing work were shown. Laundering utensils, the proper
setting of a table, and invalid trays were Often included.
The care
.
and feeding of infants was demonstrated by means of a doll dressed
as a baby, showing clothing, feeding bottle, and bed.
EXTENSION WORK IN HOME ECONOMICS.
Mothers' classes taught in Spanish wertgiven by Porto Rican
teachers of home economics once a week.
These classes covered a
period. of two hours.
The use of wheat substitutes and 'warTtime
menus was studied. These classes varied in -size from 10 to 80 per-
sons.
In small classes actual cooking was done; in larger ones,
demonstration lectures were given.
Neighborhood evenings were held once a month in the .hcitne eto-
nomics room,'at which meetings subjects relating to home and-com-
munity life as affected by the war were discussed.
Men, women,
and older students attended these meetings, which usually were
crowded.
Extensibb work by the teachers of home economics wits
carried on in some of he rural districts by means of lectures and
demonstrations.
Brea
substitutes were taught and gardening was
encouraged at these meetings.
SEWING.
Sewing classes studied the chitnge produced in the clothing prob-
lem by war.
Clothing conservation was taught, as 'Sven as the pur-
chase of durable clothing and the elimination. of uneasentia/s, such
as laces, ribbons, dress trimmings, and jewelry.
All fourth-year
classes made pajamas for the Red Cross.
The change made in the course of study in the past year has
facilitated still greater adaptation to war conditions. The practice
secured will make it possible to do much work in refugee garments,
while the hospital garments will continue to be made as long as
money and materials are available.
MANUAL ARTS.
The work in manual arts for the, past year has. been badly handi-
capped because of the entrance of more than one-half of the teach-
ing force into the military service of the United States. The other
half was left in;-\a restless Condition, but, in spite of this fact, the
year's work as outlined was complked [hid many problems bearing
. upon the construction of articles suitable for use by the Red Cross
'and the Young Men's Christian Association were worked out. These
included knitting needles, food
bed supports,
checker boards, and folding chaics.
T
anual arts classes in
EDUCATION IN PORTO
697
every town where this.subject was taught made bulletin boards for
the posters of the United States Food Commission. Alk this work
was done in addition to the regular repair work, class wo rk,, and
comunity work done by the pupils.
-,,,,
In order to fill many vacancies in the manual arts teachi;,g force,
caused by war conditions, a summer session was held at the College
of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts for high-school graduates who
had done exceptional work in this subject and who were especially
of this summer school were gratifying, though most of the candidat
15'
recommended-
t
ended- by the respective supervisors of schools.
The; resu
were necessarily yoting; the average age being 21 years. Enough
candidates were obtiined to fill all vacancies.
JUNIOR RED CROSS DRIVE.
The
ft
e commissioner of educati ., the president of the school board
of San Juan, and the.supervisoi
f home economics were designated
as the chapter school committee of the Porto Rico :chapter of the
American National Red Cross for the purpose of organizing and
carrying out the Junior Red Cross drive. In every municipality
there was appointed a local committee of three members;consisting,
as a rule, of the supervisor of schools or the act' g principal, the
president of tho school board, and a teacher, usually
teacher of
home economics.
Owing to the fact that the public ichools were engaged in one
,
.
kind of 10- work or another since the outbreak of the war; the com-
mittee delayed organizing the Junior Red Cross membership find
financial campaign until the early part-of the month of May.
Teachers -and children, aided by a generous public, responded
loyally and patriotically to the efforts of the chapter school-com-
mittee and local committees. The results are considered excei4ionally
good when one hears in mind the poverty prevailing in manYA)arts
of Porto Rico, and also the fact that no special effort was made to
carry the campaign to rural schoo14.
In 52 municipalities all the urban school pupils were enrolled as
.
members of the Junior Red Cross, and in 11 municipalities, namely,_-
San Juan, Ponce, Arecibo, Fajardo, Guayama, Gurabe, Hatillo,
Jun
. ?atillas, Barceloneta, and Camuy, all pupils, both ,urban.
and
ral, viere so enrolled. The total membership at the close of
the yea
vas 68,013,' and the:total amount contributed $21,501.22.
AMERICAN RED 'CROSS.
In addition to the activities in behalf of the Junitir-Red_ Cross
many teachers have aided in thework of the Porto Rico chapter 'if
the American Red Cross wherever it had local organizations.
-
698
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1918.
During the second war-fund drive an effort was made to have all
employees of the insular government give one day's pay as a special
contribution to this fund. An appeal was sent to supervisors and
teachers by the commissioner, urging them to make one more sacri-
fice in addition to those already made.
Of 2,649 teachers in the
service at the close of the year, 2,587 made this special contribution.
LIBERTY LOAN CAMPAIGNS.
The schools have taken an active part in the Liberty Loan cam-
paigns for promoting the sale of liberty bonds. They have partici,
pated in all the civic parades organized for this purpose, and in a
few towns the propaganda for the sale pf bonds was directly ,in the
hands of teachers and school boaltds, who conduCted public meetings
in which the schools participated. A total of 705 liberty bonds were
bought: By the office and supervisory. force, 104; by teachers, 522;
by schools, 79.
Good records for the purchase of liberty bonds were
made by the supervisors and teachers of the Fajardo, Ponce, and
Yauco Districts.
SCHOOL MEN IN MILITARY SERVICE.
Since the United States. entered the World War the department of
education and the University of Porto Rico have lost 233 of their best
men by their entering the military service.
Of these, 10 were su-
pervisors of schools, 12 instructors in the university, 4 high-school
principals, 10 high-school teachers, 5 school board members,. 18
manual-training teachers, 13 teachers of English, 2 special .teachers
of agriculture, 49 graded teachers, and no rural teachers.
NATIVE INDUSTRIES.
In addition to the courses in home economics a4nd manual training,
which have become a regular part of the urban course of study, plain
sewing for girl pupils was taught in the urban schools of 27 munici-
palities and in certain rural schools of 60 other municipalities.'
While in the greater number of rural schools both boys and girls
were required to do garden work, in many there were not enough
implements nor sufficient land ayailable'to employ both sexes, and in
all such cases the girls spent one full period each day in sewing, while
the boys were at work in the garden. In very many instants women
teachers devoted an hour after the close of the regular daily seseibn to
the teaching of, sewing, embroidery, and lace work.
No additional
pity WU received for this work.
The teaching of native industries, in the' schools is a question of
momentous importance in connection with the future welfare of the
people.
This can not, however, be undertaken in a general and aye-
*
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
699
tematjc way until such time as the legislature finds it possible to pro-
vide special funds for the work. The need-of expert supervisors and
teachers is especially urgent.
This need has been recognized by a
number of school boards.. Special instructors in hat making, sew-
ing, and embrqidery have been employed by some of the boards with.
good results.
But very few of them have funds available for this
purpose. An additional preliminary step that must be taken is to
increase the available supply of raw materials.
In certain sections
the hat palm and textile plants are plentiful.
In other sections, how-
ever, they are not to be had.
In a number of towns where plans were
made during the year for instruction hi "hat making, they had to be
abandoned owing to the difficulty in securing raw materials. It
will therefore be necessary to carry out a systematic campaign for
the Cultivation of palm and textile plants on a wider scale before a
number of native industries can become generalized.
School boards, supervisors, and teachers have been urged to go
ahead in this matter independently. The importance of the step is
not, however, as yet generally recognized.
In but 37 of the mu-
nicipalities have any efforts been made in this direction.
In 38
municipalities absolutely nothing has been done. It is gratifying
none the less to report on the results already accomplished in approxi-
mately one-half of the districts.
nany of the products of the pupils' industry have found a ready
market in the island. In order to command a market in the United
States, however. these products will have.to be standardized.
This
ilepartment realizes that this is a field for increased attention as
soon as the legislature makes the necessary 'funds available.
SCHOOL LIBRARIES.
Urban school libraries are maintained in 62 municipalities. They
report a total of 32,950 volumes, an average of 530 per library.
Unfortunately. many of the books which were acquired or donated
in years past are not in the least adapted to the needs and interests
of school children.
Since the department' issued an official library
guide, however, with the added regulation that all books purchased'
from school-board funds should be selected from the guide, these
libraries are gradually assuming a character and, an appearance more
in harmony 4 ith their purpose. A total of 2485 new books have
been boughtfor the town libtaries during` the year at a total cost of
$1,218.55. A considerable number of books have also been donated.
Thirty-four municipalities 'report the maintenance of ruraltschbol
libraries. The total number of books is 5,097, an average of 150
books per municipality. Of these, 1,187 have been bought during
the year and ate of a nature that will meet
needs of rural pupils.
700
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
SCHOOL LUNCHES.
The movement to provide poor school children with nomulaY
lunches was initiated some years ago by individual teachers with
the cooperation of public-spirited men and women.
Tilt movement
has grown to encouraging proportions, although it is still wholly
supported by private funds.
While it has not been possible to
devote any public money to this work, the department is in entire
sympathy with it, and it has clone what it could to encourage and
extend it. A law was enacted by the legislature at its last session
to appropriate public funds for it.
Unfortunately, the scarcity of.
funds available for school purposes will nullify the favorable action
of the legislature for the present, as other needs of the schools of an
.even more imperative nature will have to be given preference. ,
Wherever it has thus far been possible to provide noonday lunches
the results have been most satisfactory.
Supervisors and teachers
report a better attendance and a higher grade of individual work.
The. "comedor escolar" insures the undernourished child at least
one fairly well-balanced meal every school day.
In .many instances teachers have through various activities been
able to pay a large proportion of the cost themselves. In the town
of Lares, for instance, the principal of the schools leased the town
theater and gave a moving-picture show throughout the year for the
exclusive purpose of providing funds -for lunches.. This accounts for
the faet, that the Lares ea
ers were able to feed, on the average, 50
pupils each day at a co
t
the community of less than 1 cent per
pupil.
DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS.
During the biennium the department issued 214 circular letters
dealing with administrative matters, and 11 bulletins for the guid-
ance of teachers bearing directly upon the work of the schools.
The Porto Rico School Review, published under the auspices of the
department' of education and the Porto Rico teachers' association,
was issued monthly during the school year and replaces to a large
extent the bulletin heretofore issued in pamphlet form. The Review
has developed into a standard professional magazine and serves as
a forum for discussion and as a medium for informing the teaching
force of matters of educational importance.,
TEACHERS' MEETINGS AND INSTITUTES.
In view of the relatively 'large proportion of new teachers who
have come into the service during the past few years, due to the in-
crease in the number of schools and also to,the fact that many of thA
more experienced- teachers left school work as a result of war condi-
dons, Supervisors have everYwhere been called. upon to take special
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
701.
measures to meet this situation. This has called for longer and more
frequer'. visits on the part of the supervisors, and everywhere added
importance has been given to such factors as teachers' meetings and
demonstration classes.
Of teachers' meetings a total of 327 are reported during the year.
This does not include the very many grade or group meetings which
have been held at stated intervals in practically all districts.
Of
these 327 meetings, an average of 7 per district, 166 were graded
teachers' meetings, 87 were for the special benefit of rural 'teachers,
and 74 were general district meetings.
Tln following subjects are illustrative of the practical nature of
the themes discussed
Purpose and value of' seat work.
Types of seat work.
Teaching of English and Spanish In the primary grades.
English pronunciation.
rI
Moral and civic training.
Securing the cooperation of parents.
The hour plan.
Teaching children how to study.
Socializing the recitation.
Motivation of school work.
Activities connected-Ivith the war received their full share of at-
tention. Food conservation and extension of the food supply, school
'gardens. the Amerihn Red Cross, the Junior Red Cross, Liberty
Bond campaigns, and 'War Savings Stamps were common topics
of discussion, and in all the districts special meetings were devoted
to these subjects.
Series of practice or demonstration classes have been held in many
of the districts for the special benefit of weak or inexperienced teach-
ers.
Another practice which has been followed to a much greater
_extent than in the past has been that of allowing, weak teachers a
, '_visiting day.
In many instances teachers have shown a readiness
to undergo the expense and trouble of visiting some of the larger
educational centers, away' from their respective towns, to observe
the work of the more successful teachers and to familiarize them-
selves with certain experiments that were being conducted in educa-
tional lines.
General teache& institutes were held at Aibonito, Ctuayama,13aya-
.mon, Humacao, Quebradillas, San. German, and Caguas.
Other
institutes, somewhat more local in character, were held at Fajardo,
Manati, and Maricao. At all these meetings representatives from the
department assisted the local supervisors.
The nature of the meet-
ings was constructive rather than corrective, as has been the practice
in the past. Demonstration classes were given, and certain subjects
of the course of study eceived definite attention..
-702
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF THE
TEACHING FORCE.
As an index to the amount and kind of academic and professional
qualifications of the teaching force of Porto Rico, the following
table is presented, showing the bases of the licenses held by the
teachers:
TEACHERS HOLDING THE PRINCIPAL'S LICENSE.
Degree from a college or university
23
Four years' normal training
'
044
By examination
50
HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS.
egree froM a college or university
our years' normal training
Two years' normal training
Upon basis of experience or special training
SPECIAL TEACHERS.
*26
1
13
Degree from a college or university
21
Four years' normal training
:12
Two years' normal training
1
Upon basis of experience or special
raining
TEACHERS OF ENGLISH.
1
Degree from a college or a university
Four years' normal tralning
.15
High-school or academy diploma or previous license
18
By exantnation
3
GRADED TEACHERS.
Degree from a college or a university
2
Four years' normal training
.3
Two years' normal Irsinlag
879
By examination
783
RURAL TEACHERS.
Two years' normal training_
9
B,7 examination
1.163
Total
8, 892:
SUM It ART.
Teachers hiding a degree from a college or a university
IIR
With four years' nottnal training ----A..--
811
(
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
703
With two years' normal training
890
Upon basis of experience or training
50
With high-school or academy diploma or preVious license
18
Entering by examination
1,909
Total
3, 362.
PROFESSIONAL, READING COURSES.
An organized effort has been made during the past three years to
.raise, the professional standard of the teachers by providing them
with a number of the best and latest books on educational questions.
As a result, reports received from supervisors all point to the un-
questlikable improvement which has been brought about in the
general attitude and in the efficiency of the teachers:" During the
year just closed no insular funds have been available for the purchase
of professional books. An appeal was, therefore, made to teachers
to purchase the books, indicated for the year's reading course, out of
their own funds. "They responded readily,
The books thus pur-
chased will be available for reference during succeeding years, and
every teacher will thus have the nucleus of an individual professional
library to which, it is hoped, each will add as his means 'a ill permit...
The books recommended for the year's reading course were as
follows:
1. For rural teachers:
Social problems In Porto RicoPeople.
Jean Mitchell's School.
2. For urban teachers from the first to the fourth grade:
Motivation of School Work--:-Wilson and Wilson.
A Schoolmaster of a Great CityPatti.
8. For urban teachers from t4 fifth to the eighth grade;
Motivation of School WorkWilson and Wilson.
Education for CharacterSharp.
4. For high and continuation school teachers:
Supervised StudyHall-Quest.
Education for CharacterrSharp.
5. For school supervisors:
Teaching Elementary School SubjectsRapecr.
During the year 1916-17 the following books were prescribed:
Earhart's Types of Teaching;, Bagley's Classroom Management;
Thorndike's Principles of Teaching; and Strayer's a Brief Course
in the Teaching Process.
A small but constantly growing collection of professional books
is now found in the office of every district supervisor.
Standard
professional magazines, such as Normal Instructor and Primary
Plans, the Porto Rico School Review, Primary Education, and the
Elementary School Journal have large numbers of subscriber among
'the teachers.
704
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
ft
The readiness of teachers to make pecuniary sacrifices and their
willingness to adopt any suggestions tending to their professional
improvement is a decidedly encouraging feature.
RATING OF TEACHERS.
At the close of the school year all the teachers in the 'active service
in the schools of the island were classified according to efficiency of
service, a modified form of the Boyce score card being used.
Clas-
sifications range from E, the highest, to P,' the lowest. The latter
classification results in the cancellation of the teacher's license and
his removal from service.
Summary of the elatistfleatino of teacher&
Classification.
1 Urban
Rural
t netters. teachers.
Total.
fi
215
31
246
e35
1,077
1,912
414
181
P
2
10
Total
1,119
1,530
2,619
The celebration of school holidays in Porto Rico has been found an
excellent means of establishing closer relations between parents and
school authorities.
On these occasions exhibits of work done in the
classroom are usually displayed in order to give the parents an idea
of what is bbing accomplished.
Some of the holidays were observed by appropriate exercises held
in the afternoon of the previous day. Of the legal holidays, Wash-
ington's Birthday, Columbus Day, Thanksgiving Day, Abolition
Day, and Memorial Day were duly celebrated. Arbor Day, Lincoln's
Birthday, and Mothers' Day, though not legal holidays, were also
generally observed.
The passing of the Jones law, the new organic act under which
Porto Rico is governed, was celebrated in several districts by appro-
priate patriotic exercises. The total number of celebrations held in
the 41 school districts was 170.
EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS.
During the year 1915-16 the general educational tests given by the
department in Spanish, English, arithmetic, and reasoning produced
wick interest and resulted in their extension in many districts.
Tests
were conducted in 50 of the 74 municipalities. Of the 41 supervisors,
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
705
all but 9 gave tests in several grades, while a. few supervisors held
general tests not only to measure progress WI:, like grades in the
same municipality but to compare results with
tandard measure-
ments. In but few districts, however, was attenti, ^ given to tests
in rural schools.
Two supervisors made use of the Studebaker economy practice
exercises as the basis fOr periodic tests in arithmetic, and one super-
visor used the Courtis tests for the same purpose: The Ayres meas-
uring scale for ability in spelling was used in many districts, while
three supervisors made similar scales for testing the ability of chil-
dren to spell in Spanish.
Although the, spelling of English words
will necessarily be emphasized throughout the school course, it is
believed by several supervisors that, by proper attention to the mat-
ter, the spelling 4, Spanish words can be fixed by the end of the
fourth grade.
In measuring the ability to write, both the Highland
and the Zaner handwriting scales were used.
Tests were held in Spanish, English, writing, physiology, civics,
history, arithmetic, memory, and reasoning, but the greatest number
was given in arithmetic. Some supervisors emphasized accuracy and
others reasoning; all agree thatthe tests stimulated both teachers and
pupils.
Most supervisors report that results secured from rural dis-
tricts were very discouraging.
One supervisor who has carefully prep.,. ed and preserved standard
work for every subject in every grade reports that "withdrawals
are the chief factor in producing retardation."
Another super-
visor maintains that the entire course of study is too difficult, and that
"scarcely any children in any grade are abreast with the work as
outli,ned for the grade."
THE UNIVERSITY OF PORTO RICO.
The University of Porto Rico comprises the Normal Department,
the Colleges of Liberal Arts, Law, and Pharmacy, the University
High School, and the Practice School, which is attended by elemen-
tary school pupils, all located at Rio Piedras; an
the College of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts situated at Mayaguez.
RIO PIEDRAS DEPARTMENTS.
Marked improvements have been made duiing the past year in
buildings, grounds, and material equipment. The pharmacy depart-
ment has been moved into large and well-lighted rooms of Ain Me-
morial Buildiligt where it is in close proximity to the physics and
chemistry laboratories and fully equipped with theproper laboratory
conveniences and necessities.
The usefulness of t' a. biology labora-
tory has been greatly increased.
171029 " -21 Bali: 88- -$
706
BIENNIAL SUBVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1013.
The library accommodations have been improved, and the library
is now under reorganization to conform to the Dewey system.
In
spite of changes, the university is still badly in need of more and
better buildings.
Many students of the university have entered the teaching pro-
fession this year by taking special examinations or by securing tem-
porary licenses.
The first steps in a self-survey of the university were taken at the
end of the year brsecuring from each member of othe faculty a
synopsis of each course offered by him during the current year, and
detailed comments and suggestions concerning the local administra-
tion of the university.
The most immediate: problems connected
with the development of the university are financial.
None of the plans for improvement and extension, including the
development of the college of liberal arts, the organization of a
school of education, a school of medicine, and a school of commerce,
and the effecting of a scheme of cooperation with uniVersities and
colleges of the United States for the preparation of teachers of
Spanish Ihnd of -commercial students entering the field of Latin-
American commerce, can be put into effect until the university has
more and better buildings and material equipment, and sufficient
funds for increasing the faculty.
There is great need of legislation
to place the -university on a stable financial basis by designating,
permanent and fixed source of revenue for the university and free-
ing the institution from the uncertainty of relying upon special ap-
propriations voted at each session of the legislature.
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS.
The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts has had a year of
steady progress, in spite of the same interruptions that have been
experienced by all educational
since the entrance of our
country in the war.
The requirement for admission has been raised
one years giving a distinctly oh:IR.-and more serious tone to the whole
student body, but resulting in a lower total enrollment, 204 in place
of 290 last year. The college was again called upon to supply man-
ual training teachers to fill the gaps in the teaching force of the
public school system, gave up students who went into the extension
work of the United States Experiment Station as agricultural agents,
.furnished a full quota of candidates for three training camps for
officers, and suffered the most serious loss when eight of the faculty
resigned in one week, six to go 'nto the training' camp, one into the
Young Men's Christian Association. work, and one to be director
of the Insular Experiment Station.
All members of the senior and
juniOr classes of sugar, chemists were sent out to help in the labors-.
.
,
EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO.
707
r.
tories of the sugar companies. and without exception have done well.
In short, there has never been a time when the training given at the
college received such recognition and when the demands for its men
were so far beyond its power to fill.
Naturally, this demand has
reacted favorably on the student body. as a very practical demonstra-
tion of the monetary value of thorough work.
Of the three forms of activity in which colleges of this character
are engagedinstruction, research, arid extensiononly the first is
properly the function of the college as at present organized.
The
Federal and Insular Experiment Stations in Porto Rico are each
distinct organizations to which the functions of research and exten-
sion naturally belong. The importance of instruction in agriculture,
particularly in a country where lack of other resources makes the
land the sole basis of wealth, is so great, while the funds available
are so limited, that attention has been directed to this end.
Experimental work has been carried on in testing vegetables under
tropical conditions, in raising Belgian hares as a possible cheap
meat supply for the tropics. in poultry,' which plays such an im-
portant part in the food supply of all warm countries, and in forage
and cover crops. In March a very successful three days' agricultural
congress was held in connection with the United States Experiment
Station, the Insular Experiment Station and the Food Commission
to arouse the interest in a greater food supply grown in the island.
CERTIFICATES. DIPLOMAS, AND DEGREES GRANTED.
Rfo Piedras department:
College of Liberal Arts: B. S. In chemistry
1
College of Law: Bachelor of law.
13
Normal Department:
Four-year course diplomas
42
Rural teachers' certificates.
30
High-school diplomas
51
Total _
College of Agricultu
and Mechanic Arts:
B. S. In atrIcult
e
1
2
B. S. in civil engl eering
3
B. S. In mechanic I engineering
B. S. In au
r en lneering
3
Subcollegiatp
ma In agricultural' science
Subeollegi a te
I lytechnic science
12-
29
137
Grand total
185
708
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918,
EDUCATION IN THE CANAL ZONE.
[Summarized from the report of A. R. Lang, superintendent.]
New concrete school buildings at Ancon, Balboa, Pedro Miguel,
Gutun, and Cristobal were completed October 1, 1917, but late arrival
of school furniture and quarantine at various parts because of preva-
lence of whooping cough and measles delayed their opening.
The
enrollment for both white and colored schools, as also the total num-
ber of teachers employed, showed a steady increase over those of the
two preceding years.
The growth of the system is shown by the fol-
lowing-named new positions, authorized for the school year 1917-18:.
Supervisor of upper grades, $2,400 per year (recreated).
Instructor of apprentices, $2,100 per year.
Teachers (two) of science and mathematics, high school. at $159.50 per month,
each.
Teacher of Spanish and French, $104.50 per month.
Director of music, $1'
per month.
Manual-training teacher, $159.50 per month.
Teacher, high school, $132 per month, effective October 22, 1917.
Teacher, grade, $104.50 per month.
(Seven; oue abolished and one high-school
position at $132 created October 22, 1917.)
Other signs of progress are:
(1) The entrance salary for grade teachers was increased from
$95 to $104.50 per month, effective at the opening of the .school year;
high-school teachers from $120 to $132 ; and science and mathematics
teachers frora$145 to $159.50.
(2) The eleventh and twelfth grades were added to the Cristobal
High School, and the eighth grade was added to the Pedro Miguel
white school.
The usual physical examinations of pupils in .the white schools were
made during the week beginning October 27, and showed the follow-
ing results:
Total number of pupils examined
::7139
Number found needing treatment
Percentage of those examined netiding treatment
52
Number with teeth as only defect
341
Number with defeclowdwr than those of teeth only
Defects found
790
Defects of vision
T
77
Defects of hearing
11
a
Nasal wreathing
32
Hypertrophied tonsils
107
\Pulmona-ry disease
5
Bronchitis_
........
3
Chorea or other nervous disorders
4
Orthopedic defects
8
Malnutrition
2
Defective teeth
941
EDUCATION IN THE CANAL ZONE.
Defects found Continued.
709
Contagious (11.84.!ases
5
27
13
164
Enlarged cervical glands
Cardiac disease
Total number of cases treated
Number of pupils vaccinated.
89
Work was carried on during the year in the revision of the courses
of study in both white and colored schools, which will be put into
effect for the year 1918-19.
Night schools at the Balboa High School were started on Feb-
ruary 19, 1918, the following subjects being taught: Shorthand,
typewriting, bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, English, and Spanish.
Tuition was $4 per month, and salaries of teachers $4 per night..
Junior Red. Cross work was carried on extensively in the white
schools, and a lunior Red Cross Auxiliary was organized ineach
white school and did good work, raising $640 t. be used for ma-
terials.
School entertainments and dances were held for the
of the Red Cross; the Industrial Arts Schools coo
with the
Red Cross work and food conservation; and t
manual training
4classes made boxes for packing local Red C S3 material to be sent
abroad.
According to the report of the
reto.ry of the Junior Red
Cross, $27,167:50 was invested in -
erty Bonds, War Savings
Stamps, and Thrift Stamps.
The Junior Four Miruite M
speaking contests were carried on
successfully in connection wi
the work in Englisli.*The pupil who
made the best spoech bec
e a Junior Four Minute Man and was
awarded an appropriate -certificate.
The flag salute, patriotic songs,
etc., were used daily.
Flags were displayed at each school and in
each classroom.
Patriotic posters were displayed in every school.
" Lessons in Community and National Life" (prepared by the
United States Bureau of Education and used in all grades above the
third, including the high school) and_thrift and war savings prob-
lems were incorporated into the work of the schools in such subjects
as arithmetic, reading, history, English, geography, and current
events.
Examinations in the subject matter covered by Lessons in
Community and National Life were given at the midyear and also
at the end of the school year.
It was the aim to correlate these prob-
lems with the different subjects in the schools the nature of which
has inspired the pupils to better results.
Circulars, have been- issued to parents and guardians requesting
that they cooperate with the schools in inspiring thrift and patriot-
ism, and to teachers urging the importance of this kind of work...
The High School of Balboa continued its successful career, 89 pu-
pils, including the class of 1917, having been .graduated from it.
The annual high-school play was given at the different Youtig Meal's
Christian Association clubhouses and at Camp Empire.
710
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Manual training and household arts classes were carried on at
Cristobal for the Cristobal and Gatun
SEWING WORK.
The business of providing suitable industrial training in the zone
is difficult. because of the scattered condition of its population.
In
order that results on a par with thosaof thWmodern industrial schools
of the States may obtain, plans Etre under way for erecting and equip-
ping buildings and providing instructors for each of the two tprmi-
n.=1 towns. When these are available, every child from the sixth
grade on will share in the advantage that will come of having an
institution of the most approved type.
As the study of the condi-
tions tinder which the courses of instruction must be developed. con-
tinues, obstacles must be overcome; and new problems, unusual to
teachers who are likely to be drawn to this locality, must be solved.
No better results could be achieved, and to no better use could the
cooking department be put, than solving the new native produce
question.
This would be a.n ideal locality in which to conduct an
agricultural center. with the boys in the fields producing the crops
the year around and the girls cooking and studying food preparation
from a scientific viewpoint.
Contrary to what might be expected. a big demand has been
created for the pieces of furniture that add to the comfort and irp-
pearance of the homes, and altogether there seems to be no end to
the possibilities of the industrial department. Dung the year
much attention has been given to the organization of the manual
training course in a way that would acquaint the students with
the working methods of the shops.
Satisfactory results also come of
requiring them,to give some time to the making of articles of equip-
ment for the sthools, the salient features being the promotion of
responsibiay for the welfare of the department; appreciatiOn of ex-
penditures for its upkeep; and the discouraging of selfishness.
In
this way employment is'afforded those students who can not pay for,
or who can not decide to make, furniture for themselves. As a
result considerable school equipment of superior grade was turned
out.
Drawings, tracings, and blue prints for the proposed industrial
school buildings at Balboa and Cristobal were made.
There are
other lines of industrial work rich in cultural and practical value
to students and the community which should be given consideration.
The steady growth of the apprentice department has been note-
worthy, as shown in the following table:
.$
ti
THE VIRGIN ISLANDS.
Enrollment according to trades and school grades.
711
Trades.
4th.
5th.
I
6th.
7th.
i
8th,
9th.
10th.
11th.
12th.
Total.
Boilermakers
2 I
1
1
2
1
7
Blacksmiths
1
1
\
3
Cabinetmakers
1
1
Coppersmiths
1
1
Draftsmen
1
1
Electricians
1
Machinists
i
2
5
' 3
3
2
2
17
Molders
1
1
2
Pitvailtters
2
1
1
,
1,,
4
Physical training and athletics were continued in all the white
schools.
In almost all the white schools monthly fire chills, under
the supervision of the Panama Canal Fire Department, \ive-re- held.
The following table summarizes the comparative educational sta-
tistics for the years ending June 30, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918:
Comparative statistics.
Items.
-
1915
1918
1917
1918
Number of school buildings
15
16
19
71;
'bindings created and converted
4
1
3
Additional rooms constructed (additions to existing
.
buildings)
2
4
1
1
Number of employee:. in division
85
. 60
70
81
Number of supervisory force
1
1
.
2
3
Total exiiendltures (approximate)
1109,000
170,18$.56
387,00
1140,608)
i Aim:AAA value of school property
$120,000
$110.100.00
1100,000
0550,000
1::...t enrollment:
White schools
1,146
1,366
1,518
1,764
Colored schools
1,430
785
855
1,010
White and
Per capiti4
colored
expense of maintenance (approximate),
2,576
2,149
2,373
2,774
based on net enrollment
142.31
132.66
&36.66
$50.83
Total days of attendance
283,088. 5
258, 244.0
295,697.0
350,619.0
White schools
157, 537. 0
183, 21;0.0
208, 782. 0
n5,57I. 5
Colored schools
126,4,51.5
75,038.0
&5,915.0
111,091.5
Average daily attendance
1 762 2
,
.
1;501.4
1,709.2
1,963.2
White schools
1,006. 3
1,065.1
1,212.6
1,322.9
Colored schools
765.9
436.3
496.6
640.3
Absence of tftehers on account of sickness, days
217
161
234.5
312.5
Average monthly wages of teachers:
5%"111te
v
/98.78
898, el
1109.52
$125.58
Colored
559.75
165. 00
167.67
Tuition collected
+1,184.00
$2, 582. 52
$3,510.19
$4, 364.6$
THE VIRGIN ISLANDS.
[FROM THE REPORT OP THE SCHOOL DIRECTOR FOR THE YEAR
ENDING JUNE 30; 1918.]
There are only two classes of schools in the Virgin Island
public and thossistill maintained by the Roman Catholierhurch.
The public schools comprise those situated in the towds of Charlotte,
Prederiltsted, and Christiansted, as well a's the -country
schools formerly conducted by the Moraviai Church, which for a
short period were subsidized by the United States Government,
but have now beeh formally trsnsferred and become a part of the
712
BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
Public school system.
The former Danish school director continued
under our Government until July 1, 1917, when the present director
.assumed charge.
There are now 19 public schools organized in the Virgin Islands;
with 80 teachers and about 2,500 children.
There are 18 private
schools maintained by the Roman Catholic Church, with 44 teachers
and 1,364 children.
The average salary received by the public
school teachers is $17.03 per month, having recently been increased
from $13.15.
All teachers are natives.
The director of schools for
the islands states that his work has been greatly handicapped by
reason of lack of books and equipment, practically none of which
are available. , An examination-of the outline of the-course of study
shOws the work planned almost entirely from the academic standpoint,
industrial and vocational work receiving.comparatively little attention.
The survey of the actual school system has also shown clearly that
to inaugurate a proper system of public education in the conditions
of extreme poverty and ignorance generally prevailing, to purchase
land, erect necessary buildings, provide furniture and other equip-
ment, and engage teachers of satisfactory capacities, will require not
less than $300,0M.
Such a system, to be adequate and to effect
the sorely needed imprOvements in thelife of the people, must carry
education beyond the elementary stages, so that what native talent
there is in the people may have an opportunity to develop along
agricultural, industrial, and
business
lines.
It is
also
plainly
essential that a normal school be establisled as early as possible, in
order that native teachers may be developed under American
instructors.
HAWAII.
By HENRY W. KINNEY, Superintendent.
'During the past two years the school population of Hawaii has
increased with considerably rapidity, the increase during the school
year ending in June, 1917, being 6.9 per cent, while that for the
school year ending.June, 1918, was 6.4 per cent.
During. the same
two years the pupils attending the public schools of the Territory
have increased in number from 30,205 to 34,343.
'o meet the needs occasioned by this increase a number Of addi-
tional teachers have been employed.
The total number of teachers
in June, 1916, was 804, and in June, 1918, it was 967.
.
Whilethe number of the teachers obtained from the Territorial
Normal School has approximated 50 annually, it has been necessary
to secure a greater thumber of additional teachers from the United
States.
department has been fortunate in establishing close
relations tivith the prominent universities and normal schools on the
713
Pacific coast, and, as a result, nearly all the teachers who have
come to Hawaii from the United States 'during the past two years
have beep graduates Of these institutions.
It has been found advan-
tageOus to employ this method of securing teachers, as a better class
is secured through: the conscientious and responsible heads of insti-
tutions than could possibly be obtained through other means.
Some teachers ire obtained from those who attend the sudimer
school liela annually -in. Honolulu, a four-week course open to those
who pass the eighth-grade examination.
From those who -pass the
summer-school examinations are drawn the teachers placed in the
small schools of the remote rekions, to-which better-trained teachers
refuse to go, owing to isolation and similar conditions. The depart-
ment does not feel that this method of certification is satisfactory,
owing to thopmanifest lack of both academic and professional prepa-
ration, but, until the normal school furnishes a greater number of
graduates, it will hardly be possible to avoid enipl ying this means.
It is also hoped that the time is coming when he normal-school
course may be made more exacting, but it seem
if the conditions
resulting from the war, particularly the scarcity c5f qualified teach-
ers, may postpone this step.
The department has, nevertheless, for the past two years been able
to reduce greatly the percentage of teachers without adequate cer-
tification.
due largely to the fact that the legislature of 1917
so increased the
ool appropriation as to raise teachers' salaries
from 5 to 15 per ce t.
The high schools in the Territory have increased quite rapidly,
the number of such pupils in June, 1916, being 444 arid in June,
1918, 625.,
The number of high-school teachers during the same
period has increased- from 3
to 42,
The department is working to-
ward establishing absolate uniformity in the high schools under its
control, and, with this end in view, uniform textbooks were adopted
in June, 1918. During the school Year beginning September, 1918, 57
h
high-scool teachers will tie employed:
The normal school in Honolulu will be enlarged by the addition of
a 12-room training school unit, and the number of teachers employed
in the normal school will be 48, as against 32 employed in June,
1918, and 25 in June, 1916.
The most conspicuous feature of the Hawaiian school system is the
diversity of nationalities found in the public schools. The :.ummary
showing the total is given below:
Etwolimeni it the. Hawaiian Rebook, by rationalities.
Hawaiian_
Part-Hawallim-
3,216
3, 805
714
BIEN N IAL SURVEY OF FAITCATION, 1916-1M.
Enrollment in Hawaiian schools, by natioriatities.
American_
849
British
108
German
128
Portuguese
5, 001
Japanese
15,101
Chinese_
8, 305
Porto Rican
1, 032
Korean
409
Spanish
489
Russian
125
Filipino
623
Other foreigners
151
Total
34, 343
In the schools no cognizance is taken of race, and it is surprising,
especially to strangers, to note how very little influence the race
problem has upon the school system. As a matter of fact, the depart-
ment maintains that its task is the blending of its heterogeneous
population into one harmonious and intelligent body politic.
During the past two years the emphasis placed on vocational
training has continued, although it is, ()Wing to war conditions,
veering to some extent from the shop to the field and- garden.
Nearly all the large schools of the Territory now have well-equipped
shops in charge of specially trained teachers. The school had also
conducted school and hem gardens on a large scale, initiated even
before the war began. This was an excellent foundation on which
to take up the home production which the war placed upon the
shoulders of the school communities.
In no place in the Union is
self-help, particularly as expressed in the home garden, so important
as in Hawaii, which, by this means, is able to reduce greatly the
quantity a imports from the mainland.
As every ton of home-
grown product means the saving of a 2,100-mile transportation from
San Francisco, the children of Hawa,ii have had this matter par-
ticularly impressed upon them. There is probably not a school in the
Territory which does not possess a garden, and practically all the
school children who have attained suitable age have numerous home
gardens as well.
Thus, 132 schools have home gardens -totaling
9,692
The number of school kitchens in which domestic science is taught
by specially trained teachers and which serve
5, and 10 cent
lunches to the school children is steadily increasing.
While the
war has taken away so many of the young men from the force that
the instruction in the shops and possibly in agriculture will be seri-
ously 'impaired, the kite e
will go on as usual.
The vocational
instructors are obliged t p
nt to_ do classroom work as well as
vocational work, owing
y to the lack of funds in the'vocational
HAWAII.
715
appropriation, but it is the .hope of the department that these
teachers will soon be able to devote their entire time to strictly
vocational work.
In this connection it may not be out of place tomention the fact that
the public-school children have taken a very active and very pro-
ductive interest in the activities occasioned more or less directly by
the war. Stamps and liberty bonds have been bought in large quan-
tities by pupiEs and teachers, and Red Cross units have been organ-
ized in practically all the schools having children large enough to
furnish assistance of value. A large number of articles needed by
the Red Cross have been prepared, and on -the whole the war has
undoubtedly done much toward fostering the spirit of united Ameri-
canism among these children of many races and nationalities.
The increase in school population has made it necessary to add
materially to the school plant. While additional grounds have been
annexed in a number of places
while the legislature of 1b17
made special appropriations for
nlargement of a number of the
principal schools in Honolulu, the securing of additional areas will
still be one of tie principal problems of the department during the
coming biennium.
While the counties remain in control of actual school construction,
and the department has only the power of approval or disapproval
of plans, this system of dual control has, in the past two years,
been administered more efficiently than Might be expected, owing to
the cooperation which has existed between the various counties and
the Apartment. The task of construction has been simplified by the
use of standard types of buildings. One of these, a bungalow type,
has served well in the past where it was necessary to provide a
serviceable building at the minimum of expense, but the department
hopes that during the coming biennium it will be possible to abandon
or at least improve this type. On the whole, the school buildings
constructed during the past two years have been adequate and up to
date as far as lighting and space, ventilation, seating capacity, etc.,
are concerned, but these buildings have been made extremely plain,
owing to the lack of money, and it is to be hoped that the coming
legislature will provide funds to build structures which will be more
of a source of pride to the community and of inspiration for the
pupils.
It should be added that the comparative lack of funds-for school
construction is due mainly to the tremendous increase in the cost of
construction. The-price of materials has advanced enormously, as
it has elsewhere, but, in' addition to this, Hawaii has had to contend
with the treiendous advance in cost of ocean transportation, which
is a serious matter, as practically all the- material, such as lumber,
hardware, cement, etc., has to be transported over 2,000 miles.
716
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
It is fortunate that it has been possible to improve the conditions
in
of the country schools by the construction of dwellings for
teachers, so that now practically every school in the Territory, with
the exception of those located in Honolulu and Hilo, has on its
grounds cottages for the teachers.
This has made it possible to
secure in many of the country schools a class of teachers superior
to that employed when no adequate lodging facilities existed.
In
some of the counties it has been possible to have furniture for these
cottages manufactured in the school carpenter shops. and it is hoped
that during the next biennium all' the teachers' cottages will be
provided, at least to a very great extent, with serviceable furniture.
The public schools are notoriously lacking in toilet facilities, and
the providing of such will be one of the problems of the next
biennium.
The school for the care of defectives has increased in size from
1 teacher and 13 pupils in .1une, 1916, to 6 teachers and probably
about 50 pupils in September,'1918. The.department is now looking
for a site in which to establish an institution permanently, and there
is available an appropriation of $35,000 for teachers and buildings
for the present biennium.
While at present deaf, dumb, blind, and
mentally defective children are taught in the same institution, it
will undoubtedly be advisable, when the number of pupils justifies the
step, to divide the present institution into two separate unitsone
'for the mentally defective and another for those having other defects.
At present onry pupils are taught who can come to school alone or
who can be reached by means of an automobile provided for their
transportation. The institution should, however, be piovided with
facilities for boarding children from the other islands.
A school for tubercular children exists in Honolulu, and another
may be established on one of the other islands in the near future.
Several ungraded rooms for the instruction of backward children
have been provided in Honolulu, and during the coming term an
experiment will be made whereby a coach will be provided to instruct
children who are backward in one or two subjects in the afternoons
and on Saturdays.
If this plan is found successful, it will be niore
genbrally used.
Medical inspection in the schools has been extended. This work
is under the control of the Territorial,board of health.
By means of a fund raised brprivate subscription, it has been
possible to feed a number of poorly nourished children, and in some
schools careful records have been made of weights and measurements.
A new primer, particularly adapted to the needs of the pupils
of this Territory, has been compiled by a committee of teachers and
is now in the process of publiCatiop by the printing class of the
normal. school. These books are to be issued to the schools as sup.
717
plementary readers until it has been determined whether they are
altogether suitable for general adoption.
A special examination of the German textbooks used in the high
schools has been made, and several which were considered as being
of a questionable character have been eliminated.
All teachers in the public-school service have been required to
sign the following pledge:
4
.
The principal function of the public schools of the Territory
of Hawaii Is to produce loyal American citizens.
Good American citlienship is more Important than scholarship.
The Department expects all its teachers to express themselves
positively in teaching loyal Americanism.
Will you do this?
Answer this question " Yes" Or "No.".
Answer
Signature.
The attendance in the public schools continues to be extraordi-
narily good. as the following record will show:
Per rent.
June, 1910
93.4
June; 1917
93.8
June, 1918
93.8
The wonderfully fine climate of the Hawaiian Islands is, to a very
great extent, responsible for this condition.
The outlook of the school year beginning September 1, 1918, is
rather discouraging, owing to several conditions which have arisen
on account of the war. A number of the male teachers have entered
the Army. This deprives the department of many of its best young
principals, and will materially hamper the work in its carpenter
shops and along agricultural lines. Thus it will be necessary to
have vocational instructors who will visit one school one day and
another the next, whereas, in the past, it has been possible to have
one instructor for each large school. A number of the young women
in the service have married officers of the Regular Army garrisons
in Hawaii, and have left for the mainland with the exodus of regu-
lar troops. A number of married women teaching in the schools
in the outside districts have left for Honolulu, owing to the fact
that their husbands have been drafted in the regiments consisting of
local men, whiCh have all been stationed on the Island of Oahu.
As
a consequence, the number of teachers leaving the service has- been
unusually large, and the difficulty of securing others from the United
States to take their places has been greater than usual.
A further
difficulty has arisen from the fact that a number of the steamers
plying between San Francisco and the islands have been withdrawn
from the service, and teachers wishing to come to the islands have
found it very difficult to secure transportation.
Despite these.ob.
718
BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918.
stacles the derfartment expects to bring about 150 teachers from
the United States, to which number should be added 56 graduates
(of the Honolulu Normal School, who will also enter the service this.
year.
THE PHILIPPINE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM.
By W. W. MAackumurr, Director of Education.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION.
During the school years 1916-17 and 1917-18 no important change
took place in the organization of the public-school system. The sys-
tem is a highly centralized one, the director having charge of all
public schools in the islands. In certain matters of policy his action
is subject to the approval of the secretary of public instruction.
Besides the director, there is an assistant director, a. second assistant
director, a general office force, and a field force.
The work of the general office is in charge of the chiefs of the fol-
lowing divisions: Academic, accounting, industrial, property, and
records.
In the field the division superintetident of schools is.direcily re-
sponsible to the director of education. He supervises the schools of
a Province, and under him are usually a supervisor of academic in-
struction, one or more supervisors of industrial instruction, a high-
school principal, and several supervising teachers.
The division is divided into supervising districts, each in charge
of a supervising teacher who has control of primary and intermediate
schools within his district. There are 48 divisions and more than 300
supervising districts.
. 4
FACTORS OF SUCCESS.
Whatever success has been achieved in the Philippine public-
school system has been due largely to the fact that a centralized sys-'
tem has been established under the control of professional educators.
The future developnient and progress of the public schools will de-
pend upon whether or not this policy is continued.
SCHOOLS AND PUPILS.
There was no increase in the number of primary schools and a
very slight increase in the number of secondary schools, whereas
the number of intermediate schools grew rapidly because intermedi-
ate schools are supported almost entirely by tuition fees.
If inter-
THE PHILIPPINE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM.
719
mediate schools had depended upon governmental revenues, no in-
crease could have been made.
Increase in school attendance.
A Attendance.
Primary.
11211in:flee.
Second-
ary.
Total.
Schools:
1917-18
4.276
423
48
4,747
1916-17
4,233
368
46
4,702
Annual enrollment:
1917-18
592,563
64,306
14,529
671,398
1916-17
607,682
56,884
11,432
675,998
Average monthly enrollment.
1917-14
499,986 8
56.592
12,897'
569,476
1916-17
507,226
50,306
10,093
567,625
Average daily attendance:
11117-18
455,754
53,232
12,391
521,377
1A6-17
457,383
47,230
9,650
514,263
Percentage o I attendance:
1817-18 per cent
91
94
.
96
92
1916-17 per cent
90
94
96
91
The annual enrollment for 1917-18 was a little less than for
1916-17; the average monthly enrollment, slightly larger ; the aver-
age daily attendance, 7,114 greater; and the percentage of attendance,
larger. Although the percentage of attendance increased, the fact.
that 24 per cent of the pupils dropped out of school during 1916 -17
can not be overlooked.
In other words, only 76 per cent of the pu-
pils enrolled during the year were eligible, for promotion at the close
of the year, in March.
During the past five years there has been an
increase in the percentage of pupils held in the schools throughout
the year, but during the last two years the increase has been slight.
Taking into consideration the fact that there is no compulsory at-
tendance law in the Philippines, these data are not discouraging. It
is unquestionably true-that the public schools have cultivated a desire
for education, as is evidenced by the demand for schools and the in-
creased regularity of attendance.
One encouraging feature of attendance figures is that the propor-
' ,n of girls to boys in the public schools, especially in the higher
grades, is increasing.
The oriental attitude toward education of
women is being gradually overcome, and at present nearly 40 per
cent of the total number of pupils in school are girls.
The greatest
difficulty has been experientcd in keeping girls in school after they
finish the primary, grades and even until they finish the primary
grades.
Statistics show, however, that the proportion of girls in
higher grades is gradually increasing. Comparison of figures of
attendance of boys and girls in intermediate grades for the school
years 1910-11 and 1916-17 shows that the increase in attendance of
boys was 82 per cent, while that. of girls was 222 per cent. In the
high schools the figures for boys was 250 per cent, and for girls 267
per cent.
These data indicate that an increasing number of girls are
4'
720
BIENNIAL SURV