DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 286 667
RC 016 376
AUTHOR
Hubchen, Jonathan
TITLE
Selected Topics in Peace Corps Training.
PUB DATE
Apr 87
NOTE
14p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Association for International Agricultural Education
(3rd, Chevy Chace, MD, April 24-26, 1987).
PUB TYPE
Reports - Evaluative/Feasibility (142) --
Speeches /Conference Papers (150)
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DESLAIPTORS
*Cross Cultural Training; Developing Nations;
Employment Experience; *Experiential Learning;
*International Programs; Job Training; *Leadership
Training; Skill Developmert; Social Environment;
Technical Assistance; Trainees; Trainers: *Training
Methods; Volunteer Training
IDENTIFIERS
*Peace Corps
ABSTRACT
Steps to alleviate the problems in achieving
successful technical and cross-cultural training for United States
Peace Corps volunteers are discussed. Historically, training was
conducted at American universities or centers in Puerto Rico, Hawaii,
or the Virgin Islands, but by the mid-1970s, in response to criticism
that this provided inadequate preparation for the social conditions
volunteers would find in their assigned communities, most of the
training was being conducted in the host countries. Inadequacy of
technical training meant volunteers were generalists, not
specialists. However, it was felt that generalists could become
experts given the proper training in self-reliance and
self-determination with regard to individual service goals. Three
current programs designed to provide such training are: (1) David
Leonard's trainers' orientation manual (stressing clear definition of
goals, resources, and process of training, and describing the
training program as an experiential learning experience); (2) James
McCaffery's manual (designed to familiarize the student with basic
concepts of development); and (3) the Peace Corps' Information and
Exchange Division workshops (concerned with agricultural racketing in
developing countries, and experiential learning). However, none of
these programs describes how to identify local leaders and prepare
them to take responsibility for community projects, and a useful
guide to this process is Helen Strow's training manual (1974). A
greater degree of consistency needs to be ensured amongst trainers,
and efforts should be made to match volunteers and assignments.
Preservice training programs should be concerned with accumulation of
experience rather than specific technical skill. (JMM)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
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from the original document.
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e
SELECTED TOPICS IN
PEACE CORPS TRAINING
Jonathan Hubchen
Graduate Student
Department of Agricultural, Extension
and International Education
Louisiana State University
124 Old Forestry Building
South Stadium Rd.
Baton Rouge, La. 70803
(504) 388-5757
Paper Presented at the Third Annual Meeting
of the
Association for International Agricultural Education
Chevy Chase, Md.
April 24-26, 1987
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INTRODUCTION
Every volunteer in the United States Peace Corps faces a great
challenge in attempting to be a successul agent of change in his or
her community.
It is one cf the major tasks of Peace Corps
Administration to try to assist
each volunteer in preparing for this
challenge.
Through its twenty-five year existence, Peace Corps has
made a great effort to do so in developing its training program.
Unfortunately, evidence such as that found in a world wide survey of
volunteers has shown that Peace Corps has not always been successful.
Fewer than 40% of the volunteers interviewed expressed satisfaction
with either the technical or the cross-cultural training that they
received (ACTION, 1976).
This paper will discuss some steps to alleviate this problem.
Initially the historical development of Peace Corps training will be
examined, leading to programs currently in use.
Relevent concepts
then will be explored.
These will include those presently favored by
Peace Corps Administration, such as participatory adult education and
experiential learning, and those not currently emphasised: leadership
development and a long-term training program with universities.
It is hoped that the more viable concepts dealt with in the paper
will be adopted or reinforced by Peace Corps.
Any improvement in
training then will increase future volunteers' awareness of the
problems of community development and of the possible solutions.
Two major limitations of this paper should be noted.
The first
is that the paper's emphasis will be placed on preservice training
concepts in relation to developmental and technical matters.
Admittedly Peace Corps training is an on-going process that continues
throughout the volunteer's service.
It is also concerned with other
important matters, most notably language and cross-cultural awareness.
Furthermore, it has been the intention of Peace Corps to integrate all
components of training into one holistic program.
Therefore, any
discussion of the developmental and technical components of training
cannot occur without some mention of the cultural and language
components.
Secondly the difficulty of forcing a radical change upon
an established government institution such as Peace Corps
is
acknowleged.
Smaller changes that are compatable within the
institutional framework are anticipated to be much more likely.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Since its inception, Peace Corps has attempted to provide
adaquate training to its volunteers.
The bulk of the first training
sessions were conducted at either American Universities or training
centers established at Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and the Virgin Islands.
Hoops (1946) listed the following purposes of Peace Corps training:
Peace Corps Purpose and Philosophy
Language
Host Country Overview
United States Overview
World Affairs
Communist Tactics and Theory
3
page 2
Health
Technical Matters
Self Development
This last issue was often dealt with at .utdoor camps with activities
similar to that of Outward Bound.
Training at the Peace Corps camps
included community exploration methods and field training in nearby
villages.
As expected these initial attempts met witu substantial
criticism.
The most common complaint was that training was either
insufficient or inappropriate in
preparing the volunteers for the
social conditions of the host countries, conditions that were
substancially different from those in the United States.
Lowther and
Lucas (1978) was particularly vocal
in this respect.
He stated that
crosscultural training was extremely inadaquate, and that virtually no
emphasis was placed on developing both personal and professional
relationships with host country co-workers.
This insufficient or
inappropriate preparation resulted in volunteers developing improper
and often antagonistic relationships with the local people as well as
an attrition rate that in some countries was as high as 30%.
Peace Corps responded to these criticisms and placed more
importance on preparing volunteers for host country conditions.
Initially they used more trainers from host countries and simulation
sessions that wet, intended to familiarize trainees with life
overseas.
BY the mid seventies, most of the training was being done
in the host countries.
To further familiarize volunteers with the
local culture during training, living arrangements with host country
families were provided.
However, problems have persisted.
GAO (198') concluded that
'volunteers do not receive the type, quality, and and degree of
cross-cultural, language and technical training they need to be
effective'.
Lowther and Lucas further explored the inadaquacy of
technical training when he stated that, for practical reasons (such as
limitations in recruitment and material support), the bulk of
volunteers that will be availabe to Peace Corps will not be
specialists but generalists.
This was reinforced by ACTION's (1975)
survey of training, service completion, and cost-effectiveness of over
1,600 volunteers in
11 countries.
They
concluded that generalist's
effectiveness was comparable to that of specialists in the field of
agriculture and that their monthly support
cost was lower (Lowther
and Lucas inferred that this was due to Peace Corps's inability to
properly realize the potential of specialists).
Unfortunately, Peace
Corps classified many of these generalists as experts since these were
the type of volunteers most requested by host countries.
Naturally a
great deal of resentment
resulted when the generalist volunteer's
host country counterparts realized the actual abilities of these
supposed experts.
Both Lowther and Lucas and ACTION acknowleged that generalists
could legitimately be utilized as experts, provided that they were
4
page 3
trained in specific, well defined roles and then be given proper
support and supervision.
The fact that providing such support for
volunteers assigned to remote areas is often beyond the logiAical
capabilities of Peace Corps Administration demonstrates the need to
promote volunteers' self reliance (Lowther and Lucas, ACTION).
Therefore, the critical issue for any training program would be to
first prepare the volunteers in such self reliance.
In the context of
technical and developmental training, this means the trainees should
be shown how to determine the field in which they can make a
worthwhile contributiGa.
The next section will describe three Peace
Corps training programs designed to do this.
THREE CURRENT TRAINIrG PROGRAMS
The first program to be discussed is Leonard's trainer's
orientation manual (1982; the first of a four volume series of
agricultural training guides).
This manual was based on Peace Corps
current emphasis on the Core Curriculm Project which stressed clear
definition of the goals, resources, and process of training.
It was
developed from the experience of training 150 Peace Corps trainees in
the PENN Center at Frogmore, S.C..
According to Leonard, the training
program would be an exercise in experiential learning for the
trainee.
As implied 1%., its name, experiential learning pertains to knowlege and
skills acquired through life's experience.
Leonard's program was
designed to provide trainees with concrete experiences that they could
later utilize as volunteers.
It was hoped that this would be an
appropriate training program in enabling trainees to promote self
suff:ciencv and independence in the community where they were
assigned.
This ideal was reflected in the program itself whert each
trainee is responsible for determining the suject matter which he or
she will learn.
As the training progresses, more responsibility for
the program is placed on the trainees, as opposed to the trainers,
just as it is intended that the future volunteers progressively will
transfer the management of a project to members of their host
community.
In planning such a program, Leonard described the actions needed
to prepare what he called the four elements of training: learners,
methods, environment or context, and trainers.
Leonard's steps in
advance preparation are listed below.
1.
Research - Identifying the goals and topic of the
training.
Area studies of the future volunteer's
ass',nment and his or her potential role in such an area
are also essential.
2.
Defining Goals and Skill Groups (defined as the components
of each chosen goal)
3.
Financial and Administrative Planning - Necessary to
insure that the program's activities fall within the
regulatoPy and fiscs1 restraints set by Peace Corps
Administration.
page 4
4.
Site Selection and Preparation - Only important in Peace
Corps areas without permenant training facilities.
5.
Staff Selection and Training
6.
Training Design and Scheduling
7.
Specific Component Preparation
Staff selection and training deserve special mention.
Based on
the needs of the program (which often are determined by the number of
trainees and subjects being taught) end the available funds, a typical
training staff would include any of the following.
Project Director
Technical Coordinator and Trainors
Language Coordinator and Trainors
Administrative Personnel
Medical Assistant
Criteria for selection would be based on experience in a relevent
subject, as well as in education, and or variety of background.
Training is necessary to insure that the staff work as an
efficient team.
The training program's goals and everyone's
individual responsibilities in working toward those goals should be
understood by all.
They should be acquainted with the concept of
experiential learning and be able to provide proper assistance to the
trainees in suc!1 a proram.
The anticipated result of this training
is the ability of the staff to cooperate in solving problems.
Training design and scheduling should also be further examined.
Leonard stated that daily and weekly schedules should be made that
reflect the long term goals of the program and then be posted to keep
the trainees informed.
He described a hierarchy of design elements in
which several activities comprised a class or session which was in
turn part of the daily schedule.
A weekly schedule consisted of
activities that shared a common theme.
Leonard placed high emphasis
on demonstrative activities, such as small gardens or construction
projects,
in the program.
In order to provide information needed to
determine the progress of each trainee he stated the need for Arainee
evaluation throughout the training program.
He also said that
trainees be asked to evaluate the program in order to provide
necessary information for improvement.
He emphasized that all
scheduled events should not be treated as separate activities but
rather as part of one integrated program.
McCaffery's manual provided a program that was designed to
fam;liarize the trainee with the basic concepts of development (the
manual was not yet fully field tested when it was published in 19B1).
Each session of the program had an overview that informed the trainee
of the goals, process, and activities of that session.
Such
activities included role playing, readings, group discussions, and
6
page 5
multiprogram training group.
The first six sessions of the program were concerned with the
basic concepts of development.
They are as follows.
1.
Introduction
2.
Dynamics of Development
3.
Information Gatiering - This is a vital concept to be used
when the trainee is a volunteer at his or her assignment.
It is closely related to the term, situational analysis
and,
if taught correctly, will enable the volunteer to
properly assess the conditions in his or her assigned
community.
4.
Working with Others - McCaffery described the necessity of
establishing proper working relations with co-workers and
examined the respective advantages of two types of
relationships: dependancy of the community upon the
volunteer and the eventual independence of the community.
Like Leonard, McCaffery wrote that the evolutionary
process from direct service toward the community's self
sufficiency was desired.
5.
The Role of the Development Worker
6.
Problem Solving - This concept follows situational
analysis.
An objective is determined and any obstacles to
that objective are identified.
A procedure to achieve the
desired outcome is devised based on personal attributes,
available resources, and the social condition of the
community.
Four integration sessions followed, aimed at bringing the
development session together into one holistic process.
1.
Job Entry - The volunteers are to use the skills learned
in the Information Gathering and Working with Others
Sessions in order to establish themselves in the community
as agents of change.
Important components of this process
include initial scouting of the community, diagnosis and
problem solving.
2.
Project Planning - While the volunteers are establishing
themselves in their communities, they have to sat
realistic, personal goals.
The time frames of these goals
are immediate, short term and medium (up to six month)
goals and reliable indicators of progress should be
included.
In doing this, the volunteers should make use
of skills in assessment and problem solving.
3.
Project Management - It is important that volunteers learn
page 6
direct supervision.
Techniques for short term and long
term management, such as time lines and contingincy plans,
should be taught.
McCaffery noted that experienced
volunteers could be a valuable teaching resource for this
session.
4.
Responsibiliy - Working relationships, including
supervision, clarification of roles and delegation, were
necessary concepts in the determination of responsibility
in a development project.
It was McCaffery's contention that these ten sessions formed a
training program that would be appropriate for any field of
development.
Peace Corps's Information and Exchange Division (May 1984)
presented a two week workshop concerned with the single program of
agricultural marketing in developing countries.
The material was
based on experience gained from pilot workshops in the Philippines,
Costa Rica, and Papua New Guinea.
This program also utilized the
concept of experiential learning in which the trainers were called
facilitators, in order to describe their role of assisting the trainees
learn for themselves.
In order to establish the proper relationship between these
facilitators and the trainees, ICE stated that the first activity of
the program was to acquaint the trainees with the staff.
Trainees
should also fill out personal resourse forms since many participants
might have relevent skills or experience that could be utilized by the
facilitors.
The program's objectives, methods, subjects to be
covered, and everyone's roles and responsibilies should be clearly
explained to the trainees to be reconciled with their own goals and
aspirtations.
Issues to be discussed in the workshop include the following.
1.
Needs assessment
2.
Market Familiarization - Similar to situational analysis with
emphasis on the interrelations of the market system.
This
would be accomplished by such experiential activities as
preparing reports on local markets.
3.
Relevent Concepts on marketing
4.
Available Resources for development
5.
The Volunteer's Role as an Agent of Change
6.
Possible Alternatives for
Improvement of the Present System -
Potentials, procedures, and constraints are examined.
Simulations were heavily emphasized to familiarize the trainees
page 7
with the marketing system and to determine the proper reactions to
modifications in the system.
Other activities were concerned with
information collection and experimentation and problem solving.
In
these sessions, trainers were to assist the trainees to deteomine
entry points and establish proper working relationships to achieve the
Gbjective of being a successful agent of change.
RELEVENT CONCEPTS
Two of the issues constantly mentioned in the above programs are
the establishment of working relationships and the progress toward the
community's independence of the volunteer.
However, none of the
programs were very specific in describing the process of
identifying
local leaders and proeparing them to take responsibility for community
projects.
A useful guide to this process is Strow's (1974) training
manual.
The principles in the manual also could be useful for
trainers in teaching trainees leadership principles.
It described the
growth of leadership ability by using the term, 'leadership ladder'.
Initial duties are small and upon their successful conclusion,
responsibilities can he increased.
Every task should be prepared in
advance to insure success.
This advance training should include the
relevent subject matter, teaching methods, group dynamics, and
leadership qualities.
This would be a good method for volunteers to
use to be gradually accepted in their community.
If the volunteers themselves employ these methods with local
people, they should remember to ensure that the local leader receive
adaquate satisfaction from thei job.
Methods suggested included
recognition and invitation to special activities.
A good result of
leadership training could be the development of an advisory council
that could be similar to those in the American Extension Service in
that they can assist the volunteer in training and in determining
programs.
A logical conclusion of this would be the leader taking
over the reponsibilities Iron the volunteer.
A volunteer needs to
development good interpersonal skills and cultural awareness to employ
these skills.
An issue that Peace Corps; would be well advised to further pursue
is learner participation.
Peace Corps has long
advocated this
concept.
Ruopp and Wrobel (1967) stated that the maximum
participation of the trainee should be maintained within the training
structure.
This would help determinc the appropriate program and even
utilize the trainee's own talents as resources (an idea later
reinforced by ICE's marketing manual; Peace Corps, 1984).
A similar
concept in adult education, called self directed learning, was
described by Knowles (1970).
Knowles stated that people learn more
effectively if they are given some of the responsibility to determine
subject matter that is appropriate to their needs and interests.
He
stated that adults prefer education that is geared toward immediate
application and that will increase their personal experience.
Knowles
described a program design used by courses in Boston University that
employed this concept.
The steps included assessment of learning
needs, formation of course objectives, and preparation of learning
page 8
appropriate for the learners (ibid).
ICE also dealt with trainee participation, saying that it was
flexible in regard to each trainee's personal attributes and that it
fostered cooperation in experimenting with alternative market
activities.
There are at least two limitations with Peace Corps's use
of participation in training.
One is the hesitancy of trainees to
experiment in an unfamiliar environment.
It
is therefore the
responsibility of the facilitator to help the trainees overcome such
hesitancy and to determine whether or not such experiments are
socially appropriate in the host country.
It is no catastrophe if the
trainees make a mistake in suggesting alternatives in the social
system.
In fact, it could be a constructive learning experience if
the facilitator and trainee objectively evaluate the activity
afterward.
This illustrates the fact that the facilitator does not
simply relinquish responsibility for the trainees in a participative
learning activity.
A related limitation is the availability of qualified
facilitators.
Trainers in any participative or self-directed learning
program must be sensitive to the needs and problems of learners and be
able to motivate and guide those learners over an extended period.
Long term motivation is particulary important since trainees often
have difficulty in initially appreciating some of the concepts in
international development.
It might be difficult for Peace Corps to
find such facilitators from its usual source of trainers.
Host
country educators often have a traditional authoritarian view of
teacher-learner relationships (Srinivasan, 1977) while American
trainers are often 4ormer volunteers who have little formal experience
in educational methods.
It is therefore the responsibility of Peace
Corps to alleviate this problem through recruitment and preparation of
qualified trainers.
Another training issue that received attention in the late
sixties was integration into academic programs.
One of the strongest
advocates of this was Roupp (1968) who suggested that universities
treat volunteer service as a 4orm of work study or internship and
offer zredit toward a development service degree.
Training could be a
long term process and initially consist of core courses at the
universities that would include cultural studies and practical skills.
The term of service would be then incorperated into a curriculum.
Roupp listed several universities that initiated these programs,
starting with SONY Brockport which incorperated Peace Corps service in
Latin America into its Baccalaureate and Masters curriculum for math
and science teachers.
Similar programs were started at Radcliffe
College and the University of Wisconson at Green Bay.
Peace Corps has continued to work with universities in developing
training programs, though on a contract basis.
One example is a
stateside training program designed to prepare teachers for Liberia in
which the University of the District of Columbia assisted in daily
planning, placement for field excersises, and the preparation of
sessions dealing with lesson plans and curriculum development (Peace
page 9
favorable admissions treltment to returned volunteers.
However, the formal permanent link between Peace Corps and
American universities envisioned by Ruopp has not persisisted.
None
of the colleges mentioned above Brockport, Radcliffe and UWGB still
list an ongoing program incorporating Peace Corps service.
There are
several possible reasons for the decline of this idea.
One is the
Peace Corps's decline in popularity during the seventies..
Another is
the possible incompatability between university departmints that have
specific, long term goals and a centralized government agency that is
characterized by constant staff changes.
Lastly, Peace Corps's
education program which was most popular as an international
internship, has been deemphasized.
Alternitives to this arrangement have been suggested.
Lowther
and Lucas advocated a link with universities but he specified one
between specific country adri.instrations and local institutions.
This
would give stability to idividual
in country programs but would not be
the formal integration into the volunteer's educational process that
was envisioned by Ruopp.
Another possibility would be a cooperative
arrangement between universities and smaller, private agencies that
share the same objectives.
An example of this would be the link
between Stanford University, the University of California at Santa
Cruz and Volunteers in Asia.
In this arrangement, the volunteer's
education i; considered to be just as important as the service he or
she provides.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Two related issues that have been discussed regarding Peace Corps
training are participation and experiential learning.
While the
theory behind each generally has been accepted as appropriate
stratagies toward adult education, their practical applications in
Peace Corps often have been uneven in quality.
The success of these
programs depend upon the ability of the trainors to facilitate the
process for the trainees.
Such ability has varied among the
individual program trainors as well as the permanent training offices
in each Peace Corps country.
Peace Corps should take steps to insure
that a greeter degree o4 consistancy exists in this regard.
Experiential learning and information gathering take on special
significance since volunteers are often responsible for determining
their own roles in their community.
Peace Corps's site development
often has been acknowleged to be insufficient in matching a volunteer
to an assignment with appropriate duties.
In any case it is basically
the voluuteers' responsibily to decide where their individual talents
could be best utilized.
With this in mind, it is concluded that preservice training
programs should be more concerned with the process of accumulation
of
experience rather than with any specific technical skill.
As noted in
the introduction, Peace Corps training takes place throughout a
volunteer's term of service.
Inservice training programs and
resource identification sessions can provide volunteers with
the
11
page 10
specific skills that were advocated by Lowther and Lucas and ACTION.
It
is the responsibility of each volunteer to determine the proper
skill to acquire.
It
is the responsibility of Peace Corps to insure
that each volunteer can do this.
If this can be accomplished through
preservice training, much would be done toward accomplish the ideals
upon which Peace Corps is based.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACTION, 1976;
The Vounteers Soeak
-
World Wide Survey la Peace
Coros Volunteers.
Action Evaluation/CF 0:0 025. Washington D.C..
Resources in Education Jan. 1976 (EDRSII, 136007).
ACTION, Dec. 1975 ABGs in Agrriculture.
Volume One.
Action
Evaluation/CE 010 047. Washington D.C.. Resources in Education, Aug
1977 (EDRS# 136009)
General Accounting Office, May, 1981;
The Preparation of Volunteers
for Peace Corps Service: agme Areas Aeed Management Attention.
Report
to Director, U.S. Peace Co^ps/CE 029 402. GAO, Washington D.C.
Resources in Education, Nov. 1981 (EDRS# 203200)
Grouber, Katherine, Editor,
Encyclopedia of Associations.
Gale
Research io., Detroit, MI 1986.
Hoopes Roy,
The Complete Peace C.rps Guide.
Dial Press, N.Y. 1986.
Knowles, Malcolm,
The Modern Practice of Adult Eduction.
Association Press, Bolder CO. 1970
Leonard, David, et. al., Sept, 1982 Agricultural Development Workers
Traininq Manual: Volume I: Orientaion for Trainers.
Produced for U.S.
Peace Corps/CE 038 626. A. Nellum Associates, Inc., Washington
D.C..
Resources in Education Dec. 1982 EDRS# 242883.
Lowther, Kevin and C. Payne Lucas,
Keeping Kennedy's Promise.
Westview Press, 1978.
McCaffery, James, et. al., Dec. 1981;
The Role of the Volunteer in
Development.
A Training Manual.
CE U38 636. U.S. Peace Corps 'Office
of Programming and Training Coordination, Washington D.C.. Resources
in Education Aug. 1984 (EMS 241788)
Pirie, Peter; et. al.,1969
;
Coming of Age in Samoa
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The Peace
Corps Way.
AC 004 311 U.S. peace Corps, Washington, D.C..
Resources
in Education, Sept 1969 (EDRS# 028405).
Roupp, Phillips; Wrobel, Paul, 1967
Preparation for Encounter:
Training Peace Corps Volunteers for Community Involvement through
Community Exploration.
Prepared for U.S. Peace Corps/AC 003 805.
College of the Virgin Islands at St. Thomas, Curriculum Research
Institute. Resources in Education Oct, 1969 (EDRS# 029193)
Roupp, Phillips Dec. 1968;
The Educational Uses of the World:
fxperientlal Learning and the Peace Corps.
AC 003 494. U.S. Peace
Corps, Washington, D.C.. Resources in Education Jan. 1970
(FDRS#031617)
Srinivasan, Lyra;
Perspectives on Nonformal Edycation.
Commissione
by World Education; Published by Van Dyck, New Haven GIN.
1977.
13
Strow, Helen, 1974;
yelping Hands; Giving Volunteer Leaders a Place
The Extension Erporam.
CE 002 633. United States Agency for
International Development, Washington D.C.. Resources in Education May
1974 (EDRS1099547).
United States Peace Corps, Information Collection and Exchange
Div.,
1984;
Agricultural Marketing Principles: A Training Manual.
Training
for Development Manual NT-31/CE 040 350. U.S. Pcace Corps,
Washington
D.C.. Resources in Education May 1985 (EDRS$251698).
United States Peace Corps, Feb. 1982;
Peace Corps Stateside Teacher
Training for Volunteers in Liberia.
Volume II: Training Prooram for
Teacher Trainers (Group A).
Final Report,
Sponsored by U.S. Peace
Corps/SP 022 063. PSI Associates, Washington D,C.. Resources in
Education, August 1983 (EDRS$ 228208).
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